DIODE
DIODE
DIODE
PN JUNCTION DIODES
The current flow due to an electric field is called drift current. Drift current is proportional
to the number of charge carriers available for conduction. The current due to the diffusion
of charge carriers is called diffusion current. Charge carriers (electrons and holes) diffuse
from the higher to the lower concentration side. Thus, diffusion current is proportional to
the gradient in carrier concentrations. It does not require an electric field. The diffusion
current does not depend on the number of charge carriers.
In the PN junction, the electron and hole diffusion currents are from the P side to the N
side, and the electron and hole drift currents are from the N side to the P side. Hence, the
net current is the difference between diffusion current and drift current.
1
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2 PN JUNCTION DIODES
During the formation of the PN junction, as shown in Figure 1.1, the electron and hole
concentration gradients at the junction are very high. Therefore holes diffuse from the P
side to the N side and electrons from the N side to the P side. The diffused charge carriers
recombine and result in the formation of an immobile negative ion on the P side and a
positive ion on the N side. This region of immobile charges is called the depletion region.
The dipole effect of the depletion region results in a potential difference between its two
ends. This potential aids the flow of minority carriers (drift current) across the junction. At
the same time, the presence of a depletion region reduces the gradient of charge carriers
and hence decreases the diffusion current. As the diffusion continues, the depletion region
widens, and the potential across the depletion region increases. i.e., the diffusion current
decreases, and the drift current increases. The equilibrium condition is attained when the
drift current equals the diffusion current. Since the direction of drift and diffusion currents
are opposite, the net current at equilibrium is zero. The potential appearing across the two
ends of the depletion region at equilibrium is called built-in or barrier potential or contact
potential (V0 ). This potential is a barrier for the majority carrier flow across the junction.
The width of the depletion region increases with an increase in reverse bias and de-
creases with an increase in forward bias.
Forward bias: Applying a positive potential to the P side of the diode with respect
to the N side, as shown in Figure 1.3, is called forward bias. The barrier for majority
carrier flow is reduced to V0 − Vf . When forward-biased, holes on the P side are
repelled towards the junction, neutralizing the negative ions on the depletion layer.
Similarly, electrons are also repelled towards the junction, reducing depletion region
4 PN JUNCTION DIODES
width on the N side. Thus as forward bias increases, the width of the depletion layer
reduces. This increases the gradient of majority carrier concentration. Thus the dif-
fusion current increases. The drift current due to the thermally generated minority
carriers remains almost constant and negligible compared to the diffusion current.
Thus the net current increases as the forward bias increases and the direction are from
the P side to the N side (+ve).
Reverse bias: Applying a negative potential (-VR ) to the P side with respect to the
N side, as shown in Figure 1.4, is called reverse bias. Now the barrier for majority
carrier flow increases to V0 + VR . As the reverse bias increases, most carriers are
repelled away from the junction, and the width of the depletion region increases. This
reduces the gradient in majority carrier concentration and diffusion current to a value
negligible compared to the drift current due to thermally generated minority carriers.
Therefore the net current through the diode is the drift current from the N side to the
P side (-ve). The reverse current remains constant irrespective of the applied reverse
bias because the thermally generated minority carriers limit the reverse current. This
is a constant for a given temperature and material. Therefore, this is called reverse
saturation current (I0 ). The reverse saturation current is also known as the leakage
current.
The forward current increases exponentially with applied forward bias. The rate of in-
crease in current is less at low forward voltages. The cut-in voltage of a diode is defined
as the forward voltage at which the forward current reaches a significant level. Cut in volt-
age for a silicon diode is approximately 0.7 V, and for a germanium diode is 0.3 V. The
reverse saturation current for silicon diodes is in the nano ampere ranges, and for germa-
nium diodes, in the microampere ranges. If the reverse voltage is increased to very large
values, the reverse current increases sharply at a particular voltage. This voltage is called
the breakdown voltage. Diodes with breakdown voltages of a few to hundreds of volts are
available. V-I characteristics of a PN junction are shown in Figure 1.5.
BRIEF EXPLANATION OF DIODE EQUATION 5
The characteristics of a PN junction diode are represented by the diode equation given by
V
I = I0 (exp VT −1) (1.1)
where I-diode current, I0 -reverse saturation current, V -applied potential (+ve for forward
bias, -ve for reverse bias)
VT = kT
q is the volt equivalent of temperature=0.026V at room temperature, k- Boltz-
mann constant, T - Absolute temperature, q- Charge of an electron at equilibrium.
At equilibrium
V = 0; I = 0
V = +Vf (1.2)
Vf
If = I0 (exp VT
−1) (1.3)
Vf
If = I0 exp VT
if Vf ≫ VT (1.4)
At Vf =0.26V,
If = exp10 I0 (1.5)
i.e., the forward current increases exponentially with applied forward bias.
6 PN JUNCTION DIODES
V = −VR (1.6)
−VR
IR = I0 (exp VT
−1) (1.7)
i.e., the reverse current remains constant for |VR | ≫ VT and is called the reverse
saturation current or leakage current.
A diode with zero cut-in voltage, zero forward resistance, infinite reverse resistance, and
infinite blocking voltage is called an ideal diode. V-I characteristics of an ideal diode are
shown in Figure 1.6.
The equivalent circuit of a practical diode in forward bias and reverse bias and the corre-
sponding V-I characteristics are depicted in Figure 1.7.
∆VF
Rf = (1.9)
∆IF
∆VR
Rr = (1.10)
∆IR
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BARRIER POTENTIAL AND CUT IN VOLTAGE OF A DIODE 7
Figure 1.7: Equivalent Circuit of a Practical Diode (a) Forward Bias (b) Reverse Bias (c)
V-I Characteristics
Barrier potential (V0 ) is the potential appearing across the depletion layer at equilibrium.
When the forward bias becomes equal to the barrier potential, the potential barrier across
the junction reduces to zero, and the semiconductor acts as a conducting bar. Therefore,
the maximum forward-bias should be less than the barrier potential. As the forward bias
increases, the current increases exponentially. The cut-in voltage is the voltage at which
the forward current attains a significant value. The cut in voltage is always less than the
barrier potential.
For an ideal diode, forward resistance is zero, and reverse resistance is infinity. i.e.,
it is equivalent to a closed switch when forward-biased and an open switch when
reverse-biased.
Practically, a forward-biased diode has a small forward resistance, typically a few
ohms and a reverse-biased diode has a very high resistance in the order of mega ohms.
As temperature increases,
Forward current increases and tends towards the ideal characteristics, i.e., the forward
resistance and cut in voltage decrease.
Reverse current increases.
8 PN JUNCTION DIODES
As a rectifier
In clamping circuit
In clipping circuit
As a peak detector
As an envelope detector
As a switch
A Zener diode is a diode made to operate in the breakdown region. It can be used as a
voltage regulator. It is also used as a voltage reference.
IZK : Zener current near the knee of the characteristics, the minimum zener current
required to sustain a breakdown
∆VZ
ZZ : Zener dynamic impedance ∆IZ
10 PN JUNCTION DIODES
When a high-energy electron collides with an impurity atom, it brings out an electron-
hole pair. If the depletion region width is sufficiently large, the secondary emitted electrons
and holes undergo further collisions and the number gets multiplied. This multiplication
continues as a chain reaction and is called avalanche multiplication which is shown in Fig-
ure 1.10. As a result, the current increases sharply and the junction breaks down. This type
of breakdown is called avalanche breakdown. The energy required for ionizing collision
increases with an increased band gap. Therefore, a diode of higher band gap material will
have a high breakdown voltage for a given doping.
VARACTOR DIODE 11
The varactor diode (variable reactor diode) is used as a voltage variable capacitor. The
depletion region capacitance of the diode is used as the voltage variable capacitor. The
structure and symbol of the varactor diode are shown in Figure 1.11.
Figure 1.11: (a) Varactor Diode with P-N Junction and Depletion Region (b) Symbol
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is directly proportional to the area of the
plates and inversely proportional to the spacing between the plates.
Consider the reverse biased mode of a diode, in which the p-type region and n-type re-
gion are able to conduct and thus can be treated as two plates of a capacitor. The depletion
region between the p-type and n-type regions can be considered an insulating dielectric.
Hence, a reverse-biased diode is similar to a parallel plate capacitor in structure. The area
of the plates is equivalent to the area of the cross-section of the diode and spacing between
the plates is equivalent to the depletion region width.
The width of the depletion region of the diode changes with a change in reverse bias.
As the reverse voltage across the diode increases, the depletion region width increases, and
as the reverse voltage decreases, the depletion region width decreases or narrows as shown
in Figure 1.12. Hence, by varying the reverse bias of the diode, the capacitance can be
varied. This type of diode which functions as a capacitor in which the capacitance varies
according to the variation of reverse voltage across it, is known as a varactor diode.
1
m=0 for abrupt p-n junction, n = 2
1
m=1 for linearly graded junction,n = 3
Light Emitting Diode (LED) works on the principle of injection electro luminescence. An
LED is a PN junction made of direct band gap semiconductors. When it is forward-biased,
holes are injected from the P side to the N side and electrons are injected from the N side to
the P side. These injected charge carriers recombine radiatively with the majority of charge
carriers in neutral n and p regions, resulting in the emission of light. The light emission
increases with an increase in forward bias (or forward current). The colour of emitted
radiation depends on the band gap of the material. (The energy of the emitted radiation
equals the band gap of the material, Eg = hν).
LED is used as a source of light in burglar alarms, automatic door switches, etc.
1.16 RECTIFIER
An iron core transformer is used to step down the input ac voltage (230Vrms. ) to the desired
level. The transformer also isolates the electronic circuits from ac mains. The output at
the transformer secondary (Vi ) is shown in Figure 1.14. This is the input to the rectifier.
In the positive half cycle of input, diode D is forward biased and the voltage drop across it
is ideally zero. Therefore entire voltage appears across the load resistor RL i.e. V0 = Vi .
In the negative half cycle of the input, the diode gets reverse biased. When reverse biased,
the diode resistance is very large compared to RL . Therefore entire signal drops across the
diode and the output voltage remains at zero as shown in Figure 1.15.
14 PN JUNCTION DIODES
iL = 0 f or π ≤ ωt ≤ 2π (1.18)
RECTIFIER 15
Z 2π
1
Idc = Iav = iL dwt
2π 0
Z π Z 2π
1
= Im sin ωtdwt + 0dwt
2π 0
π
Im π
= [−cosωt]0 + 0
2π
2Im
=
2π
Im
= (1.19)
π
Vm
Im = (1.20)
RL + rd
where rd is the diode resistance.
Im V m RL
Vdc = Idc RL = RL = (1.21)
π π (RL + rd )
The Rms value of the current is given as
s s
Z 2π Z π Z 2π
1 1
Irms = i2L dwt = sin2 ωtdωt + 0dωt
2π 0 2π 0 π
s Z π s π
2 2
Im (1 − cos2ωt) Im ωt − sin2ωt Im
Irms = dωt = = (1.22)
2π 0 2 2π 2 0 2
s v !2
2 u Im
r
Irms u
2 π 2
γ = −1=t Im
−1= − 1 = 1.21 (1.24)
Idc π
2
For half wave rectifier, the dc power delivered to the load is given by
2
2 Im
Pdc = Idc RL = RL (1.25)
π
16 PN JUNCTION DIODES
V0 = Vm sin ωt f or 0 ≤ ωt ≤ π (1.28)
Z π Z π
1 1
Vdc = V0 dωt = Vm sin ωtdwt
π 0 π 0
RECTIFIER 17
1 π −Vm
Vdc = ([−Vm cos ωt]0 ) = [cos π − cos 0]
π π
Vm 2Vm
Vdc = 2= (1.29)
π π
s s s
π π 2 π
1 − cos2ωt
Z Z Z
1 1 Im
Irms = IL2 dωt = 2 sin2 ωt
Im dωt =
π 0 π 0 π 0 2
s π r
2 2
Im ωt sin2ωt Im Im
Irms = − = =√ (1.30)
π 2 4 0 2 2
Similarly, assuming the ideal diode,
1 π 1 π
Z Z
2Im
Idc = IL dωt = Im sin ωtdωt = (1.31)
π 0 π 0 π
v
s 2 u Im !2
Irms u √
2
Ripplef actor = − 1 = t 2Im − 1 = 0.482 (1.32)
Idc π
DC power delivered to the load is given by,
2
2 2Im
Pdc = Idc RL = RL (1.33)
π
Total input ac power,
2
Pac = Irms (rd + RL ) (1.34)
Rectification efficiency,
2Im 2
Pdc RL 81.2
η= = π2 = = 81.2% if rd ≪ RL (1.35)
Pac I 1 + RrdL
√m
2
(rd + RL )
In the positive half cycle of input, D1 and D3 are forward biased and current flows
through the load as shown in Figure 1.18 (a). The transformer’s secondary voltage appears
across the load. In the negative half cycle of input, diodes D2 and D4 conduct, and the
direction of current flow through the load remains the same as shown in Figure 1.18 (b).
The input and output waveforms of this rectifier are shown in Figure 1.19.
RECTIFIER 19
(a) Circuit
(b) Waveforms
Figure 1.20 (a) shows the circuit of a full wave rectifier with a capacitor filter. The bold
curve in Figure 1.20 (b) shows the filtered output. From 0 to T1 , the diode Dr is forward
biased and capacitor charges through D1 to a value Vm . The charging time constant is
Rf C, where Rf is the forward resistance of the diode. From T1 to T2 , the capacitor
voltage is greater than the rectified output. Therefore, the diodes are reverse-biased and
act as open switches. The capacitor discharges through RL with time constant RL C. The
discharge is slow because
RL C >> Rf C
. The discharge becomes slower as RL C increases and the performance improves. The
capacitor filter is suitable at low currents because RL increases with a decrease in current.
the output will be direct current. That is a rectification occurs inside the power supply. The
block diagram of a power supply is shown in Figure 1.21.
To reduce the voltage level which we get from the ac mains. Transformers can do the
job of reducing the voltage level in a simple and efficient manner.
The diodes used in the rectifier block cannot handle such a high level of voltage from
the ac mains. So, the voltage is first stepped down by the transformer, and the reduced
voltage is applied to the rectifier section.
Rectifier: Full wave rectifiers are the most commonly used rectifiers in power supply. It
simply allows the positive half cycle of the input current to pass through and inverts the
negative half cycle to the positive half cycle. This is shown above in the block diagram of
the power supply and its function is shown in Figure 1.22.
Filters: The output from the full wave rectifier is not a pure dc. The output is a pulsating
dc. The output contains large fluctuations in voltages. The voltage that we get from the
full wave rectifier fluctuates between 0 V and Vpeak , and hence it contains ac components.
These ac components need to be filtered out so as to obtain pure dc voltage. This is done
by filters. Filters are used to filter out any ac component present in the full-wave rectified
output. Typical input and output voltages of filters used in the power supply are shown
22 PN JUNCTION DIODES
in Figure 1.23. In Figure 1.23, the output voltage from the filter contains voltage ripples.
This output is not a pure dc, however, a considerable amount of ac component is filtered
out by the filter. The effectiveness of the filter to remove the ac component is indicated by
the ripple factor. Smaller the ripple factor, the better the filter.
Clipping circuits are non-linear wave-shaping circuits. They are used to clip off the pos-
itive or negative portions of an input waveform. It can also be used to slice off an input
waveform between two voltage levels. Using a double clipper, the moderate-quality square
waveform can be generated from a sine wave. The property of a diode as a switching device
is utilized in clipping circuits. There are two types of clippers: Series and Shunt (Parallel)
Clippers. In series clippers, the output is taken in series with the diode (load resistor comes
in series with the diode), and in shunt clippers, the output is taken parallel (shunt) to the
diode (load comes in parallel to the diode).
1.18.1.1 POSITIVE CLIPPER CLIPPING AT 0 V This circuit passes only negative go-
ing half waves of the input to the output. During the negative half cycle, the diode remains
reverse biased so that the entire input voltage drops across the diode since the diode resis-
tance is much greater than the series resistance. All the positive half cycles are bypassed
through the diode to the ground terminal because the diode gets forward-biased when the
input voltage becomes positive. Due to the voltage drop across the diode, the clipping oc-
curs at +0.7 V. The circuit diagram, waveform, and transfer characteristics of the positive
clipper are shown in Figure 1.25.
1.18.1.2 NEGATIVE CLIPPER CLIPPING AT 0V This circuit passes only positive going
half waves of the input to the output since the diode remains reverse-biased during the
positive half cycle of the input signal. All the negative half cycles are bypassed through
the diodes since the diode gets forward-biased when the input voltage becomes negative.
24 PN JUNCTION DIODES
Clipping occurs at -0.7 V due to the voltage drop across the diode. The circuit diagram,
waveform, and transfer characteristics of the negative clipper are shown in Figure 1.26.
1.18.1.3 POSITIVE CLIPPER CLIPPING AT POSITIVE VOLTAGE Till the input be-
comes greater than +Vb volt, the diode is reverse biased and the input appears at the out-
put. When the input is greater than +Vb volt, the diode becomes forward biased, and cell
voltage appears at the output. Since the voltage drop across the diode develops in series
with the cell, the actual clipping level is at Vb +0.7 volt. The circuit diagram, waveform,
and transfer characteristics are shown in Figure 1.27.
the output. When the input is below +(Vb − 0.7) volt, the diode becomes forward biased
and the cell voltage is available at the output. Since the voltage drop across the diode de-
velops in series and opposite with the cell, the actual clipping level is at (Vb − 0.7) volt.
The circuit diagram, waveform, and transfer characteristics are shown in Figure 1.30.
This circuit is a combination of positive and negative clippers. When the input is (Vb1 +
0.7) volt, diode D1 is forward biased and D2 reverse biased, the cell voltage in series with
the drop across the forward biased diode (Vb1 + 0.7) Volt appear at the output. While the
input is less than -(Vb2 + 0.7) volt, D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased. The
cell voltage in series with the forward biased diode drop -(Vb2 + 0.7) appears at the output.
When the input is between (Vb1 + 0.7) Volt and -(Vb2 + 0.7) Volt, both diodes are reverse
biased and the input appears as such as at the output. The circuit diagram, waveform, and
transfer characteristics of the double clipper are shown in Figure 1.31.
Suppose the input voltage is represented by the expression Vm sin ωt. During one nega-
tive half cycle of the input sine wave, the diode conducts and capacitor charges to (Vm -0.7
volt) with positive polarity at the right side of the capacitor. During the positive half cycle
of the input sine waves, the capacitor cannot discharge since the diode does not conduct.
Thus capacitor acts as a dc source of Vm volt connected in series with an input signal
source. The output voltage then can be expressed as Vo = Vin + (Vm − 0.7) volt. i.e. a
dc voltage (Vm -0.7) is added to the input so that the negative peak of the output is clamped
at -0.7 V. The circuit diagram, waveform, and transfer characteristics of positive clamper
clamping at 0 V are shown in Figure 1.32.
During one negative half cycle of the input sine wave, the capacitor charges through the
dc source and diode till (Vm − Vb -0.7) volt with the positive polarity of the capacitor at its
right side. The output can be expressed as V o=Vin +(Vm − Vb -0.7) volt. The negative peak
of the input is clamped at -(Vb + 0.7) volt. The circuit diagram, waveform, and transfer
characteristics of a positive clamper clamping at negative voltage is shown in Figure 1.35.
CLAMPING CIRCUITS 31
During one positive half cycle of the input sine wave, the capacitor charges through the
dc source and diode till (Vm + Vb -0.7) volts with the negative polarity of the capacitor at
its right side. The output can be expressed as Vo = −Vin − (Vm + Vb − 0.7). The positive
peak of the output is clamped at -(Vb − 0.7) volts. The circuit diagram, waveform, and
transfer characteristics of a negative clamper clamping at negative voltage are shown in
Figure 1.37.