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    Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

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    Ajay Jamwal
    The document discusses where photosynthesis takes place. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts, specifically in the mesophyll cells of leaves. The chloroplast contains a membrane system that uses light energy to synthesize ATP and NADPH through light reactions. Dark reactions then use these products to reduce CO2 to sugars.

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    Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

    Uploaded by

    Ajay Jamwal
    11 views13 pages
    The document discusses where photosynthesis takes place. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts, specifically in the mesophyll cells of leaves. The chloroplast contains a membrane system that uses light energy to synthesize ATP and NADPH through light reactions. Dark reactions then use these products to reduce CO2 to sugars.

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    Photosynthesis in higher Plants

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    photosynthesis in higher plants

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    The document discusses where photosynthesis takes place. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts, specifically in the mesophyll cells of leaves. The chloroplast contains a membrane system that uses light energy to synthesize ATP and NADPH through light reactions. Dark reactions then use these products to reduce CO2 to sugars.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as docx, pdf, or txt
    11 views13 pages

    Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

    Uploaded by

    Ajay Jamwal
    The document discusses where photosynthesis takes place. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts, specifically in the mesophyll cells of leaves. The chloroplast contains a membrane system that uses light energy to synthesize ATP and NADPH through light reactions. Dark reactions then use these products to reduce CO2 to sugars.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as docx, pdf, or txt
    of 13

    CHAPTER-13

    Photosynthesis in higher plants

    By:- Ajay jamwal

    Topic:-Where Does Photosynthesis Takes Place?

    Photosynthesis is a physico-chemical process by which green plants use light


    energy to drive the synthesis of organic compounds. It is an enzyme
    regulated anabolic process.

     Photosynthesis is the basis of life on earth because it is the primary source


    of all food on earth and it is responsible for release of in the
    atmosphere.

     Chlorophyll, light and is required for photosynthesis. It occurs only in


    green part of leaves and in presence of light.

     Chloroplasts are green plastids which function as the site of photosynthesis


    in eukaryotic photoautotrophs. Inside the leaves, chloroplast is generally
    present in mesophyll cells along their walls.

     Within the chloroplast there is a membranous system consisting of grana,


    the stroma lamellae and the fluid stroma.
     The membrane system is responsible for synthesizing light energy for the
    synthesis of ATP and NADPH. In stroma enzymatic reactions
    incorporate in plants leading to synthesis of sugar.

     The reaction in which light energy is absorbed by grana to synthesis ATP


    and NADPH is called light reaction. The later part of photosynthesis in
    which is reduced to sugar, light is not necessary and is called dark
    reaction.

    Topic:-Pigments involved in Photosynthesis – Chromatographic separation of leaf


    pigments are as follows-

    Maximum absorption by chlorophyll a occurs in blue and red regions having


    higher rate of photosynthesis. So, chlorophyll a is the chief pigment.
     Other thylakoid pigments like chlorophyll b, xanthophyll and carotenoids
    are called accessary pigments that absorb light and transfer energy to
    chlorophyll a and protect them from photo-oxidation.

    Topic:-Light reaction

     Light reaction(photochemical phase) includes:

    1. Light absorption

    2. Water splitting

    3. Oxygen release

    4. Formation of high energy chemical intermediates (ATP and NADPH).

     The pigments are organized into two discrete LHC( light harvesting
    complex) within photosystem I and photosystem II.

     LHC are made up of hundreds of pigments molecules containing all


    pigments except single chlorophyll a molecules in each PS.

     The pigments in photosystem I and photosystem II absorbs the lights of


    different wavelength. Single chlorophyll a molecule makes the reaction
    centre. In PS I reaction centre has highest peak at 700nm, hence called
    P700. And PS II reaction centre has highest peak at 680 nm, so called P680.

    The Electron Transport System


     Reaction centre of photosystem II absorbs light of 680 nm in red region and
    causing electron to become excited. These electrons are picked by an
    electron acceptor which passes to electron transport system consisting
    of cytochromes.

     Electrons are passed down the electron transport chain and then to the
    pigment of PS I.

     Electron in the PSI also get excited due to light of wavelength 700nm and
    are transferred to another accepter molecule having a greater redox
    potential.

     When electron passes in downhill direction, energy is released. This is used


    to reduce the ADP to ATP and NADP+ to NADPH. The whole scheme of
    transfer of electron is called Z-scheme due to its shape.

     Photolysis of water release electrons that provide electron to PS II. Oxygen


    is also released during this process.

     Topic:- cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation


    phosphorylation is the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate in the
    presence of light.

    Cyclic Photophosphorylation

    When the two photosystems work in a series, first PS II and then the PS I, a
    process called non-cyclic photo-phosphorylation occurs. The two photosystems
    are connected through an electron transport chain, as in the Z scheme. Both ATP
    and NADPH + H+ are synthesised by this kind of electron flow .

    Cyclic Photo-phosphorylation

    When only PS I is functional, the electron is circulated within the photosystem


    and the phosphorylation occurs due to cyclic flow of electrons. A possible location
    where this could be happening is in the stroma lamellae. While the membrane or
    lamellae of the grana have both PS I and PS II the stroma lamellae membranes
    lack PS II as well as NADP reductase enzyme. The excited electron does not pass
    on to NADP+ but is cycled back to the PS I complex through the electron transport
    chain . The cyclic flow hence, results only in the synthesis of ATP, but not of
    NADPH + H+ . Cyclic photophosphorylation also occurs when only light of
    wavelengths beyond 680 nm are available for excitation.

    Topic:- Difference between cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation

    Non-cyclic
    Cyclic photophosphorylation
    photophosphorylation

    1. It is performed by 1. It is performed by
    photosystem I collaboration of both
    independently. PS I and PS II.

    2. An external source of 2. The process requires an


    electron is not external electron
    required. donor.

    3. It synthesizes only 3. It synthesizes ATP and


    ATP.
    NADH both.
    4. It occurs only in
    4. It occurs in the granal
    stromal or intergranal
    thylakoids only.
    thylakoids.

    Cyclic photo-phosphorylation

    Non Cyclic Photo-phosphorylation


    Topic:-Chemiosmotic Hypothesis of ATP FORMATION

    This hypothesis was proposed by Mitchell in 1961. ATP synthesis is linked to


    development of proton gradient across the membrane of thylakoid and
    mitochondria.

    The process that causes development of proton gradient across the membrane is-

    1. Splitting of water molecules occurs inside the thylakoid to produce


    hydrogen ion or proton.

    2. As electron passes through the photosystems, protons are transported


    across the membrane because primary acceptor of electron is located
    towards the outer side the membrane.
    3. The NADP reductase enzyme is located in the stroma side of membrane.
    Electrons come out from the acceptor of electron of PSI, protons are
    necessary for reduction of NADP+ to NADP + H+. These protons are also
    removed from the stroma. This creates proton gradient across the
    thylakoids membrane along with pH in the lumen.

    4. Gradient is broken down due to movement of proton across the membrane


    to the stroma through trans-membrane channel of F0 of ATPase. One part
    of this enzyme is embedded in membrane to form trans-membrane
    channel. The other portion is called F1that protrudes on the outer surface
    of thylakoid membrane which makes the energy packed ATP.

    5. ATP and NADPH produced due to movement of electron is used


    immediately to fix CO2 to form sugar.

     The product of light reaction used to drive the process leading to synthesis
    of sugar are called biosynthetic phase of photosynthesis.

    Topic:-Calvin Cycle/C3 cycle/Reductive Pentose Sugar Phosphate Pathway

    Malvin Calvin, Benson and their colleagues used radioactive 14C and Chlorealla
    and Scenedesmus algae to discover that first fixation product is 3-carbon
    organic compound (3-phosphoglyceric acid) or PGA. Later on a new compound
    was discovered which contain 4-carbon called Oxaloacetic Acid (AAO). On the
    basis of number of carbon atoms in first stable product they are named C3 and C4
    pathway.

    Calvin cycle can be described under three stages: carboxylation, reduction and
    regeneration.

     Carboxylation is the fixation of into 3-phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA).


    Carboxylation of RuBP occurs in presence of enzyme RuBP carboxylase
    (RuBisCO) which results in the formation of two molecules of 3-PGA.

     Reduction is series of reaction that leads to formation of glucose. Two


    molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADPH are required for reduction
    of one molecules of . Six turn of this cycle are required for removal of
    one molecule of Glucose molecules from pathway.

     Regeneration is the generation of RuBP molecules for the continuation of


    cycle. This process require one molecules of ATP.
    Fig-Calvin Cycle/ C3 Cycle

     For every molecules of entering the Calvin Cycle, 3 molecules of ATP


    and 2 molecules of NADPH is required. To make one molecules of glucose 6
    turns of cycle is completed so total energy molecule required is

    In Out

    Six One glucose

    18 ATP 18 ADP

    12 NADPH 12 NADP
    Topic:- C4 pathway/Hatch Slack Pathway

     This pathway was worked out by Hatch and Slack (1965, 1967), mainly
    operational in plants growing in dry tropical region like Maize, Sugarcane,
    Sorghum etc.

     In this pathway first stable product is a 4-carbon compound Oxaloacetic


    acid (AAO) so called as pathway. plants have Kranz Anatomy
    (vascular bundles are surrounded by bundle sheath cells arranged in wreath
    like manner), characterized by large no of chloroplast, thick wall impervious
    to gases and absence of intercellular spaces.

     The primary acceptor is a 3-carbon molecule Phosphoenol


    Pyruvate present in mesophyll cells and enzyme involved is PEP
    carboxylase.

     OAA formed in mesophyll cell forms 4-carbon compound like malic acid or
    aspartic acid which is transported to bundle sheath cells.

     In bundle sheath cell, it is broken into and a 3-carbon molecule. The 3-


    carbon molecule is returned back to mesophyll cells to form PEP.

     The molecules released in bundle sheath cells enters the Calvin cycle,
    where enzyme RuBisCO is present that forms sugar.
    Topic:-Photorespiration

     It is a the light dependent process of oxygenation of RuBP and release of


    carbon dioxide by photosynthetic organs of plants.

     Photorespiration decreases the rate of photosynthesis when oxygen


    concentration is increased from 2-3% to 21%.

     Presence of light and higher concentration of Oxygen results in the binding


    of RuBisCO enzyme with O2 to form.

    RuBisCO + PGA + phosphoglycolate

    This pathway involves Chloroplast, Peroxisome and Mitochondria.


    Photorespiration do not occurs in plants.

    Topic:- Difference between c3 and c4 plants


    C3 plants C4 plants

    1. The leaves do not have 1. The leaves show Kranz


    Kranz anatomy. anatomy in leaves.

    2. Photorespiration 2. Photorespiration does


    occurs. not occur.

    3. RuBisCO is the first 3. PEP is the first


    acceptor of CO2. acceptor of CO2.

    4. PGA is the first stable 4. OAA is the first stable


    product. product.

    5. Plants are adapted to 5. Plants are adapted to


    all climates. tropical climate.

    6. Mesophyll cells 6. Mesophyll cells


    perform complete perform only initial
    photosynthesis. fixation.

    Topic:-Factors affecting photosynthesis

    1. Light- as light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis also increases


    until light saturation point.

    2. Carbon dioxide concentration– with increase in concentration of rate


    of photosynthesis increase till the compensation point.

    3. Temperature- it does not influence the rate of photosynthesis directly but


    at higher temperature enzyme activity is inhibited due to denaturation of
    enzymes which affect the dark reaction.

    4. Water– due to increase in amount of water, rate of photosynthesis does


    not increase proportionally as after saturation no more water is required
    during photosynthesis.

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