EDU 300: EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

TOPIC ONE
What is Research?

1. Research is creative and systematic work undertaken to increase stock of knowledge including
of human beings, cultures, and society; and the use of this stock of knowledge to device new
approaches, applications and solutions.
2. Earl Robert Babbie says, “Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and
control the observed phenomenon.”
3. Research refers to the search for knowledge. As a scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic.
4. Research is an art of scientific investigating. According to Advanced Learners' Dictionary of
Current English: “A careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any
branch of knowledge.”
5. The formal and systematic application of scientific methods to the study of a problem, (L. R.
Gay)
6. Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic, intensive process of carrying on the
scientific method of analysis. It involves a more systematic structure of investigation usually
resulting in some sort of formal record of procedure and a report of results or conclusions, (J. W.
Best)

What is educational Research?

Education research is a process of solving problems related to education. It is careful and critical search
for knowledge related to education. It is the formal process to correct precious errors, manipulate and
control variables, verify and extend theories and generalities and discover new things with an ultimate
objective to advance for the welfare of the society.

Educational research it the formal and systematic applications of the scientific methods to study of the
educational problems. The major different between educational research and other scientific research is
the nature of the phenomena studied, here it is educational issues only

What is a research problem?

There is need of research where there is a problem; there is a research where there is a problem; there
is a research problem
1. According to Gay, “A problem is a hypothesis or question of interest to education which can be
tested or answered through the collection and analysis of data.”
2. A problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty to
be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice
that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. In some
social science disciplines e.g. education the research problem is typically posed in the form of a
question.

Features/Characteristics of educational research

1. Educational research attempts to solve a problem.
2. Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data
for a new purpose.

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 3. Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
4. Research demands accurate observation and description.
5. Research generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.
6. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will help in
understanding, prediction and/or control.
7. Research requires expertise—familiarity with the field; competence in methodology; technical
skill in collecting and analysing the data.
8. Research attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great pains
to validate the procedures employed.
9. Research is a deliberate and unhurried activity which is directional but often refines the problem
or questions as the research progresses.
10. Research is carefully recorded and reported to other persons interested in the problem.

More Specific points

1. Educational research involves a process which is formal, systematic and exhaustive. The
investigator has to proceed very systematically to achieve his objectives. He has to be very
careful in making manipulations, applying controls, making analysis of data, testing hypotheses
and making generalization for the advancement of knowledge in the field of education.
2. Educational research investigates theories and skills of education as education is both science
and art.
3. Educational research is scientific in the sense that it involves the testing of hypotheses.
4. Educational research corrects previous errors and misconceptions and brings new facts into
light. It suggests improvements in different areas related to education.
5. It opens new channels for investigation. Knowledge constructs new knowledge. Constructivism
of knowledge is the goal of education research.
6. It changes the personality of the researcher. The researcher develops a scientific outlook. He
develops a researcher’s life style having positive attitude towards things. He is systematic and
objective in approach, free from superstitions having critical and independent thinking

Other characteristics of good research

While analysing the discussions of eminent educationalists and social scientists, the following can be
drawn as elements/characteristics of good research:

 Research is directed towards the solution of a problem

 Research is a continuous enquiry in search of knowledge
 Research emphasis the development of generalization, principles, theories
 Research is based upon observable experiences and empirical evidences
 Research rejects revelation and dogmas as methods of establishing knowledge
 Research employs in depth review of related literature
 Research depends on valid and reliable data gathering procedure
 Research demands accurate observations and descriptions
 Research applies systematic and scientific procedure for the study
 Research involves gathering of new data from first hand sources (primary) or existing
 data (secondary sources) for a new purpose

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  Research is based on carefully designed procedure with rigorous analysis
 Research requires expertise
 Research is an objective, logical process and eliminate personal bias
 Research involve the quest for answer to unsolved problems
 Possibility for Replication
 Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity
 Research is carefully recorded and reported
 Research sometimes required courage
 Quantitative Research involves hypotheses testing using suitable statistical techniques
 Qualitative Research involve objective thick description on thin data

Objectives or Need for Educational Research

1. Education today is child centred. All round development of the personality of the child is one of
the important goals of education. educational research is needed to solve various problems
related to measurement, evaluation and development of personality of the child.
2. The meaning we give to education today is vast and complex. It is a cluster of difficult trades, an
aggregate of processes based on specific techniques and action with individuals and groups, that
is organised, planned, controlled and evaluated. In order to solve the complexity of relationships
and processes a considerable research in education is needed.
3. Education is both science and art. As science it is based on theories, laws and principles and as
art it is an activity and an application which requires skills and training. In order to make an
effective application of the laws and principles and to provide training in skills and techniques
educational research is needed. Educational research is of much significance to improve the art
of teaching to make the students learn effectively.
4. The advancement that the material world has made has given rise to problems of terrorism,
threats and clashes to the modern world. Education is a process of socialization which can meet
the challenge of increasing contradiction and belligerency. A continuous research is needed to
solve this complex social problem.
5. Educational research affects personality of the researcher. It teaches him ‘how to solve
problems to realize truth.’ he is not liable to accept the findings of others unless he tests them.
6. It is needed to make education administration efficient and effective. It helps in decision making.
7. Educational research is needed for a teacher to improve his teaching, his methodology, his skills,
his planning and to make him up to date in information and knowledge.

TOIPC TWO

PURPOSE/VALUE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

The Educational research has enormous purposes. Some important purposes are presented as following.

a) To identify truth regarding Enrolment, retention, dropout, quality of Education and so

b) forth
c) To build new knowledge regarding the methodology, pedagogy or other core subject areas
d) Adding of existing stock of knowledge related to educational field
e) To solve a problem related to classroom, institution, administrative level, policy level
f) Invention of new teaching methods, curriculum transaction strategies, effective grouping
g) technique and so forth

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 h) Realizing the exact problem of educational sector
i) Assess the Effect of New methodology of teaching
j) Identify and assess the ICT enabled classroom and teaching
k) To understand the teachers’ knowledge on latest evaluation techniques
l) To identify the hindrances to achieve universalization of education

TOPIC THREE

INFORMATION SOURCES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Three main sources:

 Primary: Data from the field

Sources are: questionnaires/ surveys, interviews, Focused Group Discussions, document
analysis, audio-recordings, observation
 Secondary sources
 Tertiary sources
Examples of secondary sources of information:
i. Encyclopaedias, Dictionaries, Handbooks
 established information based on the work of subject experts
 the information can be a little older - this may be a concern for fields such as
medicine and technology
ii. Scholarly Journals
 reports of original research and study made available to the scholarly
community to advance the study of the discipline or
 reports of theoretical and conceptual analysis of selected thematic area in a
discipline
 usually reviewed by experts on the subject (peer reviewed)
 published regularly and cover very topical issues, the latest research,
reviews of current literature.
 are useful for very recent information or for information on a very specific
and specialised topic.
iii. Theses and Dissertations
 Research carried out by graduate students
 often cutting edge, but not yet verified (at the time of publication)

iv. Books

 in depth look at a topic/ subject by an individual author (or small group of

authors) or an edited volume with chapters by multiple authors
 authoritative sources of information, though may contain a bias
 they are not as current as journal articles
 they usually contain citations and a bibliography which can be used to
identify other useful references
v. Newspapers, Trade Journals and Popular Magazines periodicals)
 reports of news relevant to the audience for the publication
 a little removed from the original research, event, organization, etc.
 may contain a bias and/or may not present a complete picture of the topic

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  Magazines are published regularly.
 They contain articles that are topical and current, current events and
developments written by journalists for the general public. They might be
useful for discussion of current trends and issues.
 Newspapers are published regularly and contain articles on international,
national and local news events
vi. Blogs, Wikis and Websites
 may contain useful information and/or links to useful information
 may or may not be written by experts on the subject
 may contain a bias and/or may not present a complete picture of the topic
 may be trying to sell you something or some idea
 Websites can be a useful source of information, particularly that, for
example, associated with current and well-known people, places, event
Various fields that educational research can draw from include:
a) Psychology: Relates to educational psychology which is a branch of psychology concerned
with developing effective educational techniques and dealing with psychological problems in
schools.
b) Sociology: Relates to sociology of education which is the study of how social institutions and
individual experiences affects education and its outcome in formal and informal education
systems
c) Anthropology: Relates to Educational Anthropology whose primary focus is the study the
transmission of culture through education, both formal and otherwise, bringing more
awareness to the role culture plays in education
d) Philosophy: Relates to philosophy of education and refers either to the application of
philosophy to the problem of education, examining definitions, goals and chains of meaning
used in education by teachers, administrators or policymakers.
Or
It can involve the examination of particular visions or approaches by researchers and policy-
makers in education that often address contemporary debates and assumptions about
innovations and practices in teaching and learning by considering the profession within
broader philosophical or sociocultural contexts.
e) History: Relates to History of education which is a concentration that seeks to provide
historical research as relates to education, to provide a deep understanding of the origins
and development of education within a given context of social and intellectual history in the
light of history of social injustice and the political and economic history of the social and
educational reproduction of inequality.
f) Management: Relates the educational management which deals with provision of a series of
learning experiences to students in order to impart knowledge, values, attitudes and skills
with the ultimate aim of making them productive members of society, Educational
Management is the process of planning, organising, directing and controlling the activities of
an institution by utilising human and material resources so as to effectively and efficiently
accomplish functions of teaching, extension work and research.

Areas of focus in educational research/sources of research problems

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  student learning
 teaching methods
 teacher training and abilities
 classroom dynamics
 Instructional equipment and materials
 Teacher characteristics
 Teaching and learning facilities
 formal and informal contexts of education affect all forms of learning
 management and administration
 evaluation procedures/modes

TOPIC FOUR

TYPES OF RESEARCH IN EDUCATION

Following are some of the types of research methods that one could use in order to investigate an issue:

a) Basic research:
This is also called pure research or fundamental research. --Its aim is to discover the basic truth
and thus to establish the principles. --Basic research is primarily concerned with the formulation
of a theory or a contribution to the existing body of knowledge. --Its major aim is to obtain and
use the empirical data to formulate, expand or evaluate thinking. Data collected to enhance
knowledge. The main motivation is knowledge expansion. It is a non-commercial research that
does not facilitate in creating or inventing anything. For example: an experiment to determine a
simple fact.
It represents a rigorous and structured type of analysis. --It employs careful sampling
procedures in order to extend the findings beyond the group or situation and thus develops
theories by discovering proved generalization or principles. --The results of this research are not
directly applicable in the field situations or it has little concern for the application of the findings
or social usefulness of the findings.
b) Applied research:
It is directed towards the immediate, specific and practical problems. It is performed in relation
to actual problem and under the conditions in which they are found in practice. --The goal of
applied research in terms of adding scientific knowledge acquires only a secondary position. It
places importance on a problem here and now. --It has most of the characteristics of basic
research but its methodology is not as rigorous as that of basic research. --Its findings are to be
evaluated in terms of local applicability and not in terms of universal validity. --It is mainly
intended to improve school practices and to greater teacher effectiveness in practical manner.
Most of the problems faced by teacher’s policy planners, and administrators are solved through
applied researches.
Focuses on analysing and solving real-life problems. This type refers to the study that helps solve
practical problems using scientific methods (specified research data collections and analysis
producers). Studies play an important role in solving issues that impact the overall well-being of
humans. For example: finding a specific cure for a disease. Applied research involves a large
number of samples as compared to the action research.
c) Problem oriented research: As the name suggests, it is conducted to understand the exact
nature of a problem to find out relevant solutions. The term “problem” refers to multiple

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 choices or issues when analysing a situation. For example, the performance of students has
gone down in the last year. The following could be the probable causes: there is no adequate
revision carried out by the students, poor revision styles applied, there is low motivation to
learning, or no support from teachers.
d) Problem solving research: This type of research is conducted by institutions or an organisation
to understand and resolve their own problems. The problem-solving method uses applied
research to find solutions to the existing problems.
e) Action Research: Emphasis is more on action or practical work than on theory. Here questions
of day to day life situations are taken up with the view to improve the practical situations. Thus
action research is similar to applied research in many ways.
Action research is carried out by teachers, principals or head masters of education institutions,
administrators, supervisors.
Action research is restricted to class room practices. All most every teacher faces a number of
problems in the class room situations which need immediate solutions, for example: The
problem may be: Poor English spelling of the students, Poor Hand writing, The problem of
indiscipline and the problem of slow learner etc.
“It is a type of research in the field of education, which is undertaken by educational
practitioners to understand or solve the problems of the local school and community”

TOPIC FIVE

RESEARCH APPROACHES/TYPES/METHODS

Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research

There are currently three major research designs/types in education (and in the social and behavioural
sciences). They are quantitative research, qualitative research and mixed methods research. Here are
the definitions of each:

a) Quantitative Research

These methods deal with numbers and measurable forms. It uses a systematic way of investigating
events or data. It is used to answer questions in terms of justifying relationships with measurable
variables to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.

Research that relies primarily on the collection of quantitative data. Quantitative data usually includes
closed-ended responses such as found on questionnaires or psychological instruments. Used to develop
concepts and ideas. Research based on traditional scientific methods, which generates numerical data
and usually seeks to establish causal relationships (cause and effect or association) between two or
more variables, using statistical methods to test the strength and significance of the relationships.
Quantitative research generally focuses on measuring social reality. Quantitative research and/or
questions are searching for quantities in something and to establish research numerically. It uses
deductive research strategy. It tests existing theory.

b) Qualitative Research

Basically This method collects data using conversational methods. Participants are asked open-ended
questions. The responses collected are essentially non-numerical. This method not only helps a
researcher understand what participants think but also why they think in a particular way.

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Research that relies on the collection of qualitative data. Qualitative data tends to be open-ended
without predetermined responses (described using words). Qualitative Research is an umbrella
covering several forms of inquiry that help us understand and explain the meaning of social phenomena
with as little disruption to the natural setting as possible. Qualitative researchers are interested in
understanding the meaning people have constructed. It is assumed that meaning is mediated through
the investigator’s own perceptions. Qualitative research is an effort to understand situations in their
uniqueness as part of a particular context and the interactions there (Patton, 1985). A second
characteristic of all forms of qualitative research is that the researcher is the primary instrument for data
collection and analysis. A third characteristic of qualitative research is that it usually involves fieldwork.
The researcher must go to the people, setting, site, institution, in order to observe behaviour in its
natural setting. A fourth characteristic of qualitative research is that is uses an inductive research
strategy. This type of research builds abstractions, concepts, hypothesis or theories rather than tests
existing theory. Typically, qualitative findings are in the form of themes, categories, concepts or
tentative hypotheses or theories and is used to explain concepts and ideas.

c) Mixed Methods Research

Mixed methods involves combining or integration of qualitative and quantitative research characteristics
and data in a research study. The mixing of quantitative and qualitative research can take many forms.
In fact, the possibilities for mixing are almost infinite. This means that one will get both qualitative and
quantitative data and therefore both methods of data analysis and presentation will be used.

TOPIC SIX AND SEVEN

METHODS FOR COLLECTING AND ANALYZING DATA

This section starts off by introducing you to commonly used qualitative data collection methods and also
explains how to use them in evaluation. It then explains how you may go about involving participants:
this is also known as sampling. The section ends with a discussion of a couple of approaches to
qualitative data analysis. You may have used some of these methods as part of your routine project
monitoring activities, in a needs assessment or baseline or as part of an evaluation exercise.

Research method is defined as the tools or instruments used to accomplish the goals and attributes of a
study. Simply put, used in data collection procedures.

While research methodology as a systematic process in which the tools or instruments will be
employed. There is no use of a tool if it is not being used efficiently. Generally, the research process
involves:

a) asking the right questions

b) choosing an appropriate method to investigate the problem
c) collecting answers to your questions
d) analyse the findings or observations
e) draw appropriate conclusions

A. QUALITATIVE DATA AND METHODS

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Qualitative research is heavily dependent on the experience of the researchers and the questions used
to probe the sample. The sample size is usually restricted to 6-10 people or sites. Open-ended questions
are asked in a manner that encourages answers that lead to another question or group of questions. The
purpose of asking open-ended questions is to gather as much information as possible from the sample.

Field research is an umbrella term that includes the myriad activities that field researchers engage in
when they collect data, especially in qualitative studies: they participate, they observe, they usually
interview some of the people they observe, and they typically analyse documents or artefacts created
by the people they observe; generally, it means being out in the real world and involved in the everyday
lives of the people they are studying.

Field notes: are the first—and a necessary—step toward developing quality analysis. They are also the
record that affirms what you observed. In other words, field notes are not to be taken lightly or
overlooked as unimportant. Descriptive field notes: are notes that simply describe a field researcher’s
observations as straightforwardly as possible. These notes typically do not contain explanations of or
comments about those observations. Instead, the observations are presented on their own, as clearly as
possible. In the following section, the methods are discussed:

a) Individual interview
Also called One-to-one interview – An individual interview is a conversation between two
people that has a structure and a purpose. It is designed to elicit the interviewee’s knowledge or
perspective on a topic. Individual interviews, which can include key informant interviews, are
useful for exploring an individual’s beliefs, values, understandings, feelings, experiences and
perspectives of an issue. Individual interviews also allow the researcher to ask into a complex
issue, learning more about the contextual factors that govern individual experiences.
Two types of interviews: structured and non-structured interview
b) Focus group discussions
A focus group discussion(FGD) is an organized discussion between 6 to 8 people. Focus group
discussions provide participants with a space to discuss a particular topic, in a context where
people are allowed to agree or disagree with each other. Focus group discussions allow you to
explore how a group thinks about an issue, the range of opinions and ideas, and the
inconsistencies and variations that exist in a particular community in terms of beliefs and their
experiences and practices. You should therefore purposefully (the adjective is ‘purposive’)
recruit participants for whom the issue is relevant. Be clear about the benefits and limitations of
recruiting participants that represent either one population (e.g. school going girls) or a mix (e.g.
school going boys and girls), and whether or not they know each other.
c) Photo voice
Photo voice is a participatory method that enables people to identify, represent and enhance
their community, life circumstances or engagement with a programme through photography
and accompanying written captions. Photo voice involves giving a group of participant’s
cameras, enabling them to capture, discuss and share stories they find significant. For more
detail check here: [http://www.photovoice.org/PV_Manual.pdf].
d) Picture story
The picture story method enables children, in a fun and participatory way, to communicate their
perspectives on particular issues through a series of drawings (story telling) they have made.
The story telling can either be done in writing, depending on the child’s level of literacy, or

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 verbally with a researcher. The picture story method is relatively quick and inexpensive,
particularly if the draw-and-write technique is adopted. The picture story method provides a
non-threatening way to explore children’s views on a particular issue (e.g. barriers to girl’s
education) and to begin to identify what can be done to address any struggles faced by children.
e) Observation
Direct observation, also known as participant observation, is a process by which an assessment
team collects data on naturally occurring behaviour within their usual context. This is achieved
by observing conditions and specific features of an affected site from a range of viewpoints and
locations to provide an overall view of the affected area and by noting these observations in a
checklist.
f) Document Analysis
Also referred to as content/text analysis or document analysis is a systematic procedure for
reviewing or evaluating documents—both printed and electronic (computer-based and Internet-
transmitted) material. Like other analytical methods in qualitative research, document analysis
requires that data be examined and interpreted in order to elicit meaning, gain understanding,
and develop empirical knowledge.
g) Ethnographic research
This is an in-depth form of research where people are observed in their natural environment
without This method is demanding due to the necessity of a researcher entering a natural
environment of other people. Geographic locations can be a constraint as well. Instead of
conducting interviews, a researcher experiences the normal setting and daily life of a group of
people.
h) Case study research
This is used to study an organization or an entity. This method is one of the most valuable
options for modern This type of research is used in fields like the education sector, philosophical
studies, and psychological studies. This method involves a deep dive into ongoing research and
collecting data.

Sampling or Identifying participants

Qualitative research often focuses on a limited number of respondents who have been purposefully
selected to participate because you believe they have in-depth knowledge of an issue you know little
about, such as:

 They have experienced first-hand information on the topic of study, e.g. working street children
 They show variation in how they respond to hardship, e.g. children who draw on different
protective mechanisms to cope with hardship on the street and in the work place
 They have particular knowledge or expertise regarding the group under study, e.g. social
workers supporting working street children. You can select a sample of individuals with a
particular ‘purpose’ in mind in different ways, including:

a) Extreme or typical case sampling – learning from unusual or typical cases, e.g. children who
expectedly struggle with hardship (typical) or those who do well despite extreme hardship
(unusual)

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 b) Snowball sampling – asking others to identify people who will interview well, because they are
open and because they have an in-depth understanding about the issue under study. For
example, you may ask street children to identify other street children you can talk to.
c) Random purposeful sampling – if your purposeful sample size is large you can randomly recruit
respondents from it. Whilst purposeful sampling enables you to recruit individuals based on
your study objectives, this limits your ability to produce findings that represent your population
as a whole. It is therefore good practice for triangulation purposes to recruit a variety of
respondents (e.g., children, adults, service users and providers)
d) Quota sampling – a researcher identifies categories that are important to the study and for
which there is likely to be some variation. Subgroups are created based on each category and
the researcher decides how many people (or documents or whatever element happens to be
the focus of the research) to include from each subgroup and collects data from that number for
each subgroup.
e) Convenience sample – a researcher simply collects data from those people or other relevant
elements to which he or she has most convenient access. This method, also sometimes referred
to as haphazard sampling, is most useful in exploratory research.

Qualitative data analysis

Qualitative data analysis is a process that seeks to reduce and make sense of vast amounts of
information, often from different sources, so that impressions that shed light on a research question can
emerge. It is a process where you take descriptive information and offer an explanation or
interpretation. The information can consist of interview transcripts, documents, blogs, surveys, pictures,
videos etc. You may have been in the situation where you have carried out 6 focus group discussions but
then are not quite sure what to do with the 30 pages of notes you collected during the process. Do you
just highlight what seems most relevant or is there a more systematic way of analysing it?

Qualitative data analysis typically revolves around the impressions and interpretations of key
researchers. However, through facilitation, study participants can also take an active role in identifying
key themes emerging from the data. Because qualitative analysis relies on researchers’ impressions, it is
vital that qualitative analysis is systematic and that researchers report on their impression in a
structured and transparent form. This is particularly important considering the common perception that
qualitative research is not as reliable and sound as quantitative research. Qualitative data analysis
ought to pay attention to the ‘spoken word’, context, consistency and contradictions of views,
frequency and intensity of comments, their specificity as well as emerging themes and trends. We
now explain three key components of qualitative data analysis.

B. QUANTITATIVE DATA AND METHODS

Quantitative research involves a larger population — more people means more data. With more data
to analyse, you can obtain more accurate results. This method uses closes-ended questions because
the researchers are typically looking to gather statistical data. Quantitative data is numerical and can be
collected in a number of forms. The most common forms of quantitative data measures are shown
below:

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  Units: number of staff that have been trained; number of children enrolled in school for the first
time
 Prices: amount of money spent on a building, or the additional revenue of farmers following a
seed distribution programme
 Proportions/percentages: proportion of the community that has access to a service
 Rates of change: percentage change in average household income over a reporting period
 Ratios: ratio of midwives or traditional birth attendants to families in a region
 Scoring and ranking: scores given out of ten by project participants to rate the quality of service
they have received.

Quantitative Data Analysis

Statistical analysis is used to summarize and describe quantitative data and graphs or tables can be used
to visualize present raw data. This section will review the commonly used methods/sources of
quantitative data and the techniques used for recruiting participants.

Quantitative methods

Quantitative data can be collected using a number of different methods and from a variety of sources.

1. Surveys and questionnaires use carefully constructed questions, often ranking or scoring
options or using closed-ended questions. A closed-ended question limits respondents to a
specified number of answers. For example, this is the case in multiple-choice questions. Good
quality design is particularly important for quantitative surveys and questionnaires.
Survey research is a quantitative method whereby a researcher poses some set of
predetermined questions to an entire group, or sample, of individuals. Survey research is an
especially useful approach when a researcher aims to describe or explain features of a very large
group or groups. This method may also be used as a way of quickly gaining some general details
about one’s population of interest to help prepare for a more focused, in-depth study using
time-intensive methods such as in-depth interviews or field research. In this case, a survey may
help a researcher identify specific individuals or locations from which to collect additional data.
2. Document Analysis
Biophysical measurements can include height and weight of a child
School records are a useful source of data. For example, the number of training events held and
teachers have attended, and the number of participants attending e.g. school records
Service provider or facility data includes school attendance records 5. Service provider or
facility assessments are often carried out during the monitoring and evaluation of school or
learner performance.
3. Experiments studies cause and effect relationships. Its defining characteristic is active
manipulation of an independent variable (i.e., it is only in experimental research that
“manipulation” is present). Also, random assignment (which creates "equivalent" groups) is
used in the strongest experimental research designs

Sampling for Quantitative Methods

Commonly in our research or programmatic data collection, it is not possible or even desirable, to
collect data from a whole target group or population. This could be extremely difficult and expensive.

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Through accurate sampling of a subset of the population we can reduce costs and gain a good
representation from which we can infer or generalise about the total population. Accurate sampling
requires a sample frame or list of all the units in our target population. A unit is the individual,
household or school (for example) from which we are interested in collecting data. A sample frame for a
household survey would include all the households in the population identified by location or, in the
case of our case study, all of the working street children in Karachi.

NOTE: in the sampling process, the researcher should consider a group of respondents from whom they
can get the required information but will have to sample a smaller group who will provide the
information. In this case the researcher selects from the study population, a study sample (smaller
group)

Bias

The process of recruiting participants for quantitative research is quite different from that of qualitative
research. In order to ensure that our sample accurately represents the population and enables us to
make generalisations from our sample we must fulfil a number of requirements. Sampling bias can
occur if decisions are made about sample selection that mean that some individuals have a greater
chance of being selected for the sample than others. Sample bias is a major failing in our research design
and can lead to inconclusive, unreliable results. There are a many different types of bias. For example,
tarmac bias relates to our tendency to survey those villages that are easily accessible by road. We may
be limited in our ability to travel to many places due to lack of roads, weather conditions etc. which can
create a bias in our sample. Self-selection or non-response bias is one of the most common forms of
bias and is difficult to manage. Participation in questionnaire/surveys must be on a voluntary basis. If
only those people with strong views about the topic being researched volunteer, then the results of the
study may not reflect the opinions of the wider population creating a bias.

NOTE: The best way to avoid being biased is to use simple random sampling

Sample Size

How many? Sample size calculation Calculating the most appropriate sample size is an important step in
the research process. A larger sample provides a more precise estimate of the ‘real’ situation but the
benefits of increased sample size get smaller as you near the total population. Therefore, there is a
trade-off between sample precision and considerations of optimal resource use. There are no ‘rules of
thumb’ when determining sample size for quantitative research. It is not possible to say whether 10% of
the population, for instance, would provide an adequate sample, as this will be affected by a number of
factors. You should be wary of sample plans in research or evaluations that suggest sample size can be
calculated using a percentage of the population without further clarification or rationale for this.
Statisticians will calculate sample size using a range of different equations, each of which are
appropriate for different research situations and contexts. It is important to discuss the objectives of
your research, expected results, data types, resources and context with a statistician or technical advisor
at the design stage of your research in order to calculate an appropriate sample. It is also useful to
understand the two main statistics, which will be used to calculate the sample size. These are the
confidence interval or margin of error and the confidence level.

13
Remember, however, that if the sample is too small then this will lead to inconclusive results, which
cannot provide us with the information that we need. If the sample is too large, however, it may be
impossible to collect the data, and it will be too bulky to analyse and resources will be wasted.

Sampling methods

a) Simple random sampling A simple random sample is the simplest way to select participants
from a population. Pulling names out of a hat or using an online random number generator such
as www.random.org can create a random sample. Using these methods means that each
individual in the population has the same chance of being selected for the sample.
b) Stratified sampling: Stratified sampling is used when individuals in a population can be split into
distinct, non-overlapping groups. These groups are called ‘strata’. Common strata are village,
district, urban/rural etc. In stratified sampling, the number of participants sampled from each
stratum are calculated proportionally to the total population. For example, a population of 100
people live in two villages, with 30% in village A and 70% in village B. We have a required
sample size of 60. In order to stratify our sample, we need to calculate 30% of 60. Number of
people from village A in sample = 60 * 0.3 = 18 people Number of people from village B in
sample = 60 * 0.7 = 42 people Stratified sampling is beneficial when there are big differences
between the strata, as they can give a more accurate representation of the population and, if
the sample size is large enough, allow for further sub-set analysis.
c) Systematic sampling: techniques are somewhat less tedious but offer the benefits of a random
sample. As with simple random samples, you must be able to produce a list of every one of your
population elements. Once you’ve done that, to draw a systematic sample you’d simply select
every kth element on your list. But what is k, and where on the list of population elements does
one begin the selection process? K is your selection interval19or the distance between the
elements you select for inclusion in your study.
d) Cluster sampling: occurs when a researcher begins by sampling groups (or clusters) of
population elements and then selects elements from within those groups.

Quantitative analysis

The methods we have described above help us to collect quantitative data, but is the collection of data
our end goal? No, of course not! A large set of data sitting in a spreadsheet does not help us to
understand the characteristics of the population we are working with or describe the changes brought
about by our projects. We need to use the data to create information. In our case study example, we
may have interviewed children working on the street in Karachi and collected all the data together in a
spreadsheet; however, we need to analyse and summarise the data to answer our research questions.
We need to understand what percentage of children are involved in different work types. For instance,
we may want to understand if girls and boys carry out similar tasks or are exposed to similar risks.
Statistics help us turn quantitative data into useful information to help with decision making. We can
use statistics to summarise our data, describing patterns, relationships and connections. Statistics can be
descriptive or inferential. Descriptive statistics help us to summarise our data whereas inferential
statistics are used to identify statistically significant differences between groups of data (such as
intervention and control groups in a randomised control study). During this course our focus will be on
descriptive rather than inferential statistics: means, median, percentage, frequencies, standard
deviation etc.

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Data structure

We generally collect data from a number of individuals or ‘units’. These units are most often the children
or adults that we are working with. However, our units could also be hospitals or schools, for example.
The different measurements, questions or pieces of information that we collect from these individuals
are the variables.

Study Variables

There are many types of variables in research but in our case we will focus on those we relevant to our
study of research. These are: independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV)

An independent variable (IV) is the influencing factor/which a researcher manipulates in an

experiment or identifies in a research, in order to observe its effect on a DV – for example, in a
study of the effect of lack of learning materials on performance ability, the IV would be the type
and availability of teaching and a learning materials used by the teachers.

A dependent variable (DV) is the factor in an experiment which is influenced by changes in the
IV/and which is observed and measured by the researcher. In the example given above, the DV
would be performance ability.

There are two ways in which these variables can be measure/determined, numerical and categorical. It
is important to distinguish between these two types of variables, as the analysis that you do for each
type is slightly different.

a) Categorical variables are made up of a group of categories. Sex (male/female) is a categorical

variable, as is quality of teacher training, learner learning (good; bad; average).
b) Numerical variables are numbers. They can be counts (e.g. number of participants at a training,
number of students in a class) or measures (e.g. height/weight of a learner) or durations (e.g.
age, time spent, term, year etc.)

Analysis of categorical variables

Categorical data groups all units into distinct categories which can be summarised by determining how
many times a category occurs. For example, the number of female students in a group/class of
participants. We describe this as the frequency of female students in the group/class. This information is
presented using a frequency table. The frequency table shows us how many participants fall into each
category. We can also then represent this as a percentage or proportion of the total.

A proportion describes the relative frequency of each category and is calculated by dividing each
frequency by the total number. Percentages are calculated by multiplying the proportion by 100.

Proportions and percentages can be easier to understand and interpret than examining raw frequency
data and are often added into a frequency table.

Raw frequency data is the information in its original state as obtained from the field or the respondents.

Analysis of numerical variables

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Two statistics – the centre and the spread – commonly describe numerical data.

The centre describes a typical value and the spread describes distance of data from the centre. The
most common statistics used to describe the centre are the mean (commonly known as the average)
and the median. The median is the middle value in a data set, half the data are greater than the median
and half are less. The mean is calculated by adding up all the values and then dividing by the total
number of values.

Spread is most easily described using the range of the data. This is the difference between the minimum
and maximum. Other statistics describing spread are the interquartile range and standard deviation.

The interquartile range is the difference between the upper quartile and lower quartile. A quarter (or
25%) of the data lie above the upper quartile and a quarter of the data lie below the lower quartile. The
standard deviation shows the average difference between each individual data point (or age of child in
our example) and the mean age. If all data points are close to the mean then the standard deviation is
low, showing that there is little difference between values. A large standard deviation shows that there
is a larger spread of data. Calculating the standard deviation, yourself is a little complex but this can also
be done easily in Microsoft Excel.

SUMMARY OF DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS

 Questionnaires: forms which are completed and returned by respondents. An inexpensive

method that is useful where literacy rates are high and respondents are co-operative.
 Interviews: forms which are completed through an interview with the respondent. More
expensive than questionnaires, but they are better for more complex questions, low literacy or
less co-operations
 Direct observations: making direct measurements is the most accurate method for many
variables, such as catch, but is often expensive. Many methods, such as observer programmes,
are limited to industrial fisheries.
 Reporting: the main alternative to making direct measurements is to require fishers and others
to report their activities. Reporting requires literacy and co-operation, but can be backed up by a
legal requirement and direct measurements.
 Registration: registers and licences are particularly valuable for complete enumeration, but are
limited to variables that change slowly, such as numbers of fishing vessels and their
characteristics.
 Content analysis: refers to the systematic analysis of communications, whatever form they may
take, whether in print form, such as news articles or advertising, music form, such as lyrics, or
electronic form, such as Twitter feeds. Categorized as an unobtrusive, non-reactive way of
gathering data, this is very popular among student researchers interested in understanding
media messages.
 Document analysis: This involves interpreting documents such as court rulings or letters in order
to gain insight into the thought processes or ideas surrounding a particular issue, person or
event. The “reading” of the document involves a series of critical questions such as the purpose,
audience, authenticity and significance of the author and the document. Code sheets for
categorizing the data derived from a careful “reading” are sometimes designed for this

16
 technique. It is used mainly by historians using primary sources and is often used in conjunction
with other data collection techniques.
 Focus group: A focus group is essentially a group interview of approximately 5 to 10 people. It is
one of several survey method techniques for gathering data by questioning people. Quantitative
or qualitative data can be derived from this technique. Popular with marketing and polling firms,
it can be used to ascertain the needs and concerns of consumers with regard to a trial product
or a new political candidate or policy.
 Direct Journals
 Voice recording
 Photograph-voices
 Video recording

TOPIC EIGHT

DEVELOPMENT OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

a) Title Identification of the problem

b) Abstract
c) Preliminaries (declaration, abstract, dedication, acknowledgement, table of content, list of
tables, list of figures, abbreviations used in the study)
Chapter One
d) Introduction
e) Background to the study
f) Statement of the problem
g) Purpose of the Study
h) Research objectives
i) Research questions
j) Scope and limitations of the study
k) Significance of the study
Chapter Two
l) Literature review
Chapter Three
m) Study design and methodology
Data analysis and presentation
n) Ethical considerations
o) References
p) Appendices

What is a proposal?

 It is a format and detailed statement of intent of the researcher

o It tells on why, how, where, and to whom the research will be done and shows what
benefits are to be derived from it

 It presents and justifies a plan of action and shows the investigation plan
 It is a blue print of future activities of a research project

17
  It is some sort of preconceived framework for starting the activities
 It is a work plan, prospectus, outline, and statement of intent ahead.
 “… suggests looking forward, to what the researcher plans to do in the future. … The proposal
lays out the problem for research, describes exactly how the research will be conducted, and
outlines in precise detail the resources – both factual and instrumental – the researcher will use
to achieve the desired results.”
 In short, a proposal of a work frame for completing the research

Plan your research

Good planning allows for detailed literature review and the use of creative and logical approaches to
select the methods that gather the most accurate information. Your plan will be influenced by the type
and complexity of the information you need, and how soon you need the information.

a) Choose problem

To choose the appropriate types of research, you need to clearly identify the objectives. After identifying
what you need to know, you should ask what research methods will offer you that information. Organize
your questions logically so that you are able to determine the nature of data you wish to
collect/information you need to find out and to know

b) Purpose of the study

 In a research study, a researcher must Set their goals of carrying out the study/investigation.
 The researcher must have a purpose of the study and objectives derived from the purpose.
 The purpose is usually the main goal/aim of the study stated in objective form derived from the
title of the study.
 The study variables IV and DV must be identified and the relationship between the two clearly
stated.

c) Objectives and Research Questions of the study

What is a research objective?

 A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative statement, which provides direction to

investigate the variables under the study/they give direction to the research.
 Research objective is a concrete statement describing what the research is trying to achieve.
 These are statements of what you intend to achieve
 The objective of research project summarizes what is to be achieved by the study
 They can also be used to assess outcomes
 They are usually expressed in point form for clarity (numbered)
 All objectives must start off with ‘to …’
 These objectives should be in the region between three to five at most
 The research objectives are the specific accomplishments the researcher hopes to achieve by
the study.
 A well-known objective will be SMART
S – SPECIFIC
M – MEASURABLE

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 A – ATTAINABLE
R – REALISTIC
T – TIME BOUND
 Research objective should be RELEVANT, FEASIBLE, LOGICAL, OBSERVABLE, UNEQUIVOCAL &
MEASURABLE.
 Objective is an intention that can be reasonably achieved within the expected timeframe and
with the available resources.

What is a research Question?

 It is a question that is derived from the purpose and objectives of the study
 Turning the purpose/objectives into questions.
 It is possible to have more research questions than objectives/but good to maintain an equal
number
 The objectives include obtaining answers to the research questions or testing the research
hypotheses.

What is a hypothesis?

 Hypothesis Is usually associated with quantitative research/It is an educated guess

 It is based on incomplete evidence
 It can be proved true or false
 It is usually expressed in the form of a null? and an alternate? Hypothesis.

Need for Research Objectives

The formulation of research objectives will help the researcher as follows:

 FOCUS
o A clearly defined research objective will help the researcher to focus on the study
o The formulation of research objectives helps in narrowing down the study to its
essentials.
o It will avoid unnecessary findings, which otherwise lead to wastage of resources.
 AVOID UNECESSARY DATA
o The formulation of research objectives helps the researcher to avoid unnecessary
accumulation of data that is not needed for the chosen problem.
o For example, when the researcher is interested in in identifying the presence or absence
of chosen variables but not in detailed description he can avoid collection of unwanted
information.
 ORGANIZATION
The formulation of objectives organizes the study into a clearly defined parts or phases. • Thus
the objectives help organize the study results in to main parts as per the pre-set objectives.
 GIVES DIRECTION
A well formulated objective will facilitate the development of research methodology and will
help to orient the collection, analysis, interpretation & utilization of data.

Generally, what is the importance of well stated research objectives?

19
  In order to get the right solution a clearly defined objectives are very important.
 A clearly defined objective directs a researcher in the right direction.
 A clearly defined objectives are important feature of a good research study.
 Without a clear objective a researcher is aimless and directionless in conducting the study.
 Without focused objectives, no replicable scientific findings can be expected.

Method of Stating Objective

 The following guideline must be taken into account while stating the objectives:
 The objective should be presented briefly and concisely.
 The objective should cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a
coherent way and in a logical sequence.
 The objectives should be clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying exactly what the
researcher is going to do, where and for what purpose.
 The objectives are realistic considering the local conditions.
 The objectives use action verbs that are specific enough to be evaluated. The list of action verbs
are as follows:
o KNOWLEDGE DOMAIN – Count, Define, Describe, Draw, Identify, Label, List, Match,
Name, Outline, Point out, Quote, Recite, Recognize, Record, Repeat, Reproduce, Select,
State etc.
o APPLICATION DOMAIN – Add, Apply, Calculate, Change, Complete, Compute,
Demonstrate, Discover, Examine, Graph, Interpolate, Manipulate, Operate, Prepare,
Produce, Show, Subtract, Translate, Use, Solve, Classify, Divide, Modify etc.
o COMPREHENSION – Associate, Compute, Convert, Defend, Discuss, Distinguish,
Estimate, Explain, Extend, Extrapolate, Generalize, give example, Infer, Paraphrase,
Predict, Rewrite, Summarize etc.
o ANALYSIS DOMAIN – Analyse, Arrange, Breakdown, Combine, Design, Detect, Develop,
Diagram, Differentiate, Discriminate, Illustrate, Infer, Outline, Relate, Select, Separate,
Subdivide, Utilize etc.
o SYNTHESIS DOMAIN – Categorize, Combine, Compile, Compose, Create, Drive, Design,
Devise, Explain, Generate, Integrate, Modify, Order, Organize, Plan, Prescribe, Propose,
Rearrange, Reconstruct, Revise, Summarize, Specify etc.
o EVALUATION DOMAIN – Appraise, Assess, Compare, Conclude, Contrast, Criticize,
Critique, Determine, Grade, Interpret, Judge, Justify, Measure, Rank, Support, Test etc.

d) Scope and limitation of the study

Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus.
 It establishes the boundaries, exceptions, qualifications, and reservations of the study
 Delimitations – Before
o How the study will be narrowed in scope?
o Controlled by the researcher
 Limitations – Before and After
o Factors that will affect the study
o Not controlled by the researcher
o Should appear when imposed by the nature of the problem

20
 e) Significance of the study

 It refers or describes the importance of the study

 Why this study is significant?
 Why do it now?
 What will it contribute to the existing research literature?
o First express the significance of the study in terms of its academic contribution. What
knowledge gap (new knowledge) is your research trying to fill?
 Thereafter bring out the importance of the research in terms professional practice
 Ask yourself:
o Who is going to benefit from the research and how?
o What implications your findings may have?
o Who will benefit from it?
f) Conceptual Framework

This is usually a diagram which summarises the variables involved in the research and the relationship
between them.

CHAPTER TWO

g) Literature Review

A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research and documentation on a

topic. The literature review surveys scholarly articles, books, and other sources relevant to a particular
area of research.

• It is a critical analysis of the existing literature (reading materials available)

• Done to bring out knowledge gaps (what is not yet known that your study will fill in/provide/It
provides a context for the proposed study)
• 3-4 pages long for research project at undergraduate
• It places your study within the context of the other studies already done so that you do not
repeat what has already been done. The review should enumerate, describe, summarize,
objectively evaluate and clarify this previous research.
• The literature review acknowledges the work of previous researchers, and in so doing, assures
the reader that your work has been well conceived. It is assumed that by mentioning a previous
work in the field of study, that the author has read, evaluated, and assimilated that work into
the work at hand.
• A literature review creates a "landscape" for the reader, giving her or him a full understanding of
the developments in the field. This landscape informs the reader that the author has indeed
assimilated all (or the vast majority of) previous, significant works in the field into her or his
research.
• In writing the literature review, the purpose is to convey to the reader what knowledge and
ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are.

21
 • The literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g. your research objective, the
problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list
of the material available, or a set of summaries

Key Questions to ask:

 Who are the key authors?

 What did they say?
 What do the other authors say?
 What do you say?

Steps in Conducting Literature Review

1. Identify a research topic

2. Identify keywords/descriptors that are useful in locating relevant information material (based on
the study variables in the purpose and objectives of the study)
3. Develop an overall search strategy for the literature review (top-down, that is, begin broad, then
narrow down to the specific areas (variables) of your study)
4. Search preliminary sources
5. Select relevant primary and secondary sources
6. Search the library for identified primary and secondary sources
7. Establish a computer and paper trail including research summaries in your own words that will
be used in the literature review
8. Repeat step 4–7 as needed to refine search
9. Develop themes/concepts that synthesize the literature (based on the study variables in the
purpose and objectives of the study)
10. Relate the themes/concepts to one another through an outline of the literature review, or a
literature map
11. Produce a final literature review that structures or organizes the literature thematically or by
important concepts
12. Use the literature review to develop or refine the research objectives, questions, and/or
hypothesis, background to the study and problem statement

Value of Literature review

 It describes how the proposed research is related to prior research in education or the specific
area of study.
 It shows the originality and relevance of your research problem. Specifically, your research is
different from other studies.
 It justifies your proposed research approaches and methodology
 It demonstrates your preparedness to complete the research.
 Can reveal sources of data that you may not have known existed
 Demonstrates why the study is important and timely
 To avoid solving problems that others have encountered in their research
 Increase your confidence in your topic because others have invested considerable time, effort,
and resources in studying it

Importance of carrying out a literature review in any research study

22
  It shows the originality and relevance of your research problem – Specifically, how the research
is different from other studies/ It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are
closely related to the study being reported
 It justifies the researcher’s proposed methodology
 It demonstrates the researcher’s preparedness to complete the research.
 It establishes the need for the research and indicate that the writer is knowledgeable about the
area
 It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature about a topic, filling in gaps and
extending prior studies/ It describes how the proposed research is related to prior research in
the area of research
 It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study, as well as a benchmark for
comparing the results of a study with other findings.
 It “frames” the problem earlier identified.
 It should enumerate, describe, summarize, objectively evaluate and clarify this previous
research.
 It should give a theoretical base for the research and help you (the researcher) determine the
nature of your research.
 Acknowledges the work of previous researchers, and in so doing, assures the reader that your
work has been well conceived. It is assumed that by mentioning a previous work in the field of
study, that the researcher has read, evaluated, and assimilated that work into the work at hand.
 Creates a "landscape" for the reader, giving her or him a full understanding of the developments
in the field

CHAPTER THREE

Research Methodology

 This is how the research is going to be conducted; where it is to be conducted and what study
sample will it comprise of, etc. who will be involved in the study
 What techniques will be used in the research for data gathering for example, desk research
(literature review), structured and semi structured interviews, questionnaires, observations etc.

h) Research Approach/Method
Qualitative or quantitative
i) Study Population
This is the targeted respondents within the institution/school who will supply vital insights (the
data required) into the problem under study, e.g. students, teachers, school librarian, school
laboratory technician, other non-teaching staff etc.
j) Study Sample
 Who will take part in your study?
 What kind of sampling procedure/techniques will be used?
 This must be done systematically and logically to arrive at the actual respondents (study
sample)
k) Study Instrumentation (tools of Data collection)
 What instruments/tools/techniques will be used to collect data?
 These must be guided by whether the study is qualitative or quantitative in nature?

23
 l) Data collection procedures
 Make a list of how you are going to carry out the research process, the data you need to
collect, and collection methods.
 This will help you keep track of your processes and make sense of your findings. It will
also allow you to verify that your research accurately reflects the opinions of your
clients and your market.
 Remember, research is only valuable and useful when it is valid, accurate, and reliable.
Relying on imperfect research is dangerous. So ensure that your data is:
o Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.
o Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
o Reliable – that can be reproduced by other people who investigate in the same
way.
o Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.
o Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business decisions.

m) Data analysis Procedures

 In this section you explain how you intend to handle the data – through
defined/identified data analysis procedures
 Analysis of the data can vary from simple and direct steps to technical and complex
processes – keep it as simple and straight forward as possible.
 Adopt an approach, and choose the method of data analysis based on the
methods/approaches you intend to use to carry out the study.
 You must do this based on a planned data analysis plan comprising of narrative,
qualitative and quantitative techniques inclusive of graphs, charts, pie charts and
analysis tables.
n) Ethical considerations

 Informed consent – It is the major ethical issue in conducting research. "it means that a person
knowingly, voluntarily and intelligently, and in a clear and manifest way, gives his consent"
 Beneficence – Do not harm – "the principle of beneficence includes the professional mandate to
do effective and significant research so as to better serve and promote the welfare of our
constituents"
 Respect for anonymity and confidentiality of the respondents
 Respect for privacy – "privacy is the freedom an individual/respondent has to determine the
time, extent, and general circumstances under which private information will be shared with or
withheld from others
 Literature acknowledgement – identify authors and provide a reference of all literature referred
to in the research work/project

o) Referencing

NOTE: Use APA referencing style in preparing your reference list

What is a reference list?

The APA 6th Style manual specifies the following for the reference list.

24
1. The reference list is the last page of your paper.
2. References begin on a separate page from the last page of your writing.
3. The word References should appear in upper and lower case and be centered at the top of the
page (at the top center of the page).
4. The reference list is alphabetized according to the first word of each end reference (arranged
alphabetically according to the second name (Sir name) of each author.
5. All reference entries should be double-spaced
6. All references should be in a "hanging indent" format. (This means that the first line of each
reference is flush against the left margin and the subsequent lines of each reference are indented
– To put in a hanging indent, type your references normally. When finished, highlight the
reference list and click on the arrow in the corner of the paragraph tab in Word. Under
Indentation, select Hanging from the drop down menu for Special).

Sample Reference List

References

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2008). Childhood education and care (No. 4402.0). Retrieved
from http://www.abs.gov.au

Beckett, S. T. (2008). The science of chocolate (2nd ed.). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Royal
Society of Chemistry.

Branch, S., Ramsay, S., & Barker, M. (2008). The bullied boss: A conceptual exploration of
upwards bullying. In A. Glendon, B. M. Thompson & B. Myors (Eds.), Advances in
organizational psychology (pp. 93-112). Retrieved from
http://www.informit.com.au/humanities.html

Cioe, J. (2012). The normal distribution [Lecture notes]. Retrieved from

http://moodle.vle.monash.edu.au

Corporations Act 2001 (Cth). Available from http://www.austlii.edu.au

Department of Health and Ageing. (2012). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health
performance framework 2012 report. Retrieved from
http://www.health.gov.au/internet/publications/publishing.nsf/Content/oatsih-hpf-
2012-toc

MacIntyre, S. (2008, August). Participation in the classroom, productivity in the workforce:

Unfulfilled expectations. Paper presented at the 13th Australian Council for
Educational Research Conference, Brisbane Qld. Retrieved from
research.acer.edu.au/research_conference_2008/8

Preston, R. (2010). Observations in acute care: Evidence based approach to patient safety.
British Journal of Nursing 19, 442-447. Retrieved from
http://www.britishjournalofnursing.com

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 Ramsey, J. K., & McGrew, W. C. (2005). Object play in great apes: Studies in nature and captivity.
In A. D. Pellegrini & P. K. Smith (Eds.), The nature of play: Great apes and humans (pp.
89-112). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Sievers, W. (1966). Monash University [Photograph]. Retrieved from

http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/15565401?q=monash&c=picture&versionId=18284000

Tranquilli, A. L., Lorenzi, S., Buscicchio, G., Di Tommaso, M., Mazzanti, L. & Emanuelli, M. (2014).
Female fetuses are more reactive when mother eats chocolate. The Journal of
Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine, 27(1), 72-74.
doi:10.3109/14767058.2013.804053

Winter, J., Hunter, S., Sim, J., & Crome, P. (2011). Hands-on therapy interventions for upper limb
motor dysfunction following stroke. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews,
2011(6). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006609.pub.2

Wolchik, S. A., West, S. G., Sandler, I. N., Tein, J., Coatsworth, D., Lengua, L., ...Griffin, W. A.
(2000). An experimental evaluation of theory-based mother and mother-child
programs for children of divorce. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(5),
843–856. doi:10.1037//0022-006X.68.5.843

p) Appendices
What is an appendix?
An appendix contains supplementary material that is not an essential part of the text (the
main written research project report) itself but which may be helpful in providing a more
comprehensive understanding of the research problem or it is information that is too
cumbersome to be included in the body of the paper/research project report.

Appendices are always supplementary to the research paper. As such, your study must
be able to stand alone without the appendices, and the paper must contain all information
including tables, diagrams, and results necessary to understand the research problem. The key
point to remember when including an appendix is that the information is non-essential; if it
were removed, the reader would still be able to comprehend the significance, validity, and
implications of your research.

It is appropriate to include appendices for the following reasons:

 Including this material in the body of the paper that would render it poorly structured or
interrupt the narrative flow;
 Information is too lengthy and detailed to be easily summarized in the body of the paper;
 Inclusion of helpful, supporting, or useful material would otherwise distract the reader from the
main content of the paper;
 Provides relevant information or data that is more easily understood or analyzed in a self-
contained section of the paper;
 For example: Data collection Instruments

TOPIC NINE

26
 REFERENCING

In this course, the APA referencing system is used for referencing purposes: both in text and reference
list development.

What is an in-text?

APA citation basics

 Insert an in-text citation when your work has been influenced by someone else's work, for
example:
o when you directly quote someone else's work or
o when you paraphrase someone else's work
 The in-text citation consists of author surname(s)/family name(s), in the order that they appear
on the actual publication, followed by the year of publication of the source that you are citing.
o For direct quotes, make sure to include page or paragraph number. e.g. (Weston, 1988,
p. 45). Page numbers are not normally included when paraphrasing but may be included
if desired.
 The in-text citation is placed immediately after the information being cited.
 If your citation is at the end of a sentence, ensure the full stop is placed after the reference.
 If quoting or citing a source which has been cited within another document, mention the original
source together with the secondary reference details; for example: (Smith, 2008, as cited in
Jones, 2010). In this case, only the secondary reference (i.e. Jones, 2010) should be included in
the reference list.
o PLEASE NOTE, HOWEVER you should use secondary sources ONLY where you are
unable to obtain a copy of the original, or the original is not available in English.
 In-text citations are usually included in the word count of your document.
 For citations in brackets with two authors the ‘&’ symbol is used. If the author citation forms
part of your sentence the word ‘and’ must be used, e.g. (Brown & Black, 2010) OR “Brown and
Black (2010) indicate that…”

More Guiding Points

When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the author's
last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text, like, for example, (Jones,
1998). One complete reference for each source should appear in the reference list at the end of the
paper.

If you are referring to an idea from another work but NOT directly quoting the material, or making
reference to an entire book, article or other work, you only have to make reference to the author and
year of publication and not the page number in your in-text reference.

On the other hand, if you are directly quoting or borrowing from another work, you should include the
page number at the end of the parenthetical citation. Use the abbreviation “p.” (for one page) or “pp.”
(for multiple pages) before listing the page number(s). Use an end dash for page ranges. For example,
you might write (Jones, 1998, p. 199) or (Jones, 1998, pp. 199 – 201). This information is reiterated
below. Regardless of how they are referenced, all sources that are cited in the text must appear in the
reference list at the end of the paper.

27
In-text citation capitalization, quotes, and italics/underlining

 Always capitalize proper nouns, including author names and initials: D. Jones.
 If you refer to the title of a source within your paper, capitalize all words that are four letters
long or greater within the title of a source: Permanence and Change. Exceptions apply to short
words that are verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs: Writing New Media, There Is
Nothing Left to Lose.

(Note: in your References list, only the first word of a title will be capitalized: Writing new media.)

 When capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in a hyphenated compound word: Natural-Born
Cyborgs.
 Capitalize the first word after a dash or colon: "Defining Film Rhetoric: The Case of
Hitchcock's Vertigo."
 If the title of the work is italicized in your reference list, italicize it and use title case
capitalization in the text: The Closing of the American Mind; The Wizard of Oz; Friends.
 If the title of the work is not italicized in your reference list, use double quotation marks and title
case capitalization (even though the reference list uses sentence case): "Multimedia Narration:
Constructing Possible Worlds;" "The One Where Chandler Can't Cry."

Short quotations

If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of publication, and
page number for the reference (preceded by "p." for a single page and “pp.” for a span of multiple
pages, with the page numbers separated by an end dash).

You can introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name followed by
the date of publication in parentheses.

According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their
first time" (p. 199).

Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); what implications does this
have for teachers?

If you do not include the author’s name in the text of the sentence, place the author's last name, the
year of publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation.

She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style" (Jones, 1998, p. 199), but she did not offer an
explanation as to why.

Long quotations

Place direct quotations that are 40 words or longer in a free-standing block of typewritten lines and omit
quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented 1/2 inch from the left margin, i.e., in the
same place you would begin a new paragraph. Type the entire quotation on the new margin, and indent
the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation 1/2 inch from the new margin. Maintain

28
double-spacing throughout, but do not add an extra blank line before or after it. The parenthetical
citation should come after the closing punctuation mark.

Here is an example of a block quotation (normally it would be double spaced, the web doesn't let us do
that here):

Place direct quotations longer than 40 words in a free-standing block of typewritten lines, and
omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented ½ inch from the left margin,
i.e., in the same place you would begin a new paragraph. Type the entire quotation on the new
margin, and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation ½ inch from
the new margin. Maintain double-spacing throughout. The parenthetical quotation should come
after the closing punctuation mark. (Angeli, et al., 2010, para. 27)

Quotations from sources without pages

Direct quotations from sources that do not contain pages should not reference a page number. Instead,
you may reference another logical identifying element: a paragraph, a chapter number, a section
number, a table number, or something else. Older works (like religious texts) can also incorporate
special location identifiers like verse numbers. In short: pick a substitute for page numbers that makes
sense for your source.

Jones (1998) found a variety of causes for student dissatisfaction with prevailing citation practices
(paras. 4–5).

A meta-analysis of available literature (Jones, 1998) revealed inconsistency across large-scale studies of
student learning (Table 3).

Summary or paraphrase

If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to the author and
year of publication in your in-text reference and may omit the page numbers. APA guidelines, however,
do encourage including a page range for a summary or paraphrase when it will help the reader find the
information in a longer work.

According to Jones (1998), APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners.

APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners (Jones, 1998, p. 199).

Placement of citations can be important depending on the emphasis you wish to apply

 If you wish to quote or paraphrase an author and want to emphasise the author, then your
citation becomes 'author prominent'. The citation will look something like this:
o Jones (2012) has concluded that...
 If you wish to emphasise the information you have paraphrased or quoted from an author, then
your citation becomes 'information prominent'. The citation will look something like this:
o ... as evidenced from a recent Australian study (Jones, 2012).

29
Examples of in-text citations

One author

Surname of author, no initials or suffixes such as Jr. The year of publication is

Rule
also included

..This was seen in an Australian study (Conger, 1979).

Citation OR
examples Conger (1979) has argued that...
OR
In 1979, Conger conducted a study which showed that...

Two authors

Rule Cite both surnames every time the reference occurs in the text

...(Davidson & Harrington, 2002)

Citation
OR
examples
Davidson and Harrington (2002)...

Three to five authors

Cite all surnames and publication year the first time, thereafter only the first
Rule
surname followed by et al. Note: There is a full-stop (.) after al (see below).

The first time cited: ...(Brown, Soo, & Jones, 1990).

Brown, Soo, and Jones (1990)...
Citation
thereafter:
examples
...(Brown et al., 1990).
Brown et al. (1990)...

Six or more authors

Cite only the surname of the first author followed by et al. and the year from
the first citation. Note: There is a full-stop (.) after al (see below). Include all
Rule
authors, up to seven, in the reference list. Please see instruction for eight or
more authors on the introductory page of this guide.

Citation .... (Girad-Perregaux et al., 2003).

examples Girad-Perregaux et al. (2003)...

Different authors: same surname

30
 Add the initials of the author's first or given name/s to their surname to
Rule
distinguish them.

P. R. Smith (1923) to distinguish from S. Smith (1945) ...

Citation
examples (S. A. Brown & Jones, 1961) to distinguish from (W. O. Brown & Smith, 1985).

Multiple authors: ambiguous citations

If a multiple (3+) author citation abbreviated with et al. looks the same as
Rule another in text citation similarly shortened, add enough surnames to make a
distinction, followed by a comma and et al.

Citation
...(Brown, Shimamura, et al., 1998) to distinguish from (Brown, Taylor, et al., 1998).
examples

Multiple works: by same author

When cited together give the author's surname once followed by the years of
Rule
each publication, which are separated by a comma.

Citation ... (Stairs, 1992, 1993).

examples Stairs (1992, 1993)...

Multiple works: by same author AND same year

If there is more than one reference by an author in the same year, suffixes (a,
b, c, etc.) are added to the year. Allocation of the suffixes is determined by the
Rule order of the references in the reference list, not by the order in which they are
cited. Suffixes are also included in the reference list, and these references are
listed alphabetically by title. If cited together, list by suffix as shown below.

Citation Stairs (1992b)... later in the text ... (Stairs, 1992a).

examples ...(Stairs, 1992a, 1992b).

If the author is identified as 'anonymous'

Rule Use Anonymous in place of the author's surname.

Citation ... (Anonymous, 1997)

31
 examples

Unknown author

Give the first few words of the title. If the title is from an article or a chapter use
Rule double quotation marks. If the title is from a periodical, book brochure or
report then use italics.

Citation
...the worst election loss in the party's history ("This is the end," 1968).
examples

Corporate or group of authors

Rule If organization is recognized by abbreviation, cite the first time as follows:

... (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare [AIHW], 2005)

Citation
examples Note: [AIHW] is in square brackets for the initial in-text citation and thereafter as
... (AIHW, 2005).
However, if abbreviation not widely known, give the name in full every time:
... (Australian Research Council, 1996)

Multiple references

Rule List the citations in alphabetical order and separate with semicolons

Citation
... (Burst, 1995; Nguyen, 1976; Turner & Hooch, 1982).
examples

Citing specific parts of a source

For a direct quote the page number(s) must be given. Indicate page, chapter,
Rule figure, table, etc. as specifically as possible. Use accepted abbreviations, i.e. p.
for page, para. for paragraph..

As one writer put it "the darkest days were still ahead" (Weston, 1988, p. 45).
Citation
Weston (1988) argued that "the darkest days were still ahead" (p. 45).
examples
This theory was put forward by Smith (2005, chap.7)

Quote from an electronic source

32
 Rule Where page numbers are not provided use paragraph numbers.

Citation
...(Chang, 2001, para. 2)
examples

Personal communications

These include private letters, e-mail, and conversations. As personal

Rule communications are not accessible to others, they are not included in the
reference list.
However, an in-text citation is required.

Citation ... (R. Smith, personal communication, January 28, 2002).

examples R. Smith (personal communication, January 28, 2002)...

Citation of a secondary source: (i.e. a source referred to in another publication)

Note: APA 6th specifies that secondary citations should ONLY be used
where the original is unavailable (for example, out-of-print). Wherever
possible, read and cite the original source.
Rule
If the original source is not available, ONLY include the details of the source
you actually read. In the example below, the original source would be Farrow
(1968), which you saw cited in a paper by Ward and Decan (1988).

... (Farrow, 1968, as cited in Ward & Decan, 1988).

Citation examples Farrow (1968, as cited in Ward & Decan, 1988) ...
Ward and Decan (1988) cited Farrow (1968) as finding...

Citing legislation or legal cases

The way you cite legislation or legal cases depends on whether you read the actual legislation or read about
it in another source. If it is the latter, the legislation/case should be treated as a secondary source.

The title of the leglslation and the year (jurisdiction). Note: include the
Rule - Legislation jurisdiction the first time the act is cited. The jurisdiction can be dropped
with subsequent citations

Citation examples The Medical Treatment Act 1988 (Vic) states......

by virtue of s. 25.1 of the Aged Care Act 1997 (Cth).....

..."A restrictive intervention may only be used on a person....." (Mental Health Act
2014 (Vic), s. 105)

33
 as a secondary source

....Occupational Health and Safety Act 2004 (Vic) (as cited in Creighton & Rozen,
2007)

Rule - Cases The title of the case (year). Note: Include the year with the first citation. The
year can be dropped in subsequent citations.

According to the case of Rogers v Whitaker (1992) ....

Citation examples as a secondary source

.....Chappel v Hart (1988) (as cited in Forrester & Griffiths, 2010)

Websites (but not a specific document on that site)

Rule When citing an entire website it is sufficient to give the address of the site
in the text. No reference list entry required.

Citation examples Apple is one of the most visited consumer technology websites in the world
(http://www.apple.com).

Web page, author

Rule Family name and year of publication.

In a recent article on the role of quantitative analysts Loeper (2019) states…

Citation examples Or

The role of quantitative analysts has been recently reviewed (Loeper, 2019)

Web page with corporate author

Rule Organisation name and year of publication.

A webpage regarding educational programs and discounts offered by Samsung

(2019) states…

Citation examples Or

Extensive information on education programs and discounts are offered by one

of the world’s largest telecommunications companies (Samsung, 2019)

34
Web page, unknown author

Rule Give the first few words of the title. If the title is from an article use double
quotation marks. Also include the year of publication.

Citation examples An Australian government agency recommend checking rainwater tanks in

Queensland (“Unsealed rainwater tanks”, 2019).

Web page, no date

Rule Use the letters n.d. - an abbreviation of the words ‘no date’.

In a self-published autobiographical article audio visual organisation Bose (n.d)

mention…
Citation examples
Or

The company’s history is outlined in a self-published autobiography (Bose, n.d.)

Market Reports/Industry databases, no individual author

Rule Cite the database or Market Report publisher as author.

An industry report on infrastructure construction in China by IBISWorld (2019)

asserts…

Citation examples Or

Infrastructure construction in China was summarised in a recent industry report

(IBISWorld, 2019).

Market Reports/Industry databases, author

Rule Family name and year of publication.

In an industry report on Australian accommodation Smith (2019) states…

Citation examples Or

Australian accommodation options were recently reviewed (Smith, 2019).

TOPIC TEN

35
 ACADEMIC OR RESEARCH PROJECT REPORTS

Academic report is any writing done to fulfil a requirement of a college or university. Academic writing is
also used for publications that are read by teacher and researchers or presented at conferences.

Or

A very broad definition of academic writing could include any writing assignment given in an academic
setting.

Elements of the structure of an academic report:

 Title page: contains the report title; your name; submission date
 Executive summary: overview of subject matter; methods of analysis; findings;
recommendations
 Table of content: list of numbered sections in report and their page numbers
 Introduction: terms of reference; outline of report’s structure
 Body: headings and sub-headings which reflect the contents of each section. Includes
information on method of data collection (if applicable), the findings of the report and
discussion of findings in light of theory
 Conclusion: states the major inferences that can be drawn from the discussion makes
recommendations
 Reference List: list of reference material consulted during research for report
 Appendix: information that supports your analysis but is not essential to its explanation

Academic and research writing is characterized by specified features as follows:

a) Conceptual clarity: the title and thematic area of concern must be clear and precise with an
explicit statement of research problem
b) Audience: Considering your audience is something you should do before writing your paper. If
you are a student, your audience will be your instructor who has definitely some expectations
which you will have to meet. Your audience may also be advisors, thesis committees, and
journal and conference reviewers. Taking your audience into account will affect the content of
your writing. For example, if you assume that your readers are familiar with the subject you are
writing about, you will not provide much background information.

c) Purpose: Audience and purpose are interconnected. If the audience knows less than the writer,
then purpose is instructional. But if the audience knows more than the writer, as is the case with
students, the purpose will be demonstration of knowledge and expertise. So you should be
aware of the purpose of your writing as it is a decisive factor.
d) Organization/Clarity of thought and flow of ideas (coherence): Organization is a matter of
priorities and structure. Your audience has this expectation that the information will be
presented in a structured format that is suitable for the genre of the text, so there are different
patterns you should take advantage of, because most readers are familiar with them and this
helps facilitate the conveyance of information. Other factors such as relevance, coherence and
flow, cohesion and texture, context and message should be taken into account. Moreover, there
are several established patterns of information organization which all writers make use

36
 depending on the nature of their paper: problems and solutions, comparison-contrast, cause-
effect, and classification.

e) Style: You have to make sure that your writing is based on an appropriate style. Style should be
consistent and suitable both in terms of audience and the message. Writing research report in
an informal style is a grave mistake. Consider the fact that academic style differs from one field
to another, so by analysing the papers in your chosen field of study you will become familiar
with styles used in your field.
f) Flow: It means moving from one statement in a text to another. It is obvious that by keeping the
flow and making clear connection of ideas and concepts you will helps your audience to follow
the text. One of the most commonly used methods for establishing a flow is moving from old
information to new information. By stating old information first you can provide some brief
background information and then state your assumptions or conclusions and establish a
connection between them. Example:
g) Presentation: Before presenting your paper, ask yourself these questions: are information flow
and overall format good enough? Is your paper grammatically accurate? Have you checked for
spelling errors?
h) Language Use: the language used must be formal, simple and appropriate language
i) Use of referencing: Quotations and reference lists must be considered and presented correctly

The Ethics of Research Ethics

A set of moral principles and values that a researcher keeps in mind while conducting research by:

1. Protecting the rights of human participants. protecting the participants from physical and
mental harms ethical treatment during research protecting the right to refuse or withdrawn
protecting the right to free consent protecting the right to informed consent
2. Ensuring confidentiality of research data: a. maintain security of information e.g. confidentiality,
privacy and anonymity b. Deception must be justified
3. Avoid from plagiarism

37