1.

The object and aims of Lexicology Lexicology and other branches of

linguistics.

Lexicology is the part of linguistics which deals with the vocabulary and
charecterics features of words and word groups. It studies words, their nauire
1and meaning words'elements, relations between words, word-groups and the
whole lexicon. All lexical and phraseological units are included in the
vocabulary of the language. . e.g. the word-group "as loose as a goose" means
"clumsy" and is used in a sentence as a predicative (He is as loose as a
goose).

The object of our study will be the vocabulary of Modem English, but
sometimes it will be necessary to go into the history of the English language
and the English people, because without it some phenomenon concerning
the language cannot be understood. It a]so studies the relations existing
between various lexical layers of the English vocabulary, the specific laws and
regulations that govern its development at present time, the source and growth
of the English vocabulary and the changes taken place in its history.

The aims of lexicology are:

1)to identify the essence of words;
2) to determine the properties of the words as elements of the system;
3)to determine the different relationship existing between the words within
the system (similarity of meaning, polarity of meaning,
4)to reveal morhological patterns according to which the words are built;
5)to study the role of the words as components of word-groups and
phraseological units.
e.g in the word "boy" the group of sounds [boi] is associated with the
meaning "a male child up to the age of 17" and with a definite
grammatical employment that is a noun, has a plural form - "boys", a
personal noun, has the genetive case "boy's".
A number of words and expressions have changed their meanmg or have
acquITed a new meaning. E.g. "meat" in OE was used as "xorak", but in
ME it is used as "at".
2. Lexicology. İts link with other branches of Linguistics.
Lexicology is closely connected with other branches of linguistics: the history
of the language, phonetics, stylistics, grammar and so on.
Phonetics for example, investigates the phonetic structure and is concerned
with the study of the out or sound -form of the word: pit - pot; tip - tap – top.
Phonemes have no meaning of their own, but they serve to distinguish between
meanings. hop (jump) - hoop (loud cry) - heap (number of things).
Stress also plays an important role in the discrimination between the words.
'import "im 'port".
Stylistcs-There is also a close relationship between lexicology and stylistics,
which is concerned with a study of a nature, functions and styles of languages For
a reader without some awareness of the connotations and history of words, their
meanings are hidden in their root and their stylistic properties. House - building -
cottage - dig - residence - mansion;
Grammar. It is the study of grammatical structure of language. It is
concerned with the various means of expressing grammatical relations
between words. head - to head; hand - to hand;
3. Synchronic and diachronic approaches in Lexicology.
The synchronic approach is a methodological distinction, which concerned
with the vocabulary of a given language as it exists at a given time, at a
present time. It is Special Descriptive Lexicology that deals with the
vocabulary at a certain time.
The diachronic approach which deals with the changes and the development
of the vocabulary in the course of time. the two approaches and their
interconnection: to beg - beggar. Synchronically, the words to beg and
beggar are related as simple and derived words.
4)Word theory. The structure of English word.
A word is a fundamental unit of the language. It is the smallest unit of
meaning. contrast to a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning. A
word may consist of only one morpheme (e.g. wolf). There are four
fundamental levels in a language which make up four systems: Phonemes
Morphemes,Words, Sentences. write and writer are different words adding
different grammatical functions, words may take functional affixes: write-
writer-wrote. ahead - a head (Go ahead.' - a head of a tree) etc.
Every word has two aspects: a) outer aspect - sound-form; b) inner aspect -
 meaning.Words may express real and unreal notions. Real notions are table,
city, book, the sun, the earth, etc. Unreal notions are devil, whitch, dream, etc.

5. Morphological structure of a word and its structure. Types of Morphemes:

root morphemes and affixational morphemes.
In linguistic terminology the minimal parts of words that we have
analysed above are called morphemes. The morpheme is the smallest
indivisable two-facet meaningful unit. morpheme like a word has form
and meaning. Morphemes cannot be divided into smaller elements. They are
units of the language. like words they have sound form and meaning, but
they are the smallest indivisible language units. E.g. e.nd. ending, endless,
unending, endlessly, etc. Morphemes are subdivided into root morphemes
and affixational morphemes.
Root morphemes can-y the lexical meaning common to a set of semantically
related words constituting one word-cluster: res!, restless, res;(ul,
restive,rest-cure, rest-day, rest-house, resting-place. A root remains after
removing all suffixes. Affixationalmorphemes are divided into
inflectional and derivational affixes. Inflectional affixes have only
grammatical meaning and are used for the formation of word-forms. e.g.
number, tense, etc. Denvational affixes are used for building various types of
words. "write" and "writer".

Distinction is also made of free and bound morphemes. It is obvious that

free morphemes can be found only among root morphemes. e.g. open, door,
table. . Free morphemes fall into two subgroups:
a) lexical morphemes, e.g. boy, man, house. tiger, etc.
b) functional morphemes, e.g. and, because, when, etc.
Bound morphemes are those which do not coincide with
separate word-forms. They cannot stand alone, but are attached to another
form, e.g. re-, -ist, -ed. Bound morphemes are divided into two categories:
derivational (used to make words of a different grammatical category
from the stem, e.g. fool-foolish, pay-payment
inflectional (these are not used to produce new words, but indicate aspects of
the grammatical function of a word e.g. -s, -ed. -ing. -er
 6) Word formation in English.
Word-buildings or word-formations are the process of creating new words
out of the morphemes and stems. There are various types and ways of
building words. The English language used to mention morphological (or
word-derivation), syntactic and lexico-semantic (or word-composition) types
of word-building. Word-derivation means the making of a new word out of
an old one by the addition of prefixes or suffixes. re-write, re-read
Word-composition means the joining together two or more words.
All the ways that are used in the formation of new words are called
productive, and those that are no longer used at present are called
nonproductive.
Productive ways are affixation, compounding (composition), conversion
and shortening (clippings).
Nonproductive ways are sound interchanges, stress in terchanges, sound
imitations (onomotopoeia ) and back forma tion.
7) Word derivation. Affixation.
Word-derivation means the making of a new word out of an old one by the
addition of prefixes or suffixes. re-write, re-read
Affixation is one of the most productive ways of word-buildings
throughout the history of English. It is generally defined as the formation of
words by adding derivational affixes to different types of basis. There are
two types of affixes: derivational and functional affixes. They have different
sources of origin. Some of them are native (-hood, -Iy, -1ess, - some, etc.), some
are Greek (anti-, ex-, un- etc.) Many affixes were once separate words, such
as: -dom (in the meaning of "sentence, judgement"), -hood (in the meaning
of "state, condition") Foreign affixes that had no equivalents in English were
naturalized and used with English words. Sometimes it so happened that the
foreign affix was simple and more convenient than the native one. As the
Latin "re-" has replaced the Old English "again" ( again buy > rebuy).
As a rule, affixation is subdivided into suffixation, prefixation and
infixation. Suffixies added end of the word e.g happiness, freedom, prefixies
added beginning of the word e.g misunderstanding, infexies added in the
middle of the word.
8) Suffixation. Classification of Suffixes.
Modem English possesses a large stock of suffixes (fixed after) which present
material for word-formation. It is the formation of words with the help of
suffixes. E.g Friend-friendship, brother- brotherhood
There is also a group suffix -manship, consisting of -man and -ship.
 Classification of suffixes
a) noun - forming suffixes
b) adjective - forming suffixes
c) verb - forming suffixes
d) adverb - forming sufixes
e) numeral - forming suffixes
Noun•Forming Sufixes
1. denoting agent, doer, belonging. E.g.
-er = writer, -or = sculptor; -ist = socialist, etc.
- ee = employee, -eer =engineer , -ian = Russian. etc.
- ese = Chinese, -ant/-ent = assistant, student, etc.
- Making the feminine gender:
- ess = actress, hostess, waitress, etc.
- Denoting diminutiveness :
- ling = darling; - ie j=== birdie, girlie; - let= booklet; - en =
chicken, etc.
- Suffixes having an intensive force:
- ard = drunkard, etc.
- Suffixes forming abstract nouns {denoting act, state, quality):
-ance/-ence - assistance, experience, etc.
<lorn - freedom, kingdom; -ness = darkness;
Adjective-forming suffixes:
1.Suffixes possessing a quality of any kind:
-al =_formal; -ly = friendly; -ed = wooded, etc.
- y = cloudy, sunny; -ic = public, cleric, sceptic, cynic, celtic, domestic, etc.
-ant/-ent = important, different, dependent, etc.
-some= tiresome, handsome, troublesome. etc.
2.Suffixes possessing a quality in a high degree;
- ful= beautiful, hopeful, powerful, dreadful, etc.
- ous = courageous, glorious, joyous, obvious, serious, etc.
3. Suffixes possessing a quality of a slight degree:
- ish = reddish, childish, greyish. whitish, foolish, etc.
4. Suffixes denoting negative quality:
- less = useless. homeless, hopeless, powerless, senseless, worthless, etc.
5.Suffixes denoting a quality of actions and possibilities:
- ive = active, passive, affirmative, conclusive, talkative, etc.
able/ -ible = unbearable, possible, eatable, fashionable
Verb-forming suffixes
-ate - facilitate, hesitate, etc.
- er = glimmer; -en = shorten, quicken; -fyl -ify = satisfy, classify, etc.
,.._ize/-ise = naturalize, organize, apologize, generalise, etc.
- ish = establish, etc. -

Adverb-forming suffixes
-ly = coldly; -ward /-wards j= eastwards, seaward; etc.
- wise = likewise, otherwise, clockwise, crosswise, etc. There are no
Romanic or Greek suffixes forming adverbs.

Numeral-forming suff"rxes
- fold = twofold, tenfold, etc.
- teen = fourteen; - th :--- seventh, tenth, etc.
- ty = sixty, fifty, etc.
According to the lexico-grammatical character of the base suffixes may be
classified into various groups:
a) sufixes added to verbal stems - deverbal suffixes, such as: -er, -ing, -
ment, -able, etc. reader, suffering, amazement, government, payment,
suitable, comfortable, etc.
b) suffixes added to noun stems - denominal suffixes, such as: -less, -
ish, -some, -Jul, etc. handless. foolish, troublesome, mouthful. etc .
The adjective forming suffix -y has several meanings:
a) composed of full of: bony, stony, etc.
b) characterized by: rainy, cloudy, etc.
c) resembling what the base denotes: inky, bushy, etc.
Adverb - forming suffix -ly can be added either to the adjectival base or
to noun bases: quickly, friendly, etc.
The verb suffix -en attached to noun and adjectival base:
to strengthen, to wooden, to soften, etc.
9) Prefixation
Derivational morphemes affixed before the stem are called prefixes.
There are two types of prefixes;
1) Prefixes used in notional words ar.e proper prefixes which are ·o
ound morphems, e.g. un- (unhappy). dis- (displeased), mis-
(misunderstand), etc.
Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound morpheme-:,, because
they are met in the language as prepositions and prepositions like adverbs:
 out-, over-, up-, under: to look up (independent) - upstairs (semibound
morpheme)
Prefixes of Germanic origin:
It is a non-productive prefix denoting:
I) on, in (OE)= ashore, asleep, etc.
2) of, from (OE) = to arise, etc.
be - It is a non-productive prefix changing the part of speech: befriend, befool,
etc.
un -. It is a productive prefix which gives a negative meaning and shows a
reverse action = unknown, unusual, undo, etc.
for - . It is a non-productive prefix with a negative meaning:
forget, forsake, forbid, etc.
out-. It is a productive prefix (out of) = outcome, outlet, etc. It makes
intransitive verbs transitive: outrun (run ahead of), outlive, etc.
with - It is a non-productive prefix which means "against, opposite, back":
withdraw, withhold, withstand, etc.
on - . It is a non-productive prefix: onlooker, onslaught, onset, etc.
over - It is a producive prefix: overtake, overlook, etc.
in - . It is a non-productive prefix: income, insight, etc. under. - It is a
productive prefix: undergo, undertake, etc. to - . It is a non-ptoductive
prefix: together, toward, etc.
Prefixes of Romanic Origin:
bi-. It is a productive prefix which means "twice", "two":
biweekly, bimonthly, bicycle, etc.
de-.It is a non-productive prefix which means separation (off, away):
depart,
en-lem-. They are non-productive prefixes which mean in, into and
form verbs changing the part of speech: enlarge, enrich, employ,
etc.
in-/il-/ir-lim-/ig-. They are productive or less productive prefixes
meaning:
1) not-, non-, un-: incorrect, illegal, irregular. impossible, ignoble, etc.
2)in-, on-, intro-: inhabit, invade, introduce, introspection, etc.
,,-l: co - it is a productive prefix which means "with", "together":
co-author, co- existance, etc.
Prefixes of Greek Origin:
a . It is a non-productive prefix which means "not, non":
atheist. atheism, etc.
amphi-. It is a non-productive prefix which means " bout, on both sides, of
 both kinds": amphitheatre, etc.
anti - /ant. It is a productive prefix which means "against antiparty,
antifascist, antarctic, antitype, antithesis, antiaircraft, etc.
dis-ldi-. They are non-productive prefixes which mean ''twice, double":
dissyllable, diphthong, etc.

10. Conversion. Diachronic approach to Conversion.

Conversion is a mean of forming new words without adding any derivative
element. In the course of the historical development grammatical forms in
English were lost and another way of forming new words came into being.
Conversion is a type of word-building - not a pattern of structural relationship.
Synchronically both types sleep (n) - sleep (v) and pencil (n) - pencil (v)
must be treated together as cases of patterned homonymy. very (adv) = the
very man (adj) Conversion can be described as a morphological way of
forming words. We can show the following typical semantic relations.
1)Verbs converted from nouns (denominal verbs).
ape (n) = to ape (v) (imitate in a foolish way); butcher
(n) = to butcher (v) (to kill animals for food, cut up a killed animal)
a) instrumental use of the objects:
whip (n) - to whip (v) - (to strike with a whip)
b)addition of the object:
fish (n)- to fish (v) - (to catch or try to catch fish);
2)Nouns converted from verbs
to move (v)- move (n)- (a change of position)
a) agent of the action:
to help (v)- help (n) - (an aid);
3) An adjective preceded by the definite article is often used in the plural to
denote a whole group of persons:
young (adj) the young (n), old (adj) - the old (11),
poor(adj) -the poor (n), rich (adj) - the rich (n).
Partial Conversion- Conversion from noun to adjective and from adjective
to noun is rather controversial one.
Margial conversion- there are some nouns ending in voiceless fricative
consonants [s],[z],[f],[v],[t],[d],[th] e.g advise- advice.
11. Compounding Words. Structure of Compound Words.
In linguistics, a compound is a lexeme that consists of more than one stem.
Structure of compound words: l. the unity of stress;
2. solid or hyphinated spelling;
 3. semantic unity;
4. unity of morphological and syntactical functioning
e.g. hard-cover, best seller
There are two common semantic classification of compounds: an endocentric
and exocentric compounds. An endocentric compound consists of a head. E.g
doghouse, where house is the head and dog is the modifier. It is understood as a
house intended for a dog. But exocentric compounds do not have a head, and their
meaning often cannot guessed from its constituent parts. For example, the English
compound white-collar is neither a kind of collar, nor a white thing. skinhead,
paleface
There are various grammatical types of compounds: they are compound nouns,
compound adjectives, compound verbs, compound adverbs and compound
pronouns. Compound nouns-steam-ship,fountain-pen,classroom.
Compound adjectives- coalblack, card-carrying, goodnatured
Compound adverbs- somewhere, anyhow, however
Compound verbs- to fulfill, to broadcast
Compound pronouns- myself, somebody, whatever
Derivational compounds are words, usually nouns and adjectives consisting of
compound stem and a suffix. E.g house-keeping, blue-eyed
The group consists of reduplicative compounds that falls into three main
subgroups: rcduplicative compounds proper, ablaut combinations and
rhyme combinations.
The repeating of parts of words to make new forms is called reduplication.
E.g blah-blah, hush-hush
Rhyme combinations are also twin forms consisting of two elements, which
are joined to rhyme: faddy-duddy, hanky panky
Ablaut combinations are twin forms consisting of one basic morpheme,e.g
, ding-dong, tick-tock
Exact combinations: Several of the rhyme combinations are baby-talk, e.g
blah-blah, bye-bye, chi-chi
12. Differences of Compound Words and Phraseology.
1. It is impossible to insert any word between compound words.:
blackboard, wastepaper; but in phraseological units it is possible: to
break one's heart = to break his kind heart (ph.un.), but "heart-break"
(CW);
2. As compound words belong to the concrete meaning, they have no
other variant; but phraseological units sometimes have their variants.
For ex. to keep level head = to keep
 cool/cold head(tamkinini saxlamaq); touch the wood =:. touch the
soft/hard wood (goz deymesin), etc. are phraseological units; but touch -
m€ - not (kiisdtim giilil), blue-bell (inci i9eyi), fountain pen (qelem),
blackbird (qara qu ) etc. are compound words and have no other
variants;
3. Compound words are pronounced under one stress, but the
components of phraseological units each have their own stresses.
4. A compound word consists of stems of words, in most cases not its
every component but the whole compound word has only one stress.
But a phraseological unit consists of separate words and its every
component has its own stress and they are written separately and in
many cases we can insert another word between the components of
phraseological units.
13. Compound Words and Free Phrases.
There are two important peculiarities distinguishing compounds in English
from free phrases.
- ICs of English compounds are free forms. i.e. they can be used as independent
words with a distinct meaning of their own. As the English compounds consist
of free forms, it is difficult to distinguish them from phrases;
-separating compounds from phrases and also from derivatives is no easy
task. E.g. starlit (ulduzlu) - star +light (lit) cannot be a phrase because its
second element is the stem of a participle (lit), and a participle cannot be
syntactically modified by a noun;
-stress patterns may distinguish a compound word from a noun phrase
consisting of the same component. For example, a black board, adjective plus
noun, is any board that is black, and has equal stress on both elements. The
compound blackboard, on the other hand, though it may have started out
historically as black board, now is stressed only on the first element, black.
14. Criteria of Compound Words.
There are three criterias of compounds:
the closed or solid forms, in which the words are melded together, such as:
firefly, keyboard. In the "solid" or "closed" forms short words appear together
as one.
2) the hyphenated form, in which two or more words are connected by a
hyphen. Compounds that contain affixes , such as house-build(er) and single-
mind(ed)(ness) Compounds that contain articles (rent-a-cop), prepositions
 (mother-of-pearl), and the conjunction "and" (salt-and-pepper) are also often
hyphenated.
the open or spaced form consisting of newer combinations of usually longer
words, such as: post office, middle class,full moon, lawn tennis, etc.
Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are hyphenated when
compounded with other modifiers: the highest-priced car, the shorter-term loan.
15. Shortening. Types of Shortening.
In the process of communication words and word groups can be shortened.
As a type of word-building, shortening of spoken words is also called clipping or
curtailment,e.g telly-television, bus-omnibus. Clipping consists in the cutting
off of one or several syllables or a word. e.g. sis from sister, Jap from
Japanese. etc.
Traditionally shortenings are classified into several types depending on
which part of the word is clipped. Words fonned by shortening can
be divided into initial (apheresis), final (apocope) and middle
(syncope).
Words that have been shortened at the beginning is called
initial clipping (apheresis). E.g phone (telephone), story
(history), cycle (bicycle),
Words that have been shortened at the end is called final clipping (apocope).E.g
col (college), exam (examination)
If the omission of a letter or unstressed syllable occurs in the middle
of the word, it is called middle clipping (synco e). For ex.: fancy
(fantacy), maths (mathematics)
16. Abbrivations.
An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase. For ex. the
word abbreviation can itself be represented by the abbreviation. abbr.,
abbrv., or abbrev. Graphical abbreviations are the result of shortening of
words and word-groups only in written speech, E.g. Dr -doctor, Mr -
mister, oct october, etc.
Some graphical abbreviations of Latin origin have different English
equivalents in different contexts, e.g. p.m. can be pronounced "in the
aftemoon"(post meridiem) and "after death" (post mortem).
We have several semantic groups of them:
a) days of the week, e.g. Mon -Monday, Tue -Tuesday, etc.
b) names of months, e.g. Apr-April, Aug-Augest, etc.
 c) names of states in USA, e.g. Ala -Alabama, Alas -Alaska,
etc.
d) names of counties in UK, e.g. Yorks - Yorkshire, Berks -
Berkshire, etc.
e) names of address, e.g. Mr.. Mrs., Ms., Dr.. etc.
military ranks. e.g. capt. - captain, col., - colonel,
As a rule, lexical abbreviations do not include functional words (prepositions,
articles, etc), although there are some exceptions, e.g. R. and D. ['a:r;m'di:] -
research and development program, etc
17. Acronyms.
There are two ways to read and pronounce such abbreviations:
As a succession of the alphabetical readings of the constituent letters, it was
spoken above, such as BBC ['b1:'bi:'si;] - British Broadcasting Corporation;
TV ['ti:'vi:] - television , MP [ 'em pi]= Members of Parliament; SOS
[ es ou·es] = Save our Souls. The difference between acronyms and
abbreviations is this: acronyms are proper words created from the initial
letters or two of the words in a phrase and they are pronounced like other
words (NATO, from North Atlantic Treaty Organization). By contrast,
abbreviations do not form proper words and so they are pronounced as
strings of letters. For ex. ' U I S ' A. but there are some abbreviations,
such as: rd - road, str - street, etc. are used in addresses on envelopes, etc.
Acronyms may be formed by a combination of the abbrevation of the first
or the first two members of the phrase with the last member undergoing no
change at all, e.g. V-day = Victory Day, H bomh = hydrogen bomb, etc.
18. Blendings.
So the term "blending" is used to denote the method of merging parts of
words (not morphemes) into one need word. Blends are words formed from a
word-group or two synonyms. In blends two ways of word-building are
combined: abbreviation and composition. Many blends are short-lived.
There are two types of blendings that can be distinguished.
One is additive, the second is restrictive.
The additive type is combined by the conjunction and:
cablegram = cable and telegram. twirL= twist and whirl
The restrictive type is transformable into an attributive phrase, where the first
element serves as modifier of the second:
digicam = digital camera. medicare >medical care
initial abbreviations in which the first element is a letter and the second a
complete word. For example, A-bomb. A-terror, H accident risk, H-test, etc
19. Minor types of Word Formation.
Sound interchange- It is the gradation of sounds occupying one and the same
place in the sound form of one and the same morpheme. The change may
affect the root vowel, as. food n: : feed v; or root consonant as in speak v : :
speech n; or both, as for instance in life n : live v.
we distinguish different parts of speech or transitive and intransitive
verbs. E.g.
a) full (adj) - to _fill (v}, song(n) - to sing (v), food (n) - to feed (v). etc.
b) to sit - to set, to lie - to lay, to fall - to fell, etc.
Stress-inte rehange- E.g. to pre 'sent v = 'present n, to ob'ject v = 'object n,
oex'pon v = 'export n, to im 'port v = 'import n,
Sound-interchange naturally falls into two groups: vowel interchange and
consonant-interchange. Vowel interchange- E.g. long-length, strong-
strength, consonant interchange- use-to use, mouth-to mouth.
Sound Imitation or Onomatopoeia words.
It is the formation of new words on the basis of imitating the sounds of nature,
birds, animals or other lifeless things. They are the naming of an action or a
thing. For instance, words naming sounds and movement of water: babble,
blob, bubble, flush, gurgle, gush. splash. etc.
20. Etymological characteristics of the English vocabulary
Etymology is the study of the history of words and how their formed and
meaning have changed over time. Generally it is learned in the Historical
Lexicology. etymology has two investigation fields: 1) false etymology or folk
etymology and 2) scientific etymology. In folk etymology the historical
development of words are taken into consideration.Folk etymology is
usually used in borrowed words. Bridegroom provides a good example.
What has a groom got to do with getting married? The true explanation is
more prosaic.
The historical development and phonetic changes are essential for
scientific etymology. It is usually divided mto the fo11owing groups: 1)
tive words and 2) borrowed (or loan) words.
1.The native word - stock: which makes up about 30 % of the bulary;
2.The borrowed or loan words, which make up more than 70 of the
English vocabulary.
There include:
most of the auxiliary and modal verbs (shall,will, must, can, may);
 pronouns- personal (except "they" which is a Scandinavian borrowing)
and demonstrative;
prepositions (in, out, on, under);
numerals from one to hundred (one, two, three);
conjunctions (and, but, as).
parts of human body (head, hand, arm,finger, bone, heart);
members of the family and the closest relatives (father, mother, son,
daughter, wife);
natural phenomena and planets (snow, rain, wind, sun, star. frost);
plants (tree, oak,.fir, grass, birch, corn):
time of day (day, night):
Loan words are divided into two groups:
Denizens are words which borrowed from foreign languages, the words are
adapted the new language E.g. leg for !eggs (Iceland); sign for signe
(French);
Aliens are words which borrowed from foreign languages without
change of the foreign spelling and which arc immediately recognised as
foreign words. They have kept their spellings and pronunciation. E.g.
.fiancee, garage, mirage, champagne, leisure, pleasure, etc.

20-21 ile eynidi.

22. Borrowings or loan words in english.

Borrowing words from other languages are characteristic of English
throughout its history. More than two thirds of the English vocabulary are
borrowings. Borrowed words are different from native ones by their
phonetic structure, by their morphological structure and also by their
grammaucal forms. English history is very rich in different types of
contacts with other countries, that's why it is very rich in borrowings. The
Roman invasion, the adoption of Christianity, Scandinavian and
Norman conquests of the British Isles, the development of British
colonialism and trade and cultural relations served to increase immensely
the English vocabulary. The majority of these borrowings are fully
assimilated in English in their pronunciation, grammar, spelling and can
be hardly distinguished from native words. The main languages from
which words were borrowed into English are described, such as: Latin,
Scandinavian, French, Greek, Italian, Spanish. Russian and others.
23. Borrowings. Latin Words.
Borrowing words from other languages are characteristic of English
throughout its history. More than two thirds of the English vocabulary are
borrowings. Latin was not the language of a conquered people. It was the
language of a higher civilization, a civilization from which the Anglo-
Saxons had much to learn. Latin words began to penetrate into the English
vocabulary at an early stage of the Enghsh history. They were brought by
Anglo-Saxons from the continent and some of them existed in the
language of local population of the British Isles because Romans had been
there in the I century and left some traces of their civilization. So these
Latin words refer to the objects of trade. E.g. butter, dish, wine, pepper,
pear, peach, plum, kitchen, kettle, cook, cheese. As Latin was the language of
christianity many religious terms entered the English vocabulary. They are f
monk, priest, angel, anthem, candle, canon, clerk, hymn, minister.
The words of the third layer are often called scientific or bookish, or learned
words. These words were not used as frequently as the words of the Old
English period, therefore some of them were partly assimilated
grammatically. Many of them have retained their Latin aspects. For ex.:
minimum, maximum, datium, antenna, memorandum, etc. Veni, vidi, vici - "I
came, I saw, I conquered".
24. Borrowings. French words.
There are many French words in the English vocabulary. It is due to the fact
that England and France are neighbouring countries and the stage of their
historical development. French words can be grouped according to some
definite spheres of the English life to that time:
Words referring to the spheres of government, state, feudal, titles. E.g.
government, administer, crown, state, empire.
Military tenns: army, navy, battle, victory, enemy, peace
Juridical process (law tenns); to sentence, judge, justice, to condemn.
Finance: treasure, wage, poverty, etc.
Morality: gentle, patience, courage, mercy
Words relating to food and cooking: lunch, dinner, appetite, roast, stew,
etc.
The names of some dishes and food:
feast, appetite, tart, sole, sturgen. Sardine
English contains many words of French origin, such as art, collage,
competition, force. machine, police, publicity, role, routine, table and many
anglicized French words.
 25. Borrowings. Scandinavian Words
English belongs to the Germanic group of languages and there are
borrowmgs from Scandinavian, German and Holland languages.
Scandinavians often made invasion into some countries of Europe and into
England beginning with the VIII century. However, there were also many
words in the two languages which were different and some of them were
borrowed into English as nouns: bull. cake, egg, kid, ; adjectives: flat, ill,
happy, low, odd. ugly, wrong. low, sly; verbs: call, die, quess, get. give
Scandinavians and Englishmen had the same way of life, their cultural level was
the same, they had much in common in their literature, therefore there were many
words in these languages which were almost identical, e.g. syster (sweoster)
- sister_...Jiser (fisc),fish, felaqi (le/awe)- fellow, anger, cake, call, kill,
husband, raise, root, etc.
Many of Scandinavian words begin with the following letter combinations:
sk = skin, sky, skirt, ski, skill, etc.
sc = scream. screen, scrape, scrub, score, scowl, scorch, etc.
Sometimes it is difficult to say whethera word is a Scandinavian or English
because they have common words.
26. Native Words.
The native words form the main body of the English language. Words of
native origin consist of very ancient elements - Indo-European, Germanic and
West Germanic cognates. Anglo-Saxon word-stock is about 25-30 %.
There include:
most of the auxiliary and modal verbs (shall,will, must, can, may);
pronouns- personal (except "they" which is a Scandinavian borrowing)
and demonstrative;
prepositions (in, out, on, under);
numerals from one to hundred (one, two, three);
conjunctions (and, but, as).
National words of Anglo-Saxon origin include such groups as words
denoting parts of human body (head, hand, arm,finger, bone, heart);
members of the family and the closest relatives (father, mother, son,
daughter, wife);
plants (tree, oak,.fir, grass, birch, corn):
time of day (day, night):
heavenly bodies (sun, moon, star):
numerous adjectives, qualities and properties (green, blue, white, small,
thick, high, good, old, young, cold, hot, long);
seasons of the year (winter. spring, summernatural phenomena and planets
(snow, rain, wind, sun, star. frost);
Most of the English native words have undergone great changes in their
semantic structure and as a result nowadays they are polysemantic. E.g. the
word .finger does not only denote a part of a hand as in OE, but also:
I) the part of a glove covering one of the fingers;
2) a fingerlike part in various machines;
3)a hand of a clock;
4) an index;
5)a unit of a measurement.
27. Assimilation of Borrowings.
When words migrate from one language into another they assimilate
themselves to their new environment and get adapted to the norms of that
language.
Assimilation of borrowings depends on the fo11owing factors:
1-from what group of languages the word was borrowed: if the word
belongs to the same group of languages to which the borrowing language
belongs
2-in what way the word is borrowed: orally or in the written form, words
borrowed orally, are assimilated quicker
3-how often the borrowing is used in the language: the greater the
frequency of its usage, the quicker it is assimilated;
how long the word lives in the language: the longer it lives, the more
assimilated it is.
Borrowings enter the language in two ways: through oral speech (by
immediate contact between peoples) and through written speech (by
indirect contact through books, etc.)
Words borrowed orally (-inch, mil, street), Written borrowing (e.g. Fr.-
communiqu.:e,ballet, chauffeur, regime
The linguists distinguish phonetical, grammatical and lexical assimilation
of borrowings.
Phonetic assimilation comprising changes in sound-form and stress is
the most conspicuous. Sounds that were alien to the English language were
fitted into its own sounds. For ex.: the letter e in recent French borrowing
alien to English speech is rendered with the help of [ci]: communique,
cafe,
Grammatical assimilation. When words from other languages were
introduced mto English they lost their fonncr grammatical categories and
acquired new grammatical categories by analogy with other English
words.
E.g. vacuum (Lac.) - vacua and vacuums, or Russian word sputnik is used in six
cases, but in English it is used only in two cases.
Lexical assimiliation. When a word is taken over into another language,
its semantic structure undergoes great changes.
Polysemantic words usually adopted o n l y - in one or two of their meanings.
The words cargo and cask are highly polyscmantic in Spanish , but they
were adopted only in one of their meanings - the goods carried in a ship, a
barrel for holding liquids.
28. The Stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary (Neologisms).
The vocabulary of any language doesn't remain the same, but changes
constantly. New notions come into being, requiring new words to name
them. A neologism is a word, a term, or a phrase which has been recently created
often to apply to new concepts. Neologisms are ecpecially useful in identifying
inventions, new phenomena, or old ideas which have taken on a new cultural
context. E.g unemployment - unused; the poor - the underprivileged.
The intense development of science and industry has called forth the
invention. E.g computer, tape-recorder, super-market
The 19th century has brought large numbers of new words, special politics and
technical terms in various branches of science. E.g.
capitalism, communism, proletariat, automat, telegraph. telephone, aviation,
etc. Neologisms are words which have recently appeared in the language.

29. Archaisms.
It must be noted that some words may drop out of the language altogether.
These are called archaic words. They arc words which have come out of
active usage. . So archaisms are words w h i c h are no longer used in
everyday speech, which have been ousted by their synonyms. Most them are
lexical archaisms and they are stylistics synonyms. Such as: steed (horse),
slay (kill), behold (see), woe (sorrow) etc. There arc also grammatical archaic
words: Hath – has, Doth – does.

30. Semasiology. Types of Meaning.

The branch of linguistics that is devoted to the study of meaning is known as
semasiology. It does not mean that we need not pay attention to the
grammatical meaning. On the contrary, grammatical meaning must be taken
into consideration. Onomasiology (the meaning of the names) is the opposite
approach to semasiology.
 Linguists distinguish primary meaning and secondary meaning in a
word. The primary meaning appears earlier than the secondary meaning,
that's why the primary meaning is called the original meaning of the word.
The secondary meamng is derived from the original meaning.
Linguists distinguish direct or nominative meaning and figurative
meaning in a word. The meaning is nominative when it nominates the
object without the help of context.
The meaning is figurative when the obJect is named and at the same
time characterized through its similarity with another object.
In the latest research works linguists distinguish denotative and
connotative meanings in a word. The denotative meaning expresses a
notion or an actually existing thing of reality (a book, a tree, friendship
etc.), and makes the communication possible.
31. Dennotational and Connotational Meanings.
Lexical meaning may be analysed as including denotational and
connotational components. As it was mentioned above, one of the functions
of the words is to denote things, concepts, and so on. The component of the
lexical meaning which makes communication possible is the denotational
meanning. E.g A small animal with soft fur and sharp teeth and claws, ofien
kept as a pet in buildings to catch mice. For ex.: the word hospital. What is
thought and felt when the word hospital is used?
The architect who built it; a place where people are treated for, nursed
through illness or injuries. There are four main types of connotations: stylistic,
emotional, evaluable, expressive.
1.The stylistic connotations are understood in a synonymic group. So
horse, steed, nag(s[) and gee-gee are used in different styles.
2 Emotional connotation is acquired by the word as a result of its
frequent use corresponding to emotional situation.
E.g. beseech means "to ask eagerly and also anxiously".
3 Evaluative connotations express approval and disappro val. E.g. Shut
up! ( When somebody is displeased).
4 Intensifying connotations (expressive, emphatic). E.g.
magnificent, splendid are used colloqually as terms of exaggeration.

32.Result of Semantic Changes.

The etymological analysis make it possible to see
 the development of the meaning of the word and at the result can be
generally observed the changes of the denotational meaning of the word.
According to the types of change there are four maJor tendencies:
1) extention of meaning (generalization);
2)narrowing of meaning (specialization);
3)degradation of meaning (pejoration);
4)elevation of meaning (amelioration).
extention of meaning (generalization)-If a word begins to be applied to wider
group of objects or phenomena its meaning is extended. Extention of meaning
means widening of the word. The word season originally meant only "the
period of sowing", but now it is used to denote all the four parts of the year.
narrowing of meaning (specialization)-If a word begins to be applied to a
narrower (or a less) number of objects or phenomena its meaning is narrowed.
In early times, a human or animal body, living or dead, was called corpse.
Now this general term has been specialized to mean a dead body, usually that
of human being. Or the word meat originally meant any kind of food, but now
it means only.flesh of some animals.
Degradation is such a process that a word falls into disrepute for some
reasons Words once respectable may become less respectable E.g. the word
villain meant "a man working on a farm or coun house" but now used as
scoundrel. The word knave in Old English meant a boy, a serva boy. the
word knave descended to meaning rascal. Rascal originally meant yaramaz.
In the course of time some words have completely changed their meanings.
The process known elevation or amelioration is opposite of degradation. E.g.
knight once meant a boy. Then it meant servant and corning through
military associations it received new meaning: a tittle of rank.

33. Extension of Meaning (Generalization)

34)narrowing of meaning (specialization);
35)degradation of meaning (pejoration);
36)elevation of meaning (amelioration).
37. Semantic groups of words (synonyms, antonyms, paronyms).
Synonyms are different words with almost identical or similar meanings.
there are three functions in speech:
a) the function of substitution (to avoid repetition and monotony);
b) the function of procession;
c) the expressive stylistic function.
 He spoke to me strictlv and severely
Types of synonyms-
Ideographic synonyms -refer to the same general concept, but they
differ slightly in the denotational meaning adding something to
the general notion. look - conscious and direct endeavour to see;
glance - a look which is quick and sudden;
glimpse - a look implying only momentary sight;
stare - a look with a long duration without taking one's eyes, etc.
Stylistic synonyms-They are words of the same meaning but used in
different speech styles.
neutral poetical bookish official colloqual
house mansion building residence digs
Absolute synonyms are words identical in meaning without any difference.
Such as: pants - trousers, end – finish
The following four points are usually considered as sources of synonyms:
borrowings, dialectisms, wordbuildings, euphemisms.
1-Borrowings from French, Latin and Greek are the most numerous ones
in English. They often express an idea or name a thing for which there exists
already a native word. Thus synonyms appear in the vocabulary.
2-Dialectisms are words from local dialects which have entered the English
vocabulary as regular words. E.g. lass - girl; bonny - pretty; daft - wild,·
3-Wordbuilding procession which is at work in the English language, creates
synonyms to words already in the use. Five cases are to be considered in
use:
a) composite or phrasal verbs (verbs with postpositives):
to choose - to pick out ; to abandon - to give up; to enter
- to go in, precipitation - to fall out etc.
b) compounding:
resistance - fight back; dreamer - star-gazer; the shivers -
pins and needles, etc.
c) convers10n:
to work - work; love - to love;
d) set expression:
to laugh - to give a laugh, to walk - to take a walk; to hesitate - to be in
two minds; to exaggerate - to make a mountain out of a molehill; to
decide - to make up one's mind, etc.
e) affixation or loss of affixes:
anxiety - anxiousness, amongst - among,
4-euphemisms: queer - is a euphemism for mad; intoxicated - for drunk,·
 naked - in one 's birthday suit, etc.
Antonym - a word that expresses a meaning opposed to the meaning of
another word. E.g easy - difficult, black - white, tall – low.
The characteristic features of antonyms are the followings:
1. Antonyms belong to the same part of speech;
2. Unlike synonyms, antonyms do not differ either in style,
emotional colouring or in distribution.
3. Antonyms are interchangeable at least in some contexts.
4. Antonyms form binary opposition, the distinctive feature of
which is semantic polarity.
5. Notions expressed by antonyms may be contrary or
contradictory.
When we say hot we mean not cold, enemy - not a friend.
Antonyms are devided into gradable and non-gradable antonyms. Gradable
antonyms are opposites along a scale in that when someone says "I am not
high" it does not necessarily mean "I am short". Non-gradable antonyms
do not present such flexibility; when we say "I am married" the only
antonym available in this sentence would be "I am single.
PARONYMs-A word that is related to another word and derives from the
same root, e.g. a cognate word.
Paronyms are divided under the following types:
l . Words having one and the same root, but different derivational prefixes,
e.g. precede - avval getmak, qabaq olmaq, qabaqca olmaq, and proceed -
davam etdirmak, davam etmak
2.Words having one and the same derivational suffixes,e.g. popular -
malum, geniş yayılmış, , populous - ahalisi six olan; gur, izdiham
3.Words derived from different roots, e.g. compliment - tamamlama,
compliment - kompliment (xos soz, iltifat).
Some define paronyms as words of the same root, others as words having the
same sound form. For ex.: seize and cease , 'carrier(hambal) and
ca'reer(mansab, sanat, pe a), etc.
38. Synonyms. Types of Synonyms.
Synonyms are different words with almost identical or similar meanings.
d) the function of substitution (to avoid repetition and monotony);
e) the function of procession;
f) the expressive stylistic function.
He spoke to me strictlv and severely
Ideographic synonyms -refer to the same general concept, but they
differ slightly in the denotational meaning adding something to the
general notion. look - conscious and direct endeavour to see;
glance - a look which is quick and sudden;
glimpse - a look implying only momentary sight;
stare - a look with a long duration without taking one's eyes, etc.
Stylistic synonyms-They are words of the same meaning but used in
different speech styles.
neutral poetical bookish official colloqual
house mansion building residence digs
Absolute synonyms are words identical in meaning without any difference.
Such as: pants - trousers, end – finish
39. Synonyms. Sources of Synonyms
Synonyms are different words with almost identical or similar meanings.
g) the function of substitution (to avoid repetition and monotony);
h) the function of procession;
i) the expressive stylistic function.
He spoke to me strictlv and severely
The following four points are usually considered as sources of synonyms:
borrowings, dialectisms, wordbuildings, euphemisms.
1-Borrowings from French, Latin and Greek are the most numerous ones
in English. They often express an idea or name a thing for which there exists
already a native word. Thus synonyms appear in the vocabulary.
2-Dialectisms are words from local dialects which have entered the English
vocabulary as regular words. E.g. lass - girl; bonny - pretty; daft - wild,·
3-Wordbuilding procession which is at work in the English language, creates
synonyms to words already in the use. Five cases are to be considered in
use:
a) composite or phrasal verbs (verbs with postpositives):
to choose - to pick out ; to abandon - to give up; to enter
- to go in, precipitation - to fall out etc.
b) compounding:
resistance - fight back; dreamer - star-gazer; the shivers -
pins and needles, etc.
c) convers10n:
to work - work; love - to love;
d) set expression:
to laugh - to give a laugh, to walk - to take a walk; to hesitate - to be in
 two minds; to exaggerate - to make a mountain out of a molehill; to
decide - to make up one's mind, etc.
e) affixation or loss of affixes:
anxiety - anxiousness, amongst - among,
4-euphemisms: queer - is a euphemism for mad; intoxicated - for drunk,·
naked - in one 's birthday suit, etc.
40.Antonyms.
Antonym - a word that expresses a meaning opposed to the meaning of
another word. E.g easy - difficult, black - white, tall – low.
The characteristic features of antonyms are the followings:
1. Antonyms belong to the same part of speech;
2. Unlike synonyms, antonyms do not differ either in style,
emotional colouring or in distribution.
3. Antonyms are interchangeable at least in some contexts.
4. Antonyms form binary opposition, the distinctive feature of
which is semantic polarity.
5. Notions expressed by antonyms may be contrary or contradictory.

When we say hot we mean not cold, enemy - not a friend.

Antonyms are devided into gradable and non-gradable antonyms. Gradable
antonyms are opposites along a scale in that when someone says "I am not
high" it does not necessarily mean "I am short". Non-gradable antonyms
do not present such flexibility; when we say "I am married" the only
antonym available in this sentence would be "I am single.
41. Polysemy. Homonymy
while analysing the word meaning we observe that words are not
units of a single meaning. They are monosemantic and
polysemantic. If the word has one meaning is called monosemantic,
e.g terms but If the word has one or more meanings are called
polysemantic. E.g The word table has some meanings: a piece of
furniture, the persons seated at a table, the food put on the table,
meals; a thin _fiat piece made of stone or wood; an orderly
arrangement of facts or figures;
The words identical in sound form, but different in meanings are
traditionally termed homonyms. E.g I-eye; too-two
"Homonym" can be used to mean a homograph and homophone.
Homographs (literally "same writing") are words identical in spelling,
but different both in their sound form and meaning. E.g bow [bou] - a
 piece of wood curved by a string and used for shooting arrows; bow
[haw] - the bending of the head or body; tear [tia] - a drop of water that
comes from the eyes (goz ya 1), tear (tea] - to pull apart by force
(c1rmaq);
Homophones- are words identical in sound form, different both in
spelling and in meaning. For ex.: sea-see; hear-here, son-sun,
read-red.
There are two types of homonyms:
1) 1-full or perfect homonyms- are such words identical both in spelling
and sound fonn, but different in meaning: case something that is happened,
case - a box
2-partial homonyms are subdivided into three groups.
1) lexical, lexico-grammatical and grammatical homonyms:
a) lexical homonyms: in which the part of speech meaning of the words
and their paradigms are identical. They differ only in lexical meanings:
seal - (mohiir); seal - (suiti).
b) lexico-grammatical homonyms differ both in lexical and m grammatical
meanings. blue (mavi) - blew (past tense of "blow");
c)grammatical homonyms are the homonyms of different word-
forms of one and the same word: brothers (plural) - brother's
(Posess. Case).
42. Homonymy. Sources of Homonyms.
"Homonym" can be used to mean a homograph and homophone.
Homographs (literally "same writing") are words identical in spelling,
but different both in their sound form and meaning. E.g bow [bou] - a
piece of wood curved by a string and used for shooting arrows; bow
[haw] - the bending of the head or body; tear [tia] - a drop of water that
comes from the eyes (goz ya 1), tear (tea] - to pull apart by force
(c1rmaq);
Homophones- are words identical in sound form, different both in
spelling and in meaning. For ex.: sea-see; hear-here, son-sun,
read-red.
There are two types of homonyms:
2) 1-full or perfect homonyms- are such words identical both in spelling
and sound fonn, but different in meaning: case something that is happened,
case - a box
2-partial homonyms are subdivided into three groups.
2) lexical, lexico-grammatical and grammatical homonyms:
 a) lexical homonyms: in which the part of speech meaning of the words
and their paradigms are identical. They differ only in lexical meanings:
seal - (mohiir); seal - (suiti).
b) lexico-grammatical homonyms differ both in lexical and m grammatical
meanings. blue (mavi) - blew (past tense of "blow");
d)grammatical homonyms are the homonyms of different word-
forms of one and the same word: brothers (plural) - brother's
(Posess. Case).
Sources of Homonyms
phonetic changes, which undergoes in the course of their historical
development. E.g night and knight Diverging meaning development of a
polysemantic word and converging sound development of two or more
different words are also the main sources of homonyms. E.g flower and
fl,our which originally were one word (ME. flour, cf OF. flour, flat, flos -
florem) meaning "the flower" and the finest part of wheat.
Borrowing is another source of homonyms. A borrowed word may
duplicate in form either a native word or borrowing. E.g rite (n) -to write (v)
- right (adj),
43. Paronyms.7
PARONYMs-A word that is related to another word and derives from the same
root, e.g. a cognate word.
Paronyms are divided under the following types:
l . Words having one and the same root, but different derivational prefixes,
e.g. precede - avval getmak, qabaq olmaq, qabaqca olmaq, and proceed -
davam etdirmak, davam etmak
2.Words having one and the same derivational suffixes,e.g. popular -
malum, geniş yayılmış, , populous - ahalisi six olan; gur, izdiham
3.Words derived from different roots, e.g. compliment - tamamlama,
compliment - kompliment (xos soz, iltifat).
Some define paronyms as words of the same root, others as words having the
same sound form. For ex.: seize and cease , 'carrier(hambal) and
ca'reer(mansab, sanat, pe a), etc.
33) Narrowing of meaning (specialization)
Word meaning is liable to change in the course of historical
development of the language. The etymological analysis make it
possible to see the development of the meaning of the word and at the
result can be generally observed the changes of the denotational
meaning of the word. According to the types of change there are four
major tendencies:
1) Extention of meaning (generalization)
2) Narrowing of meaning (specialization)
3) Degradation of meaning (pejoration)
4) Elevation of meaning (amelioration)
If a word begins to be applied to a narrower (or a less) number of objects
or phenomena its meaning is narrowed. Sometimes it is called
specialization of meaning. In the process of historical development, the
word loses one or many of its meanings or becomes the international
word. So, a word of wide usage is restricted in the application and comes
to be used only in a special sense.
In early times, a human or animal body, living or dead, was
called “corpse”. Now this general term has been specialized to mean a
dead body, usually that of human being. The word “meat” originally
meant any kind of food, but now it means only flesh of some
animals. The word “deer” meant any kind of animal, but when French
word “beast” was borrowed, the meaning of the deer was narrowed. The
other examples: breadoriginally meant “a small piece”, fruit – “a product
or smth enjoyed”, wife – simply woman, now restricted “to a married
woman”, garage – “any safe place”, now building for housing
automobiles.
Other examples which alongside new meaning keeps old one: room
– original “space”; corn original “grain” 2 “the seed of any cereal
nd

plant”.
As a special group belonging to the same type one can mention of proper
nouns from common nouns chiefly in toponymics , i.e. place names .
E.g: the City - the business part of London; the Highlands - the
mountainous part of Scotland; Oxford – University town in England
(from ox+ford place where oxen could ford the river).
34) Degradation of meaning
Word meaning is liable to change in the course of historical
development of the language. The etymological analysis make it
possible to see the development of the meaning of the word and at the
result can be generally observed the changes of the denotational
meaning of the word. According to the types of change there are four
major tendencies:
1) Extention of meaning (generalization)
2) Narrowing of meaning (specialization)
3) Degradation of meaning (pejoration)
4) Elevation of meaning (amelioration)
Degradation is such a process that a word falls into disrepute (nüfuzdan
düşmək) for some reasons. Words once respectable may become less
respectable. Some words reach such a low point that it is considered not
correct to use them. The words have lowered as a result of contact with
the ruling class. There are words shich originally have their neutral
meaning but in ME they are used, with an unfavourable implication. For
ex: the word “villain” (yaramaz) meant “a man working on a farm or
country house”. Such person, especially ruling clas was considered by
his social superiors to have low sense of morality and that’s why the
word changed its meaning into “scoundrel”. The word “knave” in
OEmeant a boy, servant boy. According to masters(ağalar) most of the
servants boys were rouges(fırıldaqçı), the word descended to the
meaning“rascal” (kələkbaz). Sometimes, only the derivatives of the
word have a degradating meaning, but the word itself is natural and
keeps its original meaning. For ex:mood – moody(of bad temper)=
məyus, qəmgin.
The following words are examples of degredation of meanings:
Gossip – in OE meant a God parent Silly – in OE meant happy
Idiot – in OE a private person (greek) Boor (rərbiyəsiz) – in OE
meant a farmer
35) Elevation of meaning
Word meaning is liable to change in the course of historical
development of the language. The etymological analysis make it
possible to see the development of the meaning of the word and at the
result can be generally observed the changes of the denotational
meaning of the word. According to the types of change there are four
major tendencies:
1) Extention of meaning (generalization)
2) Narrowing of meaning (specialization)
3) Degradation of meaning (pejoration)
4) Elevation of meaning (amelioration)
In the course of time some words have completely changed their
meanings. It happened because people’s attitude to some things or
phenomena have changed. The process known as elevation is opposite of
degradation. Some highly complimentary words were originally applied
to things of slight importance. Some words have risen as a result of
contact with the ruling class. For ex: knight (cəngavər), once meant a
boy. Then it took on a new meaning: a tittle of rank.
Minister – earlier times meant “servant”, now means an important public
official
Comrade (yoldaş) – from Spanish for “roomate”
Smart – meant “causing pain” now means “chich”.
Fame – (Lat.) originally meant only “report, common talk, rumour”.
Nice — in earlier times meant “foolish”.
Lord – (Christian word), the God; The lord’s day – bazar gwnw; to lord
– idarə etmək, lord – inzibati vəzifə tutan şəxs
Queen – 1)kraliça 2)ilahə 3)gözəllik
The word passed through different stages of radation and become
elevated om meaning.
42) Paronyms
A paronym in linguistics may refer to two different things:
1. A word that is related to another word and creates from the same
root, e.g. a cognate (eyni kökdən olan) word
2. Words which are almost homonyms, but have slightdifferences in
spelling or pronunciation and have different meanings.
So, words that are related in origin, sound form and meaning and
therefore responsible liable to be mixed but in fact different in meaning
and usage are called paronyms. Paronyms are at the same time called
false homonyms. Poetic paronyms is specific mainly for the poetic
diction. It is called contextual paronyms. Paronyms are divided under
the following types:
1. Words having one and the same root, but different derivational
prefixes. E.g precede - əvvəl getmək, qabaq olmaq and proceed-davam
etdirmək, davam etmək, anterior - qabaq, ön, qabaqkı, interior-
daxili,daxili hissə.
2. Words having one and the same root but different derivational
suffixes. E.g. popular - məhşur, hamıya məlum, geniş yayılmış,
populous - əhalisi sıx olan, gur, izdihamlı.
3. Words derived from different roots, e.g. compliment - əlavə etmə
(edilmə), tamamlama, compliment -kompliment (xoş söz, iltifat).
Different authors suggest various definitions. Some of them define
paronyms as words of the same root, others as words having the same
sound form. For ex: seize and cease, ‘carrier and ca’reer.
Allonym is a term offered by Shextman denoting contextual pairs
semantically coordinated like slow and careful, quick and
important. Allonym is a word that differs in spelling and pronunciation
from all other words. No doubt in ordinary usage, we shall have little
need for this term, although it would simplify lexical explanation if one
could start by making the claim that the most words in English are
allonyms.
43) Semantic transposition of words (metaphor, metonymy)
Linguists distinguish “direct or nominative meaning”and “figurative
meaning” in a word. The meaning is nominative when it nominates the
object without the help of the context. The meaning is figurative when
the object is named and at the same time characterized through its
similarity with another object. Nominative meaning may be concrete and
abstract. Figurative meanings may be metaphoric and metonymyc.
Whenthe words used literally they have their natural, usual, direct
meaning, when used figuratively they have a nonliteral, suggestive
meaning. The most frequent transfers are based on associations of
similarities. These types of transfer are wellknown as figures of speech
and called metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole, euphemism, litotes, irony,
synecdoche and zoosemy.
Metaphor – is an analogy between two objects or ideasexpressed by the
use of a word instead of another. The English metaphor derives from the
16 century Old French metaphore. So, a metaphor is a transfer of name
th

based on the association of similarity. And it is actually a hidden

comparisons that show how two things that are not alike in most ways
are similar in one important way. Metaphor is the commonest of all
figures of speech. It gives vivacity and expressiveness to speech. It is an
effective semantic way contributing much to the expressive power of
language.
1.Metaphors may be simple and complex. Simple metaphors are based
on the resemblance between physical properties, appearance of
objects, such as: colour, form, movement position and etc. For ex:
a bridge = 1) körpü 2) bənd 3) xərək 4) burunun üst hissəsi (eynəkdə)
a ball = 1) şar 2) top 3) yumaq a skeleton = 1) skelet 2) arıq
(adam)
2. Metaphors based on the resemblance of movement. For ex:
foxtrot= 1) tülkü yerişi 2) fokstrot (müasir rəqslərdən birinin adı,
a slow coach= kareta, lǝng gedən adam
3. Metaphors based on the resemblance of colour:
Violet= 1) bənövşə 2) bənövşə rəngi Lilac= 1) yasəmən 2) yasəmən
rəngi
4.Metaphors based on the resemblance of position:
Nose= 1)burun 2) gəminin, qayığın, təyyarənin və.s ön hissəsi
Head= 1)baş 2) qabaq 3) yuxarı hissə
Behind the scenes = 1)məxfi, gizli, səhnə arxasında
Many simple metaphors are used so often that they fade away (tədricən
yoxa çıxmaq- disappear) and lose their metaphorical expressiveness.
E.g: the legs of a table
Complex metaphors are based on various complicated images defying
classification: the key to a mystery, the light of knowledge.
Standing dish= 1)həmişəki adi xörək, 2)adi söhbətin mövzusu
A leaky vessel= 1)su buraxan gəmi,vatan gəmi 2)çox danışan adam
There are many set expressions, proverbs that contain the names of
animals, birds and etc. used metaphorically. Ex: snake in the grass - gizli
düşmən, to take a bee line-kəsə yolla getmək.
Some proper names, have become common on the basis
of metaphor: Romeo, Don Juan, Don Quixote.
Metaphor not only extend the use of words, also enrich the vocabulary.
E.g. My dad was boiling mad - (It implies that my dad was very, very
angry). His ideas was diffucult to swallow (it implies that his idead was
hard to acccept).
Metaphor can be poetic and linguistic.
Poetic metaphor: The world is a bundle of hay. Mankind are the asses
who pull (Byron).
Linguistic, metaphor: foot (of a mountain), leg (of a table), eye (of a
needle), nose (of a kettle, ship) etc.
There is a semantic motivation in metaphor. So that it is based on the co-
existence (birgə mövcudluq) of direct and figurative meanings. E.g. a
mouth is used to denote a part of body, and at the same time it can
metaphorically apply to any opening or outlet: the mouth of a river, the
mouth of a cave, etc. A jacket is a short coat and also a protective cover
for a book. In their direct meanings neither the mouth nor the jacket is
motivated.
Metonymy – is the device in which the name of one thing is changed for
that of another, to which it is related by association of ideas, relationship
and etc.The term “metonymy” is also derived from the Greek, which
means “change and name”. Metonymy is a transference of meaning
which is based on contiguity.
Contiguity of meaning or metonymy may be described as a semantic
process of associating into referents one of which makes part of the
other is closely connected with it. The transfer may be conditioned by
spatial, temporal, causal, symbolic, instrumental, functional and other
connections.
Spatial relations: present when the name of the place is used for the
people occupying: the chair may mean the chairman.
A causal relationship: fear – feer “danger, unexpected
attack”, “frown” is used paralinguistics.
Functional connection: the things substituting one another in human
practice: the early instrument for writing was a feather. We write with
pens that are made of different materials and have nothing in common
with feathers except the function.
Symbolic connection: the crown for monarchy.Instrument for the
product, hand for handwriting.
Metonymy may be based on different relations. The followings are the
most common categories:
1.The name of the container is used instead of the thing contained: The
kettle boils (instead of the water boils); He drank a cup (instead of he
drank a cup of tea, coffee, water). The names of various organs are used
in the same way: ear, eye, heart. Such as: He has a weak eye (instead of
eye-sight).
2. Sometimes the change of meaning is reserved and the name of the
thing contained is used instead of the container. E.g. School=as bulding
and as knowledge
3. The name of the place is used instead of what is going in that place or
instead of a person who is in this place. E.g. Bush = 1) kol-kos, 2) avara
Chair = 1) stul, 2) kafedra (şəxslər)
4. A part stands for the whole. ABC = 1.əlifba 2. əlifba kitabı.
5. The whole stands for a part. The names of various animals are
commonly used to mean fox = 1) tülkü, 2) xəz, tülkü dərisindən
hazırlanmış xəz
6. Association between instrument and agent: pen = 1) qələm, 2) yazıçı
The best pens of the day - The best writers of the day.
7. Association between cause and effect Here one meaning represents
the cause and the result. E.g. cold= soyuq (cause) soyuqlama,
soyuqdəymə (result).
8. The name of the inventer is used instead of what he has invented. E.g.
Mackintosh, Volt, Diesel
Also, The White House said would be a metonymy for the president and
his staff, because the White Hous isn’t part of them, but is closely
associated with them. The main characteristic feature of metonymy is
that, one of the components existing together, is imagined in mind: He
knows Sabir by hearts (his works).
44) Semantic transposition of words (Hyperbole, the
synecdoche)
Linguists distinguish “direct or nominative meaning” and “figurative
meaning” in a word. The meaning is nominative when it nominates the
object without the help of the context. The meaning is figurative when
the object is named and at the same time characterized through its
similarity with another object. Nominative meaning may be concrete and
abstract. Figurative meanings may be metaphoric and metonymyc.
When the words used literally they have their natural, usual, direct
meaning, when used figuratively they have a nonliteral, suggestive
meaning. The most frequent transfers are based on associations of
similarities. These types of transfer are wellknown as figures of speech
and called metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole, euphemism, litotes, irony,
synecdoche and zoosemy.
Hyperbole is a figure of speech and the use of exaggeration (şişirtmə) as
rhetorical device. It may be used to create strong feelings or to create a
strong impression, but isn’t meant to be taken literally. It is frequently
used in fiction and poetry but not in scientific texts. Colloquial speech is
rich in hyperbolic expressions, such as: newspapers and other media use
hypebole when speaking of an anccident, to increase the impact of the
story. It serves to convey intensity of feeling. One of the most typical
features of hyperbole is its emotional saturation.
Examples of hyperbole are: a thousand and one care; I haven’t seen you
for ages; the waves were mountain; I’d give the world to see her Million
of reasons; I beg a thousand pardons; I’ve told you fifty times; A
thousand thanks. There are poetic hyperbole and linguistic hyperbole.
There are poetic and linguistic hyperboles. The difference
between them: Linguistic hyperbole lies in the fact that the former
creates an image, whereas denotative meaning quickly fades out and the
corresponding exaggerating words serve only as general signs of
emotion itself. Some of the most frequent emphatic words are:
Marvellous! Amazing!Absolutely! Lovely!
Hyperbole often loses its force and all its hyperbolic character. Some
hyperbolic expressions have become so well established in popular use.
Hyperbole is often used in description. It emphasizes some qualities of a
person or thing by exaggerating them. It can also be used to describe a
person’s emotion. Hyperbole is a comparison like similes and
metaphors, but is ridiculous. For ex: I am so hungry I could eat a horse; I
have a million things to do; I had a ton of homework; I will die; He is
older than the hills.
Hyperbole is very common in both everyday speech and in written
English. In written English, it tends to be used within informal settings
or for literary effect. For ex, to use hypebole within business English, it
could be unprofessional. That’s why hyperbole is a literary tool or a very
informal tool and it should not be used in formal settings.
Synecdoche the simplest case of metonomy is called
synecdoche, the meaning of the term is “receiving
together”. Synecdoche means giving the part for the whole or vice
versa (əksinə).
Here we have:
1)the sign for the thing signified. E.g. “from the cradle to the
grave” – from childhood to death. “gray hair” –old age or old men,
should be respected.
2) the names of various organs are used in the same way. E.g. “an ear”
- for music, “a ready tongue” – for head, it is often used for
brains, “heart” – for emotion
3) a part of species substituted for a whole. He manages to earn his
bread (necessities of life).
Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which:
- a term denoting a part of something is used to refer to the whole thing
-a term denoting a thing (a “whole”) is used to refer to part of it
-a term denoting a material is used to refer to an object composed of that
material
Synecdochy is closely related to metonymy. Synecdochy is often
considered a subclass of metonymy.
Examples where a part of something is used to refer to the whole: His
parents bought him a new set of wheels (car)
Examples where the whole of something is used to refer to a part of
it: Use your “head” (brain) to figure it out.
Examples where a genus is used to refer to a
species:No “creature” (person) would believe that story.
Examples where the material, an object is made of is used to refer to
the object itself: Those are some nice threads (clothes)
45) Euphemism, taboo words
People try to avoid using words and expressions that are unpleasantor
embarrassing. They are afraid of hurting another people’s feelings using
such kinds of words and expressions. The consciously-avoided words
and expressions are called “euphemisms”. Euphemisms is the
substitution of wors or expressions for words and expressions which
seem rough, unpleasant or inconvenient to be pronounced. The people
use euphemisms to get rid of the negative meaning. These
include: death, killing, crime, disease and etc. The origin of euphemism
is to be sought in the remotest past, at early stage of civilization, when
religious taboo dictated the avoidance of certain terms. For ex: the
names of dead persons. Taboos were orginally concerned with sacred
matters that could not be discussed, but nowadays taboos usually
concern things that people are ashamed of.
In English many euphemisms appeared in the 17 century. Instead of God
th

they said “Lord, “By God!”= by George!, Devil they said

“Dickens”. The English language contains numerous euphemisms
related to dying, death, burial, and the people and places which deal with
death. The reason of using euphemisms for death is likely to
have originated with the magical belief that to speak “death” was to
invite death, bad fortune. For example, people who have died are
referred to as having passed away, or passed or departed. In early poetry
the heroes didn’t literally die, but euphemistically lay or fell. The
term “cemetery”for “graveyard” is a borrowing from Greek, where it
was a euphemism, literally meaning “a sleeping place”.
Instead of to kill – to finish, to remove, to settle; instead of dead – late,
departed, deceased; instead of fat – full figured. Euphemisms are
reffering to something unpleasant by using milder words and phrases –
pregnant= to be in the family way, mad=insane, deaf=hard of
hearing. Words having an unpleasant connatations are replaced by letters
– t.b=tuberculosis, to hell=to h with it.
Side by side with euphemisms there exists dysphemisms. They are
collogual and jargonic words. When applied to people, animal names are
usually dysphemisms: old bat, pig, chicken, etc.
Words connected with sacred beings and objects are tabooed. Taboo is a
strong social prohibition meants as a safeguard against supernatural
forces. The term comes from the Tongan language and appears in many
Polinesian cultures. When an activity is taboo, it is forbidden. Some
taboo activities or customs are prohibited under law. Other taboos may
result in embarrasement, shame or redness.
The use of taboo in English dates back to 1777 when an English explorer
Captain James Cook visited Tongans. He wrote: “When anything is
forbidden to be eaten, or made use of it, they say that is taboo”. Every
culture has its own topics that are forbidden and should not be talked
about directly. For ex: In Azerbaycani there were some words which
were forbidden to pronounce in social place among the eldest and much
respected people. E.g. instead of my wife they used to say my children’s
mother and etc.
Euphemism occurs in most modern languages, it isn’t same as religious
taboo with which it is connectedhistorically.
46) Litotes
Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement, but the opposite figure is called
litotes (understatement). It is a figure of speech in which understatement
is used for rhetorical effect. It is most often used to describe the
expression of an idea by a denial (inkar) of its opposite. It might be
defined as expressing the affirmative by the negative of its contrary, not
bad for “good” not small for “great” no coward for “brave” and
etc. Litotes is a form of understatement always deliberate and with the
intention of emphasis.
Litotes or meiosis may be easily illustrated by reference to both literary
and popular speech. Belittling(kiçiltmə) terms are commonly applied by
emphasis to what is most highly valued. Anything highly praised is far
from bad, or not half bad. The term meiosis means understatement
generally, and litotes is considered a form of meioses.
Some understatements don’t contain negations. E.g. I could do with a
cup of tea.
Understatement is rich in connotations (sözün əlavə məzmunu), It may
convey irony. E.g. rather unwise (about somebody very silly) or rather
pushing (about somebody quite dishonest).
Understatement is considered to be a typical British way of putting
things and is more characterictic of male colloquial speech. So, when a
woman calls a concert absolutely fabulous? using a hyperbole, a man
would say it is not too bad, or that it was some concert. Some examples
in litotes:
Some examples in litotes: Not bad (good) Not unlike (Like)
You are not wrong (You are correct) She is not so unkind (She is kind)
Litotes is a mind of understatement, where the speaker or writer uses a
negative of a word ironically, to mean the opposite. Litotes is to be
found in English literature right back to Anglo-Saxon times. It is a figure
of speech, conscious (şüurlu) understatement in which emphasis is
achieved by negation. It is a stylistic feature of old English poetry.
47) Free word combination and bound word combination
The vocabulary of a language is enriched not only by words, but also by
phraseological units. Phraseologybranch of linquistics deals with word-
groups which consists of two or more words and word combinations.
The same as words, phraseological units express a single notion and are
used in a sentence as one part of it. Words become a means of
communication only when they are used in combinations. There are two
kinds of word combinations:
1.Free word combination – constructive sentence of the process of
speech according to grammar rules of the given language
2. Bound or set expressions – they are also called stop-phrases or ready
made expressions
In free combinations words are combined according to phonetical and
grammatical rules of the given language. In here components retain their
independent meanings. The meaning of the whole combination is
deduced from the meanings of its separate components. A free word
combination permits subsititution of any of its component or
components. In here syntactical rules can never be broken. E.g. to cut
bread, to cut cheese, to eat cheese
In bound word combinations such kind of substitution is
impossible. The components here are semantically bound. Nowadays we
call them phraseological units or set expressions. They exist in a
language in ready made. They are taken as separate words and
inserted(daxil edilib) as separate words.
“Proverbs sayings, sayings, aphorisms” are also included into
phraseology. They are called winged expressions as well, because being
created by people or some famous writers, which are widely used by all
the people speaking the given language. Every language has such
phraseological units.
The term phraseology was first used by the linguist Ch. Bally. In 1905
he wrote two books on style. One of the chapters was called
phraseology. He was the first who worked out the theory of phraseology,
who analysed the phraseological units. He approached them from the
stylistical angle. He never thought of it as independent sciene.
48) Criteria of phraseology from free phrases
In linguistic phraseological units or idioms are contrasted to free
phrases. A free combination is a syntactical unit, which consist of
national and form words. Notional words are independent part of
sentence. In free phrases we can change parts of combination without
semantic change. For ex: We sit at the table/We eat at the table/We write
at the table.
In a phraseological unit words are not independent. They form set
expressions, in which neither words nor the order of words
can be changed. The whole phraseological unit has a meaning which
may be quite different from the maning of its component, and therefore
the whole unit, not separate unit has the function of a part of the
sentence.
Free phrases are created by speaker, but phraseological units are used by
the speaker in a ready form, without any changes. Free word phrases are
made up during the speech, they are not units of a language.
Butphraseological units exist as ready units. They are not made up
during the speech. They are units of a language.
All the phraseological units are set expressions, but not all the set
expressions are phraseological units. The components of set expressions
retain their literal meaning. On the other hand, in phraseological even all
components can be used figuratively, that’s why they have transferred
meaning.
Phraseological units and words are similar: they both are brought into
speech ready, they are idiomatic and never constructed in speech.
The difference between them: a phraseological unit can be resolved into
words whereas words are resolved into morphems.
49) Phraseology. Classification of phraseology by Vinogradov
The vocabulary of a language is enriched not only by words but also by
phraseological units. It is a branch of linguistics deals with word-groups
which consist of two or more words and word combinations. The same
as words phraseological units express a single nation and are used in a
sentence as one part of it. There are two kinds of word combinations:
1.Free word combination – constructive sentence of the process of
speech according to grammar rules of the given language
2. Bound or set expressions – they are also called stop-phrases or ready
made expressions
In free combinations words are combined according to phonetical and
grammatical rules of the given language. In here components retain their
independent meanings. The meaning of the whole combination is
deduced from the meanings of its separate components. A free word
combination permits subsititution of any of its component or
components. In here syntactical rules can never be broken. E.g. to cut
bread, to cut cheese, to eat cheese
In bound word combinations such kind of substitution is
impossible. The components here are semantically bound. Nowadays we
call them phraseological units or set expressions. They exist in a
language in ready made. They are taken as separate words and
inserted(daxil edilib) as separate words.
According to Acad. V.Vinogradov there are three kinds of semantic
classifications: phraseological fusions, phraseological unities,
phraseological combinations.
Phraseological fusions: in here the meaning can neverbe deduced from
their components. They are indivisible both semantically and
syntactically. In here the degree of motivation is very low, we can’t
guess the meaning of the whole from the meaning
of its components. They are highly idiomatic and can’t be translated
word for word into other language. For ex: to bark to the moon (speak in
advance), to pull someone’s leg (to deceive), at sixies or sevens (in
confusion). No word can be substituted in here by its synonym because
it would be destroy the meaning of it. Sometimes, in order to understand
the meaning of phraseological fusion we must go into the history of a
given language and find out the etymology of the expression. Thus many
of them are historically motivated. They are the most idiomatic of all
kinds of phraseological units. E.g. “to wear one’s heart upon one’s
sleeve, to ride the high horse”.
Phraseological unities: they are semantically inseparable units, but they
differ from phraseological fusions. In phraseological units the meaning
can be deduced from the first meaning of their components. In here the
meaning can be deduced from the first meaning of their
components. They are figurative expressions: For ex: old
salt=experienced sailor, to play 1 fiddle= to be in a best position, to be a
st

leader in smth, to put a spear into smb’s wheel=to interrup smb.In some
of the phraseological unities one word can be substituted by its
synonyms. For ex: to nip in the bud/to check in the bud/to crush in the
bud. In here some components are not used seperately and they have no
independent meanings and they are used only in combinations. For ex:
“Hue and cry”. “Hue” is an archaic word, is used only in this expression.
Phraseological combinations: Unlike phraseological fusions and
unities, traditional combinations are type of set expression. They are
called analitical expression, because in here the components are
independent to a certain degree. Sometimes, the components of these
expressions retain their independency. But they are limited in their
power to combined with other words.For ex: we can say “to set
free” or “to set at liberty”but we can’t say to set at freedom. For ex: to
discuss a question; to pay a visit; to pass an exam; to take into
consideration. Nowadays we may find traditional combinations, many of
them which belong to political sphere: national unity, cold war and etc.
In some of them the dependent word can be replaced by its synonyms:
win victory=to gain to make haste=to hurry. Words of wide meaning as
“to make, to take, to do, to give” form many phraseological
combinations such as: to give help, to make a mistake, to take an
examination and etc.
50) Phraseology. Grammatical classification of phraseology
by Kunin
The vocabulary of a language is enriched not only by words but also by
phraseological units. It is a branch of linguistics deals with word-groups
which consist of two or more words and word combinations. The same
as words phraseological units express a single nation and are used in a
sentence as one part of it.
Phraseology is classified according to syntactical functions which they
perform in a sentence. This classification takes into consideration not
only the type of components of phraseology but also the functioning of
the whole set expression in a sentence. According to their function in a
sentence phraseology may be divided into the following types:
1) Substantival phraseology: function in a sentence like nouns they can
be a subject, an object or predicative of the given sentence, that’s why
they are called equivalent of nouns. For ex: A snake in the grass (terrible
enemy), a stony heat (daş qəlbli).
2) Verbal phraseology: verbal phraseological units function in a
sentence like verbs, they are equivalent of verbs. For ex: to make up
one’s mind (to decide), to get into deep water (to be in difficult
position), to call smb names ( to swear smb).
3) Adjectival phraseological units: function in a sentence like adjectives
they are equivalent of adjectives. For ex: good for nothing (very
useless), blind as a bat (completely blind), high and mighty (boastful).
4) Adverbial phraseological units: function in a sentence as adverbs.
They are equivalent of adverbs. For ex: on the alert (on guard), once in a
blue moon (seldom), with all one’s heart (sincerely).
5) Interjectional phraseological units: function in a sentence as
interjections, that’s why they are called interjactional phraseological
units. For ex: God bless me ! (ay Allah, by God (Allah haqqı), go to
hell (go to devil) !
Phraseological units as well as separete words can be polysemantic. E.g.
to feed fishes has 2 meanings: 1) to drawn 2) to be sea-sick.
Phraseological units may have synonyms. E.g. to breathe one’s last=to
kick the bucket=to go one’s long rest.
51) Sources of phraseological units
Phraseological units are arranged into groups according to their origin
and sources. According to their sources phraseological units may be:
•Historical facts or situation: “to burn one’s boats”.This is an
expression said by Julius Caesar who ordered to burn all the boats after
his soldiers had landed on the bank of the river, so they couldn’t run
away.
•National customs, traditions and English reality: “to fulfil the slightest
wish of smb”. This phraseological unit appeared in connection with the
English custom that the bridge had to fulfil every wish for her
bridegroom. “to carry coal to Newcastle” means “to do useless thing”.
Newcastle is the centre of the coal industry of GB.
•Literary sources: these are expressions of some well-known authors.
For ex: “To be or not to be, that is a question. Murder will out. How
goes the enemy?”.
•Professional expression: they have become metaphorical because of
being used figuratively. For ex: to sugar the pill (şirnikləndirmək), to be
on the scent (düz izinə düşmək), to take the wind out of smb’s sails (to
spoil smb’s plans), to kill two birds with one stone (from hunting)
•Sources may be folk saying: especially proverbs: a burnt child dreads
the fire- ilan vuran ala çatıdan qorxar. There is no rose without a thorn -
tikansızqızılgül olmaz.
There are other sources of phraseological units. 1) Which have
been formed on the basis of the names of the historical
personalities: İskəndər kimi sədd açmaq, Nadiri Taxtda görmək. 2)
Which have been formed on the basis of geographical names: Çin səddi
çəkmək, Kəbədə yağ içmək 3) Which have been formed on the basis of
religious legend and traditions: Nuh əyyamında qalmaq, Hz. İsa kimi
qeyb olmaq
52) Characteristic features of phraseological units
Phraseological units have their own spesific features. These features
have always been treated from the point of view of style and
expressivenes. They are euphonic(vahidlik), imaginative,
connotative (məna) qualities. For ex: I wish she returned safe and
sound.
Here safe and sound is more reassuring than the synonymous word
uninjured, which could have been used. These euphonic and connotative
qualities also prevent substitution. Any substitution would destroy the
euphonic effect.
Rhytmic qualities are characteristic of almost all set expression: by fits
and starts (irregularity): More and more, one by one, on and on.
In this case alliteration also occurs: then and there (at once), a bee in
one’s bonnet (be foolish).
Rhyme is also characteristic of set expression: fair and square (honest),
right or wrong.
These are lexical stability of phraseological units. It means that no
element of phraseological units is subjected to any substitution. If any,
then it is pronominal. For ex: black frost (means frost without ice and
snow). In a free combination the adjective would mean colour.
Semantic stability of phraseological units is based on the lexical
stability. If a component can’t be substituted by any word, then it is the
proof of a semantic stability. No substitution is possible in “Can the
leopard change his spots ?”. It is taken from Bible. The English writers
had the temptation to change the name of the leopard for the name of
some other animals, but failed, because the phrase is semantically stable.
53) Classification of Phraseology
Phraseology, Vinaqradov, Kunin, başqa alimləriyazırsan
54. Various Approaches to the Study of Problems of
Phraseology.
There are various approaches to the study of pphraseology and the problem
of
their classification. In English and American linguistics there are no
theoretical
works on scientific study of phraseology. There is no special branch studying
phraseology. There is no term phraseological unit.
The most significant theory for Russian phraseology was worked out by
academician V.V.Vinogradov. He worked out a very interesting classification
of
Russian phraseological units. His articles on Russian phraseology produced a
great influence upon many linguists in our country and abroad. In studying
phraseological units of national languages many linguists refer to the
phraseological theory and the classification of phraseological units worked out
by acad. V.V.Vinogradov. His classification on the material of the English
language was given above.
But V.V.Vinogradov's phraseological theory has some shortcomings which
were
pointed at by N.N.Amosova, A.V.Koonin and some other linguists. For
example,
phraseological combination of the third type of his classifiction, that is
phraseological combinations are not considered as phraseological units by
many linguists. Then V.V.Vinogradov did not pay attention to the structure of
phraseological units and so on.
Various parts of English phraseology have been described by many former
Soviet linguists and a great number of dissertations have been defended on
this
topic. The most comprehensive scientific works on English phraseology are
the
doctorial theses of N.N.Amosova and A.V.Koonin and their articles and books
on this topic.
72
In their works they have viewed almost all the important problems connected
with phraseology and they have worked out very significant classifications of
English phraseological units. Their classification differs from the classification
suggested by academician V.V.Vinogradov. In studying phraseology of
different
languages linguists will come back to their works on more than one occasion.
It should be stressed that in solving such problems as problem of definition of
phraseological units, problem of stability of phraseological units, problem of
variation and synonymy in English phraseology, problem of classification of
“English phraseological units, etc. N.N.Amosova and A.V.Koonin differ in
opinion. For ex.: N.N.Amosova distinguishes two kinds of contexts. They are:
a) Fixed context or invariable context;
b) Fixed context or variable context.
According to A.V.Koonin’s classification all the phraseological units are
divided
into the following four main groups:
1. Nominating (or nominative) phraseological units;
2. Nominating communicative phraseological
3. Interjectional phraseological units
4. Communicative phraseological units.
A.V.Koonin’s classification is based on a combination of functional, semantic
and structural features, that is in his classification he takes into consideration
function, meaning and structure of phraseological units.According to A.
Kunin,
phraseological units are stable word-groups with partially or fully transferred
meanings.
Speaking about phraseology we must stress that a valuable contribution to the
study of Azerbaijani phraseolog was made by prof. H.A.Bayramov.. He has
devoted many articles and his doctoral thesis to various problems of
Azerbaijani phraseology. A.S.Ragimov, A.H.Hajiyeva also have devoted a lot
of
articles on the English and Azerbaijani phraseology. In their articles and
thesises they have investiga- ted various ptoblems of the English and
Azerbaijani phra seology and gave a valuable contribution to the study of the
phraseology of these languages. Their works are of great importance.
55) Lexicography
Lexicography is the science of dictionary-compiling. It is closely
connected with lexicology. Because of they both have the same object of
study and deal with the same problem – the form, meaning, usage, and
origin of vocabulary units. Lexicography is an important branch of
applied linguistics. But there are some differences between these two
sciences. Lexicography studies characteristic features of words and
oppositions concerning the vocabulary of a language.But lexicology
cannot claim any completeness as regards units themselves, because the
number of units is very great.
A dictionary is a collection of words in one or more specific languages,
often listed alphabetically, with usage in formation, definitions,
etymologies, phonetics, prononciations and other information or a book
of words in one language with their equivalents in another. English
lexicography is considered to be richest in the world. The history of
dictionary making for the English language goes back to the OE
period.The first explanatory unilinqual English dictionary appeared in
1604 was compiled by Robert C. The first etymological dictionary was
made by Nationial Bailey in 1721.
One of the debatable problems in the theory and practice of dictionary
is compiling the number of vocabulary units in Modern English.
Different dictionaries register different number of words. In some cases,
the distinction beween various meanings of one polysemantic word and
the meanings of teo homonymous isn’t sharp and clear. For ex: in some
dictionaries “seal” is regarded as one word, in others as five words.
Another debatable problem is phraseological units. From one point of
view all kinds of idiomatic expressions must be regarded in the
dictionary as separate vocabulary entries.
Another approach to the problem of phraseology considers that only
phraseological units functioning in the language as word equivalents
should be treated as individual vocabulary units.
The word stock of ME constantly growing and changing. The
words appear, at the same time disappear in language. Some words are
not used in present day English, but may be found in poetical works of
English poets of the 19th century.
56) Differences between American English and British
English
American English differs greatly from British English in prononciation
and in vocabulary. Besides, there are some minor features of grammar
and spelling. Historically American English is based on the language of
the first American settlers.
The dictionary gives a lot of information about words that are only used
in American English or that have different meanings in British and
American English. E.g. US – elevator, BE – lift. A number of words
changed their meanings due to the new conditions of social and
economic life: corn – maise , racket – racketeer. In American English it
is common to use like instead of as if/as though. This is not correct in
BE. E.g.
He talks as if he knew everything. (BE)
He talks like he knew everything. (AE)
The development of american variants shows how extralinquistic factors
influence the language. The language spoken in the USA differs greatly
from the BE. Here are some examples: airplane – aeroplane, candy –
sweets, crazy – mad, film – movie, luggage – baggage, fries – chips,
bathroom – WC/toilet and etc.
Different pronounciations between AE and BE:
1)Stressed vowel is usually longer in AE, e.g. in the word “packet” the
sound [æ] is longer.
2)In AE the letter “r” is always pronounced. But in BE is only
pronounced before a vowel (e.g. red, bedroom).
3)In AE the letter “t” and “d” have a very similar light [d] sound when
they come between two vowels (writer and rider sound almost the
same). In BE the “t” is much stronger.
Grammatically differences between AE and BE:
1)Americans often use simple past tense when British use present
perfect, e.g.
AE – I just saw her. BE – I have just seen her.
2)Americans often use “have” when British use “have got”, e.g.
AE – I don’t have much time. BE – I haven’t got much time.
3)In the use of prepositions and adverbs, e.g.
AE – Stay home. BE – Stay at home.
4)“Will” and “were” for all persons , e.g.
He talks as he were rich. – AE He talks as if he was rich. – BE
Some words end in -tre in BE; -ter in AE, -our in BE, -or in AE. Some
examples : colour – color , humour – humor, labour – labor, centre –
center, kilometre – kilometr, theatre – theater.
Another examples : favourite – favorite, cosy – cozy, realise – realize,
cheque – check , traveller – traveler, jewellery – jewelery and etc.
57) Different types of dictionaries
A dictionary is the most widely used reference book in English homes,
schools, and business offices. The term “dictionary” denotes a book
listing words of a language with their meanings, pronunciation, usage
and sometimes origin. All the dictionaries may be divided into two main
types:
•Non-linguistic dictionaires give information on all branches of
knowledge. They deal with facts and concepts. Such dictionaries are
called encyclopaedic dictionaires.
• Linguistic dictionaries deal with words, their meanings, pronunciation,
etymology or give their equivalents in another language. Linguistic
dictionaries are divided into general and special dictionaries.
General dictionaries present a wide-range of data about the vocabulary
items in ordinary use. General dictionaries are subdivided into the
following types:
1)Explanatory dictionaries (unilingual) – In such dictionaries words
and their definitions belong to the same language.
2)Translation dictionaries (bilingual or parallel)– explain words of a
given language by giving their equivalents in another language.
3)Learner’s dictionaries - usually contain such words and their
meanings which are based on frequently of current use.
Specialized dictionaries restrict themselves to one particular aspect (e.g.
synonyms and antonyms, phraseological units, neologisms terms,
etymology, pronunciation). Specialized dictionaries may be:
1)Dictionary of synonyms explain the differences between synonyms in
semantic structure, use and style.
2)Phraseological dictionaries deal with set-expressions, proverbes and
explain their meanings, origin.
3)Dictionaries of Collocations contain words which freely combine with
the given head-word.
4)Dictionaries of Word-Frequency are based on frequency value of
words included by numbers stating the occurence per million words.
Other types of Specialized Dictionaries:
1)Usage dictionaries make it their business to pass judgement on what is
right or wrong.
2)Etymological dictionaries explain the sources and origin of words.
3)Pronouncing Dictionaries record contemporary pronunciation of
words.
4)Idiographic Dictionaries – in dictionaries words are arranged
according to a logical classification of notions expressed, not in
alphabetical order. That is according to the semantical fields, such as
colour terms, abstract relations, names for parts of human body, etc.
There are such dictionaries as spelling reference books, hard-words
dictionaries, different technical dictionaries, dialect and slang
dictionaries, multilingual or polyglot dictionaries and etc.
58) Structure of Dictionaries
Most dictionaries have much in common in their structure. They usually
have such items as:
1. Introduction or Preface (author’s explanatory remarks at the
beginning of a book) or Foreword.
2. Guide to these dictionaries.
3. Key to the pronunciation.
4. Abbrevitions and symbols used in the dictionary.
5. A dictionary of the English language (list of words).
6. Supplements (geographical names, personal names, foreign words).
English lexicography is probably the richest one in the world with
respect to variety and number of the dictionaries published. The demand
for dictionaries is great.
59) Some problems of Dictionary Compiling
The work at a dictionary consists of the following stages: the collection
of material, the selection of entries and their arrangement, the setting
of each entry.
At different stages of his work the lexicographer comes across with
different problems:
1.The selection of lexical units
2.Their arrangement
3.The setting of entries
4. The selection and arrangement of word – meaning
5.The definition of meaning
6.Illustrative material
7.Supplementary material
Explanatory or translation dictionaries are usually recorded words and
phraseological units. Synonym books, pronouncing, etymological
dictionaries and some others deal only with words. The meanings of
words may be defined in different ways:
a) by means of definitions that are characterized as encyclopaedic
b) by means of descriptive definitions or paraphrases
c) with the help of synonymous words and expressions
d) by means of cross-referents (antonyms)
All types of dictionaries may be monolingual (unilingual) – giving
information in the same language and translation dictionaries – giving
information in another language.
Unilingual dictionaries may be diachronic and synchronic (or
descriptive). Diachronic dictionaries reflect the historical development
of the form and meaning of every word. The descriptive dictionaries are
concerned with present day meaning and usage of words. There are a lot
of dictionaries (general, unilingual) compiled in English speaking
countries. Translation and poliglot (multilingual) dictionaries are those
that give equivalents in another language or several foreign languages.
The main problem in compiling dictionaries of this type is to give
adequate (satisfactory) translation of vocabulary.
60) Standard and substandard English
Standard English is a universal form of English used in the English
speaking countries by educated people. It is the official language of
Great Britain which is taught at schools and universities, used by press,
the radio and the television. It is used for public information and
administration. But this world-wide standard English is spoken with a
great number of different regional accents. There are some regional
varieties of standard English. Regional varieties which have no
normalized literary form are called local dialects. In Great Britain there
are two variants: Scotish and Irish English. And five main groups of
dialects: Northern, Midland, Eastern, Western and Southern. Every
group contains several dialects.
Local dialects are different from the English national literary language
and they are not same by theirphonetical, grammatical and
lexical features. But local dialects coexist with the national literary
language and serve as a means of communication to the broad people’s
masses. Local dialects are now chiefly preserved in rural communities,
in the speech of elderly people. On the basis of such dialects, many
national languages were formed. Dialects have no literary form, but
many English writers include dialectal speech in their books.
Bernard Show in his famous play ‘Pygmalion” presents Cockney - the
local Southern dialect of London. Cockney is spoken by the uneducated
Londoners. Cockney differs from standart English in vocabulary,
phonetics, grammar. 1) Phonetically: the omission of initial ‘h’. E.g.
orse instead of horse, im instead of him. 2) Grammatically – the
confusion of the first and third person singular in Present indefinite
tense. E.g. I says, he says.
In some cases words from dialects and variants enter the vocabulary of
the national language. For ex: to rove=to wander, lass=a girl