EPSCI21: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

WEEK 1&2: INTRODUCTION

Development- refers to qualitative changes in behavioural characteristics of the individual

leading towards maturity. Development can be inferred from the differentiation and emerging
capabilities (functioning) of the individual e.g. cognitive, social, and moral, personality and
motor abilities.

Growth- refers to quantitative changes in development such as increase in size, weight and
height. These changes are physical in nature are gradual and may involve the whole body or its
parts.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Child psychology is a recent discipline. The scientific study of children started slightly over a
century ago with the pioneering work of Charles Darwin. In his research on infant's early sensory
and perceptual capacities and children's emotions, Darwin (1972) demonstrated that scientists
could study infants and children. Later on John Watson continued the formal analysis of
children's learning capacities. Other psychologist such as Freud, Piaget, Erik Erikson and others
whom we shall talk about later in this topic contributed significantly to our understanding of
children.

Some of the factors that contributed to the scientific study of children include:

• Social changes and changes of attitude towards children in the 17 and 18h century.
Before then, children were treated as miniature adults i.e., as small adults.

• Intellectual movements reflected in the writings of scholars and philosophers like Plato,
Aristotle etc. Their ideas reflected on children how they should be treated, educated, their
rights etc.

• Early scientists’ advances in research in human behaviour.

• Development of research methodology appropriate for the study of human development.

• Advances in biology and medicine.

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 • Rising industrialization.

Some of the pioneers in Child research include:

• Charles Darwin 1870s

• J.B. Watson 1920s

• Aldous Huxley 1930s

• Anold Gessel 1930s

• B.F. Skinner 1950s

• Jean Piaget 1950s

• Erik Erikson 1963

• Abraham Maslow 1960s-1970s

KEY THEORIES IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Theories about the way children grow and mature serve two main functions:

• To organize and integrate existing information into coherent and interesting accounts of
how children develop.

• To foster research by providing testable predictions about development and behaviour .

No one theory is able to account for all aspects of children or predictions about human
development. Different theories take different positions on the themes of development and
account for different aspects of children's behaviour. By so doing, they complement each other
rather than compete with each other.

1. LEARNING PERSPECTIVES

Behavioural Theories

This approach is exemplified in the work of J. B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner who
developed central ideas of learning, and applied these ideas to children's development.
Behaviourism holds that theories of behaviour should be based on observations of actual
behaviour rather than on speculation about motives or other unobservable factors. Behavioural
theories view development as a continuous process and not a discontinuous or stage-like process.
Learning shapes development throughout childhood and across the entire life span. According to
the behaviourists, children play a relatively passive role in their own development. Like

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computers, which can only do what programmers tell them to do, children do only what the
environment directs that they do.

In classical conditioning, Pavlov showed that a dog would learn to salivate at the sound of a bell
if that sound were always associated with the presentation of food. The dog typically salivated at
the appearance of food; if the food was repeatedly paired with the sound of a bell, eventually the
dog learned to salivate at the sound of the bell whether or not it was accompanied by the food.
Watson used classical conditioning to explain many aspects of children's behaviour, especially
emotions such as fear. For example, he conditioned a young child to peer fury animals, by
showing the baby who was easily frightened by noise, a white rat and simultaneously making a
loud noise.

In operant conditioning, Skinner focused on the consequences of a person's behaviour.

According to this theory, behaviour is modified by the type of rewarding or punishing events that
follow it. Positive reinforcement for a particular behavior will increase the likelihood of that
behaviour recurring. Punishment will decrease the chances of a behaviour being repeated. This
approach has shown how children's behaviours develop and how we can change such behaviours.
For example, children's aggressive behaviour is often increased rather than decreased by the
attention parents pay to such behaviour as hitting and teasing.

Cognitive Social Learning Theory

According to this theory, children learn not only through classical and operant conditioning but
also by observing and imitating others (Bandura, 1989). Bandura showed that if children were
exposed to aggressive behaviour of another person, they were likely to imitate their behaviour
Children at play watched a model punch and kick a large inflated doll in unusual ways. when
they were left alone with the doll and other toys, they imitated the unusual aggressive

behaviour, copying exactly what they had seen. Other children who did not watch the aggressive
model did not display aggressive behaviour. Children who watch a great deal of television
violence are more likely to develop aggressive attitudes and behaviours. The role of cognitive
factors in imitation is important because children do not imitate blindly, or automatically but

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rather select specific behaviours to imitate. Four sets of processes determine how effectively a
child will learn by observing the behaviour of others.

2. INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACHES

Focus on children's representations of information and how they operate on information

to achieve their goals in a particular situation. Children take in information Iike
computers, process t and produce behaviour (action, insight, verbalization, or a memory
that is stored for later use).

A child attend to information, change it into a mental or cognitive representation, store it

in memory, compare it to other memories, generates various responses, makes a decision
about the most appropriate response, and finally, takes some specific action.

3. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES

These theories focus on the role of heredity in determining development and behaviour.
For example, Lorenz's study of imprinting behaviour in ducks and geese, (the tendency of
goslings and chicks to follow the first moving object they see during the critical period).
Ethnologists are biologically oriented scientists who study behaviour in natural situations.
Bowlby adapted some of the concepts of ethnology (specifically of imprinting) to explain
the development and importance of the attachment bond that forms between the mother
and the infant.

4. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

These perspectives hold that psychological structures and processes within the child help
to determine his or her development.

In Piagetian Theory, the child plays a significant role in his/her development. Children
use their current knowledge of how the world works as a framework for the absorption or
assimilation of new experiences. Children modify their existing knowledge by
incorporating new information into its framework or mental structures. Through the
process of accommodation, they modify these frameworks in response to the new input
from their environment. Children actively interpret and make sense of the information
and events they encounter. They actively seek experience in order to build their cognitive
worlds. The way the child organizes new information depends on his/her level of
cognitive development. Piaget proposed that children go through several stages of
cognitive development, each characterized by qualitatively different ways of thinking,
organizing knowledge, and solving problems.

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 5. PSYCHODYNAMICPSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVES

This approach proposes that dynamic forces within the individual determine motivation
and behaviour. According to Freud's psychoanalytic theory of development,
psychological change and growth are governed by unconscious drives and instincts. He
stressed the role of drives such as sex, aggression and hunger in determining behaviour.
For Freud, the developing personality consists of three interrelated parts: the 1d, the Bgo,
and the Superego.

The Id operates on the pleasure principle, which is oriented toward maximizing pleasure
and satisfying needs immediately. It is the irrational part of personality. As the infant
develops, the ego or the rational (controlling) part of personality enlarges. The ego
attempts to gratify needs througn appropriate socially constructive behaviour. The
superego which is the third component OT personality emerges when the child
internalizes (accepts and absorbs) parental or social morals, values, and roles and
develops conscience, or the ability to apply moral values in judging his/her own acts.

According to Sigmund Freud, development is a discontinuous process (i.e. a process marked by

distinct stages of development). He proposed five discrete stages of development. These are;
Oral Stage (0- 1 year), Anal Stage (1 - 3 years), Phallic Stage (3 -6 years), The Latency Stage (-
12 years) and The Genital Stage (12 year onwards). In each of these stages, biological forces
orchestrate the relations between the developing child and his/her world.

Erikson' s version of psychoanalytic theory emphasizes psychosocial contexts, whereby

individual are shaped by the interaction of personal characteristics and social forces. Erikson
describes eight successive stages of psychosocial development.

Approximate Age/ Stages Approximate Age/ Stages

Birth to 1 year Babies learn either to trust that others will care
for their basic needs, including nourishment,
Trust Vs Mistrust warmth, cleanliness, and physical contact, or to
lack confidence in the care of others.

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1-3 years Children learn either to be self-sufficient in
many activities, including toileting, feeding,
Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt walking, exploring, and talking, or to doubt
their own abilities.

3-6 years Children want to undertake many adult like

activities, sometimes overstepping the limits
Initiative Vs Guilt set by parents and feeling guilt.

Middle and Late Childhood(7-11 Years) Children busily learn to be competent and
productive in mastering new skills or feel
Industry Vs Inferiority inferior and unable to do anything well.

Adolescence 12-20 years Adolescents try to figure out "Who Am I ".

They establish sexual, political and career
Identity Vs Role Confusion identities or are confused about what roles to
play.

Young Adulthood 20-30 years Young people become able to commit

themselves to another person in friendship
Intimacy Vs Isolation marriage or career involvement; if not, they
develop a sense of isolation and feel lonely but
themselves.

Middle Adulthood 30-65 years Adults are willing to have and care for children
that is they contribute to the next generation,
Generativity Vs Stagnation devote themselves to their work and common
good; if not, they become self-centred and
inactive.

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Late adulthood Older people enter a period of reflection,
becoming assured that their lives have been
65+ years meaningful, and they grow ready to a death
Ego Integrity Vs Despair with acceptance and dignity; if no, they despair
for their unaccomplished goals, failures, and
ill-spent lives.

Comparison of Freud's Psychosexual and Erikson's Psychosocial Stages

Approx Age Freud (Psychosexual) Erikson (Psychosocial)

0-1 Oral Stage Trust Vs Mistrust

infancy The mouth, tongue and gums Babies learn either to trust that
are the focus of pleasurable others will care for their basic
sensations in the baby's body, needs, including nourishment,
and sucking and feeding are warmth, cleanliness, and
the most stimulating activities. physical contact, or to lack
confidence in the care of
others.

1-3 years Anal Stage Autonomy Vs Shame and

Doubt
Early childhood The anus is the focus of
pleasurable sensations in the Children learn either to be
baby's body, and toilet training self-sufficient in many
is the most important activity. activities, including toileting,
feeding, walking, exploring,
and talking, or to doubt their
own abilities.

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3-6 years Phallic Stage Initiative Vs Guilt

Middle childhood The phallus, or penis, is the Children want to undertake

most important body part, and many adult like activities,
pleasure is derived from sometimes overstepping the
genital simulation. Boys are limits set by parents and
proud of their penises, and feeling guilt.
girls wonder why they don't
have one.

7-11 years Latency Industry vs inferiority

Late childhood This is not a stage but an Children busily learn to be

interlude, during which sexual competent and productive in
needs are quiet and children mastering new skills or feel
put psychic energy into inferior and unable to do
conventional activities like anything well.
schoolwork and sports.

Adolescence Genital stage ldentity Vs Role Confusion

12-20 years The genitals are the focus of Adolescents try to figure out
pleasurable sensations, and the "Who Am I?" They establish
young person seeks sexual sexual, political and career
stimulation and sexual identities or are confused
satisfaction in heterosexual about what roles to play.
relationships.

Young Adulthood Freud believed that the genital Intimacy vs isolation

stage lasts throughout
20-30 years adulthood. He also said that Young people become able to
the goal of a healthy life is "to commit themselves to another
love and to work well” person in friendship marriage
or career involvement; if not,
they develop a sense of
isolation and feel they have no
one in the world but
themselves.

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Middle adulthood Same as above Generativity Vs Stagnation

30-60 years Adults are willing to have and

care for children that is they
contribute to the next
generation, devote themselves
to their work and common
good; if not, they become self-
centred and inactive.

Late adulthood Same as above Ego Integrity Vs Despair

65 + years Older people enter a period of

reflection, becoming assured
that their lives have been
meaningful, and they grow
ready to face death with
acceptance and dignity; if no,
they despair for their
unaccomplished goals,
failures, and ill-spent lives.

WEEK TWO;

PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

Development proceeds from the head downward. This is called the cephalocaudal principle.
This principle describes the direction of growth and development. According to this principle,
the child gains Control of the head first, then the arms, and then the legs. Infants develop control

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of the head and face movements within the first two months after birth. In the next few months,
they are able to lift themselves up by using their arms.

Development proceeds from the center of the body outward. This is the principle of
proximodistal development that also describes the direction of development. This means that the
spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body. The child's arms develop before the hands
and the hands and feet develop before the fingers and toes. Finger and toe muscles (used in fine
motor dexterity) are the last to develop in physical development.

Development is cumulative and interrelated the new change is a product of the previous
change and experience. Some parts must develop and mature first before others develop e.g.
speech organs such as the voice box must develop first before language can be learned. Different
aspects of development are interrelated or linked, e.g. walking is related to development of the
skeletal structure and muscles. The biological changes occur in sequential order and give
children new abilities. Maturational patterns are innate, that is, genetically programmed. The
child's environment and the learning that occurs as a result of the child's experiences largely
determine whether the child will reach optimal development. Development proceeds from the
simple (concrete) to the more complex. Children use their cognitive and language skills to
reason and solve problems. For example, learning relationships between things (how things are
similar), or classification, is an important ability in cognitive development. The cognitive process
of learning how an apple and orange are alike begins with the most simplistic or concrete thought
of describing the two. The first level of thinking about how objects are alike is to give a
description or functional relationship (both concrete thoughts) between the two objects. "An
apple and orange are round" and "An apple and orange are alike because you eat them" are
typical responses of three, four and five year olds. As children develop further in cognitive skills,
they are able to understand a higher and more complex relationship between objects.

Growth and development is a continuous process. As a child develops, he or she adds to the
skills already acquired and the new skills become the basis for further achievement and mastery
of skills. Most children follow a similar pattern. Also, one stage of development lays the
foundation for the next stage of development. For example, in motor development, there ís a
predictable sequence of developments that occur before walking.

Growth and development proceed from the general to specific. In motor development, the
infant wil be able to grasp an object with the whole hand before using only the thumb and
forefinger. The infant's first motor movements are very generalized, undirected, and refilexive,
waving arms or kicking before being able to reach or creep toward an object. Growth occurs
from large muscle movements to more refined (smaller) muscle movements.

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There are individual rates of growth and development (individualized. Each child is
different and the rates at which individual children grow is different. Although the patterns and
sequences for growth and development are usually the same for all children, the rates at which
individual children reach developmental stages will be different. Some children will walk at ten
months while others walk a few months older at eighteen months of age. Some children are more
active while others are more passive. Development develops in stages and each stage has unique
characteristics and certain behaviours and traits that stand out.

WEEK 3: BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL BASES OF DEVELOPMENT

Introduction

Scientists have been debating this issue since the beginning of the study of developmental
psychology. Scientists such as, John Locke, J. B. Watson and B. F. Skinner believed that there
are no inborn predispositions to development. Their research tried to prove that life experiences
are the only factors responsible for shaping human development. Other scientists have argued to
the Contrary, saying that hereditary factors are the most crucial in influencing the course of
development. Most contemporary developmental psychologists are in consensus that the two
factors interact to determine development.

The Mechanisms of Heredity

Human life begins with the joining of the mother's egg cell with the father's sperm cell. These
cells gametes) carry the instructions or the blueprints that determine what characteristics an
individual will inherit. Genetics is the science that studies heredity. The basis of human life is the
protein molecules whose function is determined by arrangement of the 20 or so amino acids of
which they are composed. In turn, the arrangement of the amino acids is determined by a
Specific genetic code contained in a sequence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules
located on rod-like structures called chromosomes.

Chromosomes

A chromosome is a microscopic rod-like structure in the nucleus of a cell that contains genes
which are the carriers of heredity. There are two types of cells in human bodies; body and sex
cells. Body cells contain identical genetic information. Each of the body cells contains an
identical component of 23 pairs of chromosomes (each of which contain an identical sequence of
DNA). One member of each pair of chromosome is inherited from the mother and the other pair
from the father (23 chromosomes from each parent). The division of body cells involves mitosis
a processes that results in genetically identical pairs of cells. Unlike body cells, each mature sex
cell (sperm and ovum) contains 23 chromosomes and not 23 pairs. The gametes result from a

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special kind of cell division called meiosis, which results in daughter cells that have only half the
number of the parent cell.

Sex Chromosomes

Out of the 23 chromosomes contained in each sperm and each ovum, one, termed the sex
chromosome determines whether the offspring will be male or female. The other 22 are called
autosomes (i.e., the 22 paired non-sex chromosomes). The sex chromosomes are X and Y. Only
the male can produce a Y chromosome, whereas both females and males can produce X
chromosomes. The presence of a Y chromosome in a fertilized egg determines that the offspring
will be a male; two X chromosomes determine a female. Thus, the fertilized egg may contain
XXX or XY pair. The X chromosome that is contributed by the mother to her son is sometimes
believed to be the carrier of sex-linked, predominantly male defects and illnesses such as colour
blindness, heredity baldness, and haemophilia.

Genes

Genes are the carriers of heredity. Each of the 23 chromosomes is believed to contain between
40,000 and 100,000 genes. These genes either in pairs or complex combination of pair
determine inherited characteristics. For example, there are pairs of genes that correspond to color,
baldness, hair characteristics and almost every other characteristic of the individual.

In addition, combinations of genes appear to be related to personality characteristics such as

intelligence, temperament, aggression etc.

Dominant and Recessive Genes

Certain members of genes may be dominant over their corresponding member. When a dominant
gene is paired with a corresponding recessive (a gene whose characteristics are not manifested in
an offspring) gene, the characteristic corresponding to the dominant gene will appear in the
individual. For example, in humans, the brown-eyed gene is dominant; (it will exert its effect
regardless of whether the other member of the gene pair calls for brown or blue eyes) whereas
the blue-eyed gene is recessive.

Phenotype versus Genotype

Phenotype is the characteristic we observe in a given individual. It is the manifested

characteristics. Genotype refers to one's genetic makeup or our inherited chromosomal make up.
It consists of the 46 chromosomes out of which 23 are inherited from each parent. For example,
if you have blue eyes, then your eyes are part of your phenotype. At the same time, the genes that
correspond to blue eyes define your genotype. Two people who have brown eyes may have
different genotypes for eye color; one may be Brown-Brown; the other Brown-Blue. The
phenotypes are the same, but the genotypes are different, the Blue-eyed gene is masked by its
Brown counterpart.

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Genetic Defects

In most cases, genetic disorders are linked with recessive rather than dominant genes. This is
because any abnormality that is linked with a dominant gene will be manifested in all carriers
and will have relatively little chance of being passed on to an offspring, and especially if it leads
to an early death. Abnormalities linked to recessive genes will be manifested only when the
carrier has inherited the related recessive genes. Many individuals may be carriers for a single
recessive gene of abnormality without manifesting the abnormality. An example of a genetic
disorder linked with a dominant gene is Huntington' chorea - a fatal neurological disorder. It
manifests itself at the age of 30 or 40, and therefore it is hard to detect and keeps on being
transmitted. Examples of various genetic defects are discussed below:

Sickle-cell Anaemia, a genetic disorder linked with a recessive gene. Effects of the defective
gene are clearly discernible (noticeable) in abnormally shaped red blood cells (sickle-shaped
rather than circular) which multiply as a function of lack of oxygen. These cells tend to clot or
clog together, carrying less oxygen, thereby increasing in number and reducing oxygen even
further. Individuals suffering from sickle-cell anaemia frequently die in childhood or are severely
ill throughout life.

Down's Syndrome or Mongolism, a condition in which victims have low IQ (20- 60), broad
noses, square shaped ears, protruding tongues, small squarish heads, defective hearts, eyes with
oriental appearance hence the term Mongolism. About one out of every 600 children is born with
this defect. This defect is caused by an extra chromosome (chromosome 21). Most cases of
Down's syndrome are due to non chromosome disjunction (failure to separate) of the 21
chromosome pair during meiosis. A smaller number of cases are due to translocation or
chromosome 21 material to another chromosome (i.e., part of one pair breaks away). In this case
the number is normal but chromosomal damage is present.

Turner’s Syndrome is a defect that affects female children. One sex chromosome is missing.
The individual has only one sex chromosome (OX). Victims have underdeveloped secondary sex
characteristics, are short, sterile, and have webbed necks (having loose folds of skin). Injection of
female sex hormone, oestrogen may enhance the development of feminine characteristics.

Klinefelter’s Syndrome, a defect that involves an extra X chromosome in male children (47,
AAT). V1ctims may have both male and female secondary sexual characteristics. The male
Secondary sexual characteristics may be underdeveloped. They may have low IQ, are tall, thin,
have long arms and legs, and may also be sterile. Injection of the male sex hormone, testosterone
may enhance the development of masculine characteristics.

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Phenylketonuria (PKU), a disorder that is related to two recessive genes. The disease is caused
by a recessive allele that fails to produce an enzyme necessary to metabolize the protein
pnyenylaline. Failure to digest this protein results to accumulation of poison in the bloodstream
causing brain damage. If it is not treated immediately after birth, PKU damages the nervous
system and causes mental retardation and hyperactivity.

The Super male or XYY Syndrome, the victim may be tall, have low IQ, and has a strong
Tendency towards aggression and violence. XYY syndrome is prevalent among criminals.
However, not all criminals have this syndrome.

Tay sacs Disease is a genetic disorder linked to a recessive gene. Both parents must be carriers
of the trait for the child to have it. The victim dies after a few years. The child may appear
normal at birth, but fat begins to accumulate in the brain cells. This results to blindness, deafness,
and mental retardation and finally death. It is a disorder in which the nervous system also
degenerates. It is common in Eastern Europe and among Jews.

Haemophilia is a blood disorder characterized by poor blood clotting ability. It is associated

with an X-linked recessive gene. It is treated by transfusions of clotting factors. New gene-
spicing techniques make it possible to provide these factors without running the risk of blood-
borne infections by donated blood products.

Prematurity

The mean length of the gestation period is 266 days. Nearly 5 to 10 percent of all life births
occur prematurely. Prematurity can have some negative effect on the development of the child.
Very rarely children born before 26 weeks of age survive. Premature births can be caused by
poor maternal health, malnutrition, maternal age, smoking, drugs etc. The premature baby
will have low activity level, problems in respiration, and will not be able to regulate body
temperature effectively. For this reason, premature babies are kept in incubators for some time.
Prematurity may also cause neonatal death. The premature baby is likely to be retarded in
physical, motor and mental development, suffer speech difficulties, and have poor visual acuity
Sensitivity). However, this will depend on the kind of care given to the baby immediately after
birth. If adequate care is given through proper incubation whereby temperature, oxygen levels
and diet are carefully monitored and the infant physically stimulated at frequent intervals these
anomalies may be substantially reduced or eliminated.

Birth Injury

When the neonate is born after prolonged or obstructed labour, brain injury becomes a common
complication. Sometimes a fracture in the skull, intra-cranial haemorrhage and cerebral
laceration (tearing) may result. In such a case, development becomes retarded in the first two

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years of life and perceptional and motor defects may occur. Intra-cranial injury may lead to
convulsive disorders, cerebral palsy and mental retardation. Anoxia (interruption of oxygen
Supply in the brain) is also common and damaging. Anoxia may be caused by prematurity or
abnormality in Circulation or compression of the umbilical cord. Epilepsy is most common in
breech birth because of damage to brain cells caused by anoxia. Brain injury may be caused by
instruments (such as forceps) applied to the head of the foetus during birth. Less serious
disorders caused by brain injury include loss in auditory acuity; slow breathing, less neonate
activity following birth, hyperactivity, psychomotor problems, lower attention level etc.

There are a variety of conditions that affect the normal development of the unborn baby. Many
children are born with birth defects. Only a small proportion of birth defects result from inherited
factors (e.g, Down's syndrome). environmental factors during the prenatal period, or during child
birth. An agent that can cause a birth defect, or even kill a foetus is called teratogen (teras for
monster in Latin). Teratology helps us understand the process of normal development and to
prevent defects where possible. A total lack of oxygen to the brain will kill the brain cells in 18
seconds.

Teratogens

Maternal Nutrition

Food supply for the foetus comes from the mother s blood stream through the placenta.
Malnutrition is associated with still-birth, pre-maturity and low-birth-weight babies and postnatal
problems such as deficits in height and weight, mental deficiency, vulnerability to disease and on.
Specifically, lack of :

• Protein may result to reduced number of brain cells, neural defects and premature birth.

• Iron result to anaemia (blood deficiency)

• Calcium results to poor born formation

• Vitamins result to poor mental functioning and physical abnormalities. However, an

overdose of vitamin D may cause mental retardation.

Drugs

Pregnant mothers should not take drugs unless their health is really threatened. If medicine has
to be taken at all, it should be prescribed by an authorized physician, especially during the first
three months of pregnancy. The following the drugs that are known to cause some problems:

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 i. Insulin- when given in large doses and in the first 14 weeks of pregnancy it may lead to
the death of the foetus or to malformations.

• Thalidomide - it was used as a tranquilizer and sedative to treat morning sickness but
caused deformities on unborn babies. The defects caused depended on the time when the
drug was taken during pregnancy. between the 34 and 38 day, the babies had no ears

• between the 38 and 45h day, the babies had defects in intestines or gall bladder

• between the 42 and 47h day, the babies had missing or deformed legs

• after the S0" day, the babies had no deformities

ii. Antibiotics- for example, streptomycin and tetracycline may cause malformations of the
teeth and skeleton and also deafness.

iii. Analgesics- may cause depression of respiration )

iv. Aspirin- may cause prolonged labour and longer than average clotting time. It may also
depresSs respiration.

v. Quinine- is associated with congenital deafness

vi. Anaesthesia- may sedate infants making them lethargic for the first few days. The baby
may take longer to adjust to postnatal life.

vii. Intoxicants- (narcotics) for example morphine, cocaine, heroine, morphine and codeine
may lead to the birth of addicted and withdrawn babies. Soon after birth the babies may
show symptoms of withdrawal (e.g, fever, restlessness, hyperactivity, shrill crying,
trembling& hyperirmitability, and vomiting).

Smoking

Smoking by pregnant mothers of cigarettes whose main ingredients include nicotine, tar, and
carbon dioxide may likely lead to premature babies and underweight babies. Heavy smoking
may result to spontaneous abortions, still-births, congenital malformations, neonate pneumonia
and low weight babies.

Alcohol

Excessive alcohol intake can lead to children who suffer from foetal alcoholic syndrome (FAS)
whose symptoms include small heads, thin long upper lip, widely spread eyes, low forehead,
short nose, retarded physical growth, flat cheekbones, possible mental retardation, low birth
weight, small size and neurological abnormalities. Moderate drinking may cause spontaneous

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abortion. Alcohol may cause damage to the muscles of the foetus and constriction of the
umbilical cord cutting off needed oxygen to the foetus.

Chemicals

Chemicals may damage the genetic material itself causing mutation or interfere with
development after conception. Some dangerous chemicals include:

i. Mercury which is found in cosmetics, lightening creams and in industrial waste can lead
to mental retardation and physical deformities. Its effect received worldwide attention
following the birth of a large number of severely deformed and retarded children in
Minimata Bay - Japan. These defomities were traced to the presence of high levels of
mercury in the fish that inhabitants of this community consumed in great quantities. The
mercury got to the fish through industrial waste.

ii. Lead which can be found in automobile exhaust fumes and industrial waste if ingested by
the expectant mother may cause miscarriage, anaemia, haemorrhage in the mother,
premature birth, low weight, brain damage, physical defects and mental retardation. In
men, exposure to lead may cause chromosomal abnormality that may affect their fertility.

iii. Fungicides or insecticides contain ingredients like hydrocarbons and dioxin which may
lead to still birth, miscarriage, physical deformities etc.

Hormones

Hormones that are mainly taken by mothers as medication may cause malformation of the foetal
Sexual organs. Hormones taken and also produced by the mother and foetus may alter the cause
of sexual development. In extreme cases they may result into the development of a body type
opposite to the baby's genetic sex. For example, androgens may cause mascularnization of the
female foetus. Hormonal therapy can be administered to the baby after birth to set things right
depending on the severity of the condition. Sometimes a sex operation may be necessary.
Diethylstilbestrol (DES) can cause uterine and vaginal abnormalities in female fetuses. It was
prescribed to prevent miscarriage in the 1950s. It can also cause (possible) carcin0genesis in
male and female foetus and also infertility.

Radiation

Radiation can damage the genetic material leading to physical or mental retardation. It can cause
hazardous effects on the zygote, embryo and foetus whose cells divide rapidly. Excessive
radiation through x-ray (e.g., X-ray treatment of cancer) or through radiation in the atmosphere
have produced marked effects on development. Radiation can lead to malformed limbs,

17
malformed eyes, heart defects, leukaemia (cancer of the blood), mental retardation and abortion.
The effects of low levels of radiation are not well documented.

Diseases

i. Rubella (German measles) has been associated with blindness, mental retardation,
deafness and heart malformation.

ii. Herpes may cause brain infection and death

iii. Syphilis has been linked to blindness, deafiness or insanity later in life, (after birth the
baby can be given drops of silver nitrate or penicillin to prevent the eyes from damage).

iv. Gonorrhoea can affect the heart, spinal cord and cause blindness etc )

v. Diabetes can cause respiratory and circulatory problems.

vi. HIVIAIDS virus can be transmitted to the infant during pregnancy or through breast
feeding. It can cause facial deformities, growth failure and eventually death.

Maternal Factors

Age: First time mothers over 35 years of age and teenage mothers have a higher rate of
miscarriage, premature birth, still-birth and birth defects than mothers in the prime bearing age
(20 35). The young mothers may not have yet completed their own development and their
reproductive systems may not be ready to function. Children with Down's syndrome are usually
born to mothers over 40 years and sometimes to very young mothers. The problem occurs during
meiosis when the 2st chromosome fails to separate properly, hence resulting to a total of 47
instead of 46 chromosomes. Victims have very low 1Qs (20-60), broad nose, and protruding
tongue. They are also likely to suffer heart malformations and respiratory disorders.

Rhesus factor (RH) incompatibility

Rhesus factor is a component of the blood. Its presence makes a person's blood Rh positive and
its absence Rh negative. The two types are genetically inherited and are incompatible under
certain circumstance. When an Rh negative woman marries an Rh positive man, the baby's blood
will be Rh positive, since the Rh positive is a dominant trait. The baby's blood type in ihis case
will be incompatible to that of the mother. The Rh foetus produces substances called antigens
that can pass through the semi-permeable membrane of the placenta and enter the Rh negative
mother's bloodstream. If this happens the mother's blood produces antibodies to resist the
invasion of the antigens. The toxic substance produced by the mother give the skin a yellow

18
colouring called jaundice. The affected child may be born prematurely or may be still-birth or
mentally retarded. The antibody build up does not happen quickly enough to affect a first child,
only those born later are affected.

Maternal Emotional State

In pregnancy, excessive emotional stress of rage, fear, anxiety and anger can stimulate the
nervous system of the mother to send chemicals to the bloodstream. At the same time, the
endocrine glands will secrete hormones may find their way to the foetal blood through the
placenta. Excessive stress in the 7 week of pregnancy when the loop of the mouth and the bones
of the upper jaw are forming in the foetus may result to cleft-palate an stressful state interfere
with the proper development of the upper jaw bone and the palate formation.

Though not well established, stress may bring about undesirable behaviours in the newbom for
example, excessive crying, irritability, dificulty in breathing, diarrhoea and vomiting. Note that,
stress may affect the mother's feeding habits causing her to under feed or feed poorly. Thus, the
effects may be related to poor feeding indirectly or for others, they may be due to drugs taken to
relax when stressed.

WEEK4: STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

• Prenatal development (0-40wks)

• Infancy (0-2 years)

• Early childhood (2-6 years)

• Late childhood (7- 11 years)

• Adolescence (12-19 years)

• Early adulthood (20-35 years)

• Middle adulthood (35-60 years) and

• Late adulthood (60 + years)

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Introduction

Prenatal development marks the beginning of life and development. Conception occurs when
sperm cell unítes with an egg cell (ovum). It is also termed as fertilization. The newly fertilized

19
egg cell (zygote) contains the entire genetic endowment in the form of 23 pairs of chromosomes,
2 from the male and 23 from the female. As soon as the zygote is formed, a process of cell
division known as mitosis begins. This is the process through which the cells multiply. It takes
about 3-4 days for zygote to reach the uterus after fertilization.

STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

pre-embryonic Period or Germinal Stage (0-3 weeks): It is also referred to as the period of
the ovum. The period begins immediately after conception. Three days or so after fertilization,
the zygote is implanted in the thickened uterine wall. This is aided by finger-like extensions
called villi) that develop as the cell division continues. By the end of two weeks the cells will1
have multiplied greatly in number and will have begun to differentiate themselves.

The embryoníc disc differentiates itself into 3 germ layers called germinal layers (the origin of
human tissue). These germinal layers are

• Endoderm (inner layer)- later develops to form the glands, digestive system (epithelium)
and the respiratory pystem.

• Mesoderm (middle layer)- later develops to form the skeleton, muscles, connective

tissue (ligaments), circulatory system, excretory and reproduction systems.

• Ectoderm (outer layer)- later develops to form the nervous system, brain, sense organs,
skin, hair and teeth.

The Embryonic Period (4th-8th week)

During this period the heart begins to beat and the eyes, nose and mouth begin to form. At 8
weeks the organism has the basic organs and features of a human baby, with the exception of the
sex organs. It measures about 1% inches. Many teratogens (agents and conditions that can impair
prenatal development and lead to birth defects or even death) can cause harm to the embryo and
foetus. Diseases, drugs, pollutants, chemicals, stressors and malnutrition can all cause birth
defects. The organism is highly vulnerable to teratogenic influences during this period of the
embryo during which most of the body organs are formed. Teratogens cause congenital
abnormalities and malformations of body organs. Malformations of the heart, central nervous
system occurs during the 5 week, malformations of ears, eyes, arms and legs during 4 - 7 week
while teeth and palate malformations occurs during 7-8 week.

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The Period of the Foetus (9th-40 weeks)

This period is characterized by growth and development of the organs and systems established
during the embryonic period. During the third month, the foetus develops eyelids and sex
differentiation occurs (i.e. external genitals develop). During the fourth month, there is
movement development, which includes sucking (foetus can for example suck the thumb), head
turning and limb movements. The mother begins to feel movements. During the 5th, 6th and 7th
months the foetus continues to develop significantly. It can survive in the sixth or 7 month
because the respiratory system 1s fully developed. At the end of the 9 month (40 weeks), the
foetus is ready to be born. The average ful term baby weighs 2.5-4.3 kilogrammes.

WEEK5: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

INFANCY (0-2 YEARS)

Development is rapid during the first two years. Most babies gain about 22 pounds (10 kgs) and
grow about 15 inches (38 cm) during the first two years. Proportions change. The head is
relatively large at birth, and fat accumulates quickly and then more slowly after age one. Brain
development is rapid within the infancy stage. At the age of 6 months, the brain is appróximately
50%% of its adult weight. By 3 years it is approximately 75% of its adult weight.

Motor development

At first, the newborm's motor abilities consist of reflexes involuntary responses to stimuli, some
of which are crucial for survival such as the breathing and sucking reflexes. Some of these
reflexes are shown below:

Rooting- when the cheek is touched the baby turns towards the direction of the touch

Babinski- when stroked in the outer sole the baby's toes spread out

Grasping- place a finger on the palm the baby grasps tightly and can be pulled to Sitting position

Swimming-When put in water on the belly, baby makes swimming movements

Walking-as feet touch ground, baby makes walking motion

Moro - baby is gently dropped back on the bed to elicit startle, the baby throws arms out in
extension and grimaces.

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Gross motor skills involve large movements, such as running and jumping; fine motor skils
involve small, precise movements, such as picking a coin. As the infant develops the motor skills
become more coordinated.

Months skill

1 baby can lift chin or head when lying on the stomach

2 baby can lift both the head and chest when lying on the stomach

4 baby can sit with support

7 baby can sit without support

8 baby can crawl or creep

9 baby can stand when holding on to something

10 baby can walk when supported or holding on to objects

12 baby can walk alone

14 baby can climb up stairs

EARLY CHILDHOOD (2-6 YEARS)

During early childhood, children grow about 3 inches (7 centimetres) and gain about 4 and a
half pounds (2 kilogrammes) a year. Variation in growth and development is caused primarily by
genes health care, and nutrition. Brain maturation improves children's Physical abilities,
Emotional regulation. As they grow older, pre-school children are more able to control their
emotions and motor co-ordination.

Improvement of gross motor skills enables the child to perform many physical activities. Fine
motor skills, such as holding a pencil or tying a shoelace, improve more gradually during early
childhood. The fine motor skills develop more slowly as compared to the gross motor skills that
improve dramatically. The brain continues to develop, attaining 90 percent of its adult weight by
the time the child is 5 years old.

LATE CHILDHOOD (7-11 YEARS)

Children grow more slowly than they did during infancy, early childhood or than they will
during adolescence. Variation in size, shape and rate of maturation is influenced by genetic as

22
well as environmental factors. School-age children can master almost any motor skill as long as
it does not require adult strength and judgment. Increased strength and lung capacity give
children the endurance to improve their performance in skills such as swimming and running.
They do enjoy exercising their developing skills of co-ordination and balance.

ADOLESCENCE (12- 19 YEARS)

Adolescence is the period of transition from childhood to adulthood. The on set of adolescence
is marked by a period of fast-paced physical and intellectual changes. Normal children
experience their first body changes sometimes between the ages of 8 and 14. Puberty (period or
sexual maturity) is initiated by the production of hormones in the brain. Four of the most
important hormones are gonadotropin releasing hormone, growth hormone, testosterone and
oestrogen. The individual's sex, genes, body type, and stress all affect the age at which puberty
begins, with girls and fatter children reaching puberty ahead of boys and leaner children.
Growth spurt (accelerated growth) provides the first evidence of puberty. The growth spurt
involves gain in weight and then height. The body will appear disproportional since various parts
of the body begin growth at different times. The growth spurt begins with the extremities first
and then proceeds towards the torso (body trunk).

During puberty, all primary sex characteristics (sex organs) grow larger as the young person
becomes sexually mature. Menarche (the first menstrual cycle) in girls and spermarche (the first
ejaculation) in boys are signs that indicate reproductive potential although full fertility is not
reached until years after these initial signs of maturity. Both sexes experience changes in the
Secondary sex characteristics (breasts, voice, and facial and body hair). Individual differences
are common.

EARLY ADULTHOOD (20-35 YEARS)

Young adults grow stronger and healthier as their bodies reach adult size. In terms of overall
health, as well as peak physical conditions, early adulthood is the prime of life. With each year
from 20 to 40, signs of senescence (signs of old age) become more apparent. All the body
systems gradually become less efficient (though at different rates), and homeostasis takes
increasingly longer to reach. However, because of organ reserve (extra capacity to withstand
moments of intense and prolonged stress) none of these changes are particularly troublesome or
even noticeable for most young adults. Some couples have fertility problems because:

• the man's sperm are insufficient in quantity or motility;

• women's failure to ovulate because of blocked fallopian tubes (often caused by

inflammatory diseases) and uterine problems (such as fibroids);

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 • Aging, though normal aging process is rarely a primary cause of infertility in early
adulthood.

Young adults are more likely to abuse alcohol and illicit drugs than are people of any other age.
Eating disorders are common especially among women who feel a compulsion to be thinner than
their bodies tend to be.

MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (35-60 YEARS)

Various changes are experienced that include:

• Wrinkles on the face;

• Less hair

• Accumulation of fat, especially on the abdomen;

• Loss of hearing;

• Loss of visual acuity;

• Decline in all the body's systems, which generally may not impair normal functioning

• Menopause (the woman's menstrual cycle stops, ovulation ceases, and levels of oestrogen
are markedly reduced);

• Reduction of sexual responses

• Many middle age adults put their health at risk by smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol
excessively, eating poorly, gaining weight, and maintaining a sedentary (inactive) life
Variations in health and the rate of aging can be accounted for by:

• Genetic factors

• Social and psychological factors .

• Gender

• Socioeconomic status

• Social factors

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LATE ADULTHOOD (60 + YEARS)

Contrary to the stereotype that aging brings about a host of problems, most of the aged are
happy, quite healthy and active (Berger, 2001). Dependency on children and relatives is common
in developing countries like Kenya.

Primary aging occurs throughout the life span, even from birth. It involves the universal and
irreversible physical changes that occur to all living organisms as they grow older. There are
changes in skin, hair and body shape. Older people are somewhat shorter, weigh less than they
did and they walk stiffly. Such changes may affect the self-concept of the older person. Vision is
almost always impaired by late adulthood, while problems with hearing affect about a third of
the elderly persons. Secondary aging involves changes caused by particular conditions and
illness. Many elderly people do experience some chronic ailments. Many theories explain the
causes of aging:

Wear-and-tear theory assumes that as we use our bodies we wear them out just as a machine
wears out with extended use.

Cellular theories assume that the DNA duplication and repair process are affected by radiation
and other factors, leading to an accumulation of errors when new cells are made. Decline in the
immune system of elderly people increases vulnerability to disease. Reduction in the number of
cells that attack bacteria, viruses and other destructive agents interferes with the body's ability to
fight disease.

Genetic aging theory assumes that the maximum human life span is fixed by a genetic clock
that switches the aging process on at some point. Secondary aging can be controlled through diet
and exercise.

CAT ONE

WEEK 7: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Infancy (0-2 Years)

From birth to age 2, children are in what Piaget referred to as sensori-motor stage. During this
stage, they use their senses and motor skills to understand the environment. By the end of this
period they:

 Achieve object permanence,

25
  Understand cause-and-effect relationships,

 Are able to set simple goals and have the knowledge and ability to achieve them and

 Attain the ability to symbolize.

Early Childhood (3-6 Years)

Between the age of 2 and 6, children are in the preoperational state of development. Many
cognitive abilities, including some related to number, memory and problem solving, become
more mature. They become less egocentric and able to take into account the ideas and emotions
of others. However, their thinking is still illogical and egocentric. They attain symbolic thought.
They are distracted by appearances and inability to think in reverse. They centre on one aspect of
a situation to the exclusion of others.

Late Childhood (7- 11 Years)

During middle childhood, children become better able to understand and learn because of
growth in their processing capacity, knowledge base, and memory capacity. At this time they are
in Piaget's concrete operations stage. They develop the ability to understand logical principles,
including the concepts of identity, reciprocity, and reversibility. Their ability to learn, remember
and process information improves. They can think faster.

Brain maturation, experience, motivation and instruction enhance their thinking process. They
understand concepts such as classification, serialisation, conservation, quantity etc. However,
their understanding and logic is based on real or concrete experiences.

Adolescence (12- 19 Years)

Adolescents are in Piaget's formal operations stage. Unlike young children, whose thoughts are
tied to tangible reality, adolescents can build formal systems and general theories that transcend
(and sometimes ignore) practical experience. Formal thought involves hypothetical reasoning,
induction, deduction and a capacity to reason about abstractions and judge the logical correctness
of a chain of reasoning. Formal operations coincide with new form of moral judgment that
involves reliance not on conventional rules but on abstract ethical principles. However, teenagers
do not always think at this advanced level. Egocentrism in their thinking helps to account for
their self-consciousness that is typical during this phase of life.

Early Adulthood (20-35 Years)

Adults are in a different type of thinking called postformal thought that picks up from where
Piaget left off. This is a type of thinking and reasoning that builds on the skills of formal
operational thinking. The complex and ambiguous or conflicting demands of daily life produce
this type of thinking. It is a type of thinking that is well suited to coping with problems that may

26
have no correct solutions. Postformal thought is adaptive, integrating thinking processes and
experience in a contextual awareness.

At its most advanced, postformal thinking may be characterized as dialectical, capable of

recognizing and synthesizing complexities and contradictions. It involves flexibility and an ever
changing approach. The appearance of this stage is gradual and is dependent on particular
experiences and education rather than on a universal, chronologically determined restructuring of
mental processes. Moral reasoning is influenced by post formal thinking. Education tends to
make people more flexible, thoughtful, and tolerant because it encourages them to feel less
threatened by conflicting views.

Middle Adulthood (35-60 Years)

Some intellectual abilities improve with age, while others decline. Typically, Fluid intelligence
(based on genetic factors) decreases. Reaction time and speed of thinking slow down. On the
other hand crystallized intelligence (based on accumulated knowledge) increases. Sternbegerg
(1988) proposed three fundamental forms of intelligence: analytic, creative and practical.t is
believed that analytic and creative abilities decline with age, while practical intelligence
improves with age. Analytic intelligence learning, remembering and thinking. These include
planning, strategy selection, information processing and verbal and logical skills. Creative
intelligence involves the capacity to be intellectually flexible and innovative when dealing with
new situations. Practical intelligence involves the capacity to adapt one's behaviour to
contextual demands of a given situation. For example, managing family conflicts and convincing
members of an organization to do something. Adult intelligence tends to flourish in areas of the
individuals interests. The adult becomes an expert at tasks that were once difficult and
mysterious. This is what is referred to a contextual intelligence.

Late Adulthood (65 + Years)

Memory fades in older age. Working memory (or short-term memory) is the first to slow down
long-term memory is more durable. Aging makes it difficult to access memory. Cognitive
abilities decline with aging. Reaction time decreases, physical and intellectual activity can halt or
reverse some of the cognitive slowdown that occurs in old age. Dementia is characterized by
memory loss at first, minor lapses, then more serious forgetfulness, and finally such extreme
losses that recognition of closest family members fades. Alzheimer's disease is major cause of
dementia. Other causes are ministrokes that occur when impairment of blood circulation destroys
portions of the brain.

CAT TWO

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WEEK 7: LANGUAGE DEVELOOPMENT

Infancy (0-2 Years)

Language development is closely related with development of speech organs i.e. throat, mouth,
tongue, teeth, lips, larynx and the ability to associate sounds with meaningful events, objects and
persons. The following factors affect language development in children;

 Health -illness can retard growth and development of the speech organs and or cause
language impairment.

 Intelligence level- high intelligence may imply better linguistic competence.

 Sex-girls are superior in language development than boys.

 Socio-economic status - children from families of high economic status do better in

language

 Social interactions plays and social interactions helps children learn how to communicate
verbally faster.

There are theories of how children learn to speak. These are:

 Conditioning- children learn language through associations which are strengthened using
reinforcements.

 Social learning- children learn language by observation and imitation.

 Heredity- human beings have an inborn capacity to acquire language due to the presence
of a Language Acquisition Device (LAD).

Language skills begin to develop as babies communicate through cries, noises, cooing, gestures
and then practice babbling. By the end of the first year they learn the first few words and
thereafter vocabulary grows gradually. Language acquisition is dependent on genetic
predisposition to learn language and environmental factors.

Early Childhood (2- 6 Years)

Language abilities develop rapidly; the child can repeat adult language (echolaliac speech) and
by the age of 6, the average child knows more than 2,000 words and demonstrates extensive

28
grammatical knowledge. They learn to adjust their communication to their audience. They over
generalize grammatical rules or apply them where they do not fit.

Late Childhood (7- 11 Years)

Increased cognitive development makes it easier to acquire vocabulary. Understanding of

language improves greatly. Most children become bilingual (understanding of a second
language).

Adolescence (12-19 Years)

The vocabulary expands greatly and the understanding of grammar progresses. The adolescent
can use more abstractly and creatively than in middle childhood. They can use language that is
distinct and unique that even adults find hard to comprehend e.g. use of Sheng' in Kenya.

WEEK8: EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL (PSYCHOSOCIAL) DEVELOPMENT

Emotions can be defined as a;

 Stirred-up or an aroused state of an individual that involves mental, physical,

physiological, situational and habitual factors.

 Feelings or affective responses that result from physiological arousal, thoughts and
beliefs, subjective evaluation and bodily expression.

Emotions have four components, namely;

1) The Physiological Component: This involves active changes in the physical body.
When the body is emotionally aroused, the heart rate accelerates, pupils dilate, respiration
increases and so on.

2) The cognitive component: Our thoughts, beliefs and expectations are important in
determining the type and intensity of our emotional response. For example, depending on
our cultural background we may have beliefs about emotions that are inappropriate and
therefore cannot be expressed openly.

3) The Behavioural Component: This involves the various forms of expression that
communicate emotions. It may take the outward observable signs of emotional feelings.
For example, facial expressions, bodily postures and gestures, tone of voice and so on.

29
 4) The Subjective (affective) Experience: This is the private, subjective experience of
having an emotion. It includes elements of pleasure, displeasure, intensity of feeling and
complexity. What one person may experience as pleasurable may be boring or aversive to
another.

Common Emotions

Fear: Fear is the tendency to run away or to avoid certain situations, especially painful ones. It
is a response to real and sometimes to imaginary or subjective danger or situation. Fear is more
closely related to anxiety, but it is more intense and specific. It can be aroused by unexpected
events (death, war, failure in exams, ill health), material objects (snakes, guns, animals), social
failure and so on.

Anxiety: Anxiety is fear caused by uncertainty about something imaginary or real. It is a

response to a vague subjective danger. Prolonged and extreme anxiety is detrimental to the
individual. It can cause diseases like high blood pressure, dermatitis (skin disease), and ulcers.

Some of the factors that can cause anxiety are:

 An environment that is inconsistent, unjust and harsh.

 Feelings of inadequacy.

 Uncertainty about the future, and so on.

Anger:

Anger is a disruptive and an unhealthy emotion which is a learned response to environmental

stimuli. It can be caused by frustration of goal directed behaviour, failure to achieve success in
examinations, being unfairly treated and so on.

Pleasure: This is a positive constructive emotion which involves the feeling of enjoyment,
satisfaction and happiness. It is the feeling of gratification after fulfilling a need or reaching a
goal. The emotion off pleasure produces relaxation to the body.

Affection: Affection is an emotion characterized by a feeling of fondness, liking and attachment

to others. People respond positively to qualities that underlie affection such as sympathy
kindness, patience, courtesy and interest in others.

Aggression: Aggression is an emotional behaviour aimed at hurting other people. The term
applies to feelings of anger and hostility. Aggression is often associated with thwarting or

30
blockage of a motive or goal directed behaviour. It may be expressed directly (direct aggression)
by attacking objects or persons perceived to be the cause or indirectly (indirect aggression) by
venting hostility on less threatening objects or persons other than the cause.

ERIK ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Erikson's version of psychoanalytic theory emphasizes psychosocial contexts, whereby

individual are shaped by the interaction of personal characteristics and social forces. Erikson
describes eight successive stages of psychosocial development from infancy through old age,
each of which involves a developmental crisis that must be resolved. Success or failure in
resolving the crisis has lasting effect on personality development.

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages

Approximate Age/ Stages Developmental Tasks/ Crisis

Birth to 1 year Babies learn either to trust that others will care
for their basic needs, including nourishment,
Trust Vs Mistrust warmth, cleanliness, and physical contact, or to
lack confidence in the care of others.

1-3 years Children learn either to be self-sufficient in

many activities, including toileting, feeding,
Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt walking, exploring, and talking, or to doubt
their own abilities.

3-6 years Children want to undertake many adult like

activities, sometimes overstepping the limits
Initiative Vs Guilt set by parents and feeling guilt.

Children busily learn to be competent and

productive in mastering new skills or feel
Middle and Late Childhood inferior and unable to do anything well.
(7-11 Years)

Industry Vs Inferiority

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Adolescence 12- 20 years Adolescents try to figure out "Who Am ?”
They establish sexual political and career
Identity Vs Role Confusion identities or are confused about what roles to
play.

Young Adulthood Young people become able to commit

themselves to another person in friendship
20-30 years marriage or career involvement; if not, they
Intimacy Vs Isolation develop a sense of isolation and feel they have
no one in the world but themselves.
Middle Adulthood
Adults are willing to have and care for children
(30-65 years) as they contribute to the next generation,
devote themselves to their work and common
Generativity Vs Stagnation
good; if not, they become self-centred and
inactive.

Late adulthood 65+ yrs Older people enter a period of reflection,

becoming assured that Their lives have been
Ego Integrity Vs Despair meaningful, and they grow ready to face death
with acceptance and dignity; if no, they despair
for their unaccomplished goals, failures, and
ill-spent lives.

Infancy (0--2 Years)

During infancy various basic emotions develop. These include:

 Smiling at about 6 weeks

 Laughing at 4 months

 Stranger wariness at 6 months

 Affection at about 9 months etc

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The social context teaches infants when and how to express their emotions. Self-awareness
develops in the second year of life and allows a new set of emotions, including pride,
embarrassment and jealousy. Attachment develops between the caregiver and the infant.
Attachment refers to an enduring emotional connection between people that produces a desire for
continual contact as well as feelings of distress during separation. There are three types of
emotional attachment between the infant and the parents or the care giver. These are:

 Secure attachment - Securely attached infants tend to explore and play in the caregiver's
presence, gets distressed when caregiver leaves and reacts to the caregiver's return and is
calmed. The infant does not display any negative emotions towards the caregiver.

 Ambivalent attachment- is an insecure attachment is characterized the unwillingness of

the infant to explore and play in the caregiver's presence, gets distressed and upset when
caregiver leaves and reacts angrily to the caregiver's return. The infant display ambivalent
behaviour because they want to be near or held by the caregiver but also pulls away.

 Avoidant attachment- the infant shows no emotions when the caregiver leaves or
returns and sometimes prefers another person or pushes the caregiver away and avoids
contact.

Attachment patterns in infancy influence development throughout life.

Early Childhood (2-6 Years)

Social development

Children spend more time playing with peers and boldly initiate new activities, especially if they
are praised for their endeavours (good boy/girl syndrome). 1hey engage in different types of play
that help them master physical and intellectual skills and that teach or enhance their social roles
and skills. These plays are:

i. Solitary independent play- the child plays alone independently and with its own toys,
without reference to others.

ii. Parallel play- where two children play side by side but not together. Each does his/her
things in his/her own way and they also imitate each other.

33
 iii. Associative play - where children play together but do not share rules or goals. For
example, when they play a ball game, they share no rules or goals.

iv. Cooperative play - where children share rules and roles. They consciously form groups to
accomplish some activity e.g. play ball games with some rules to be followed.

Antisocial behaviour such as aggression and delinquency may develop.

Emotional development

Self-concept emerges as does the ability to regulate emotions. The emotional development is
more qualitative than quantitative .e. the child learns new ways of expressing emotions 8
verbally. The emotions are intense, though brief, expressed overtly e.g. temper tantrums, and
frequent. Intensity of emotions reduces with maturation.

Middle and Late Childhood (7- 11 Years)

Social development

Children develop social cognition understanding of themselves and their feelings and as well
others' feelings and intentions. The same sex peer group becomes increasingly important and
they become less dependent on their parents and more dependent on friends for help, loyalty and
sharing of mutual interests. These groups help them develop self-confidence, social competence
and responsibility and adoption of appropriate sex roles. During the pre-school years, children
create their own subcultures, with its own language, values and codes of behaviour. Parents and
other family members continue to influence children significantly during this period.

Emotional development

The child learns how to express emotions appropriately, hide them or control them. The child is
also able allow the emotions last longer (brood). Emotions of frustrations and fears are often
displayed at this stage due to demands and expectations from parents, teachers and society.

Adolescence (12-19 Years) Social development

There is a change in social attitudes such as: change from cooperation to competition; resisting
authority, preferring solitude and egocentric. Parents and pees have a significant influence on the
adolescent in their beliefs, values, and ideals and so on. The peer group is a vital source of
information and encouragement. The adolescent subculture provides a buffer between the world
of children and the world of adults, allowing, for example, a social context for the beginning of

34
neterosexual relationships. Peer pressure can lead the adolescent into trouble. Friendships in
early adolescence are with members of the same sex, but by late adolescence, they include
members of the opposite sex.

According to Erikson, adolescence is a time of searching the objective is a sense of identity, an

answer to the question, "who am I? They have a task of developing both their own uniqueness
and their relationship to the larger society, establishing a sexual, political, moral, ethnic and
Vocational identity. Sometimes the pressure to resolve the identity crisis is too great, and instead
ot exploring alternative roles, they fore close on their options, taking on someone else's values
wholesale. According to Erikson, foreclosure is a process in which they may seize their parents
values, or they may choose the values of a cult or hero. Others may take on a negative identity.

Some experience identity diffusion (confusion), making few commitments to goals, principles,
or a particular self-definition.

Emotional development

Although they are able to demonstrate more emotional maturity and control than earlier stages or
development, the emotions of the adolescents are intense, frequent and overt more like in the
infancy period. They experience a variety of emotions from on both ends of the spectrum (mood
SWings). They are able to experience both pleasant and unpleasant emotions, such as, anger,
jealousy, envy, fear, worry, anxiety, affection and happiness.

Early Adulthood (20-35 Years)

Adult development appears to be characterized by two basic needs. The first need is for
intimacy and is achieved through friendships and love relationships. The second is for
generativity and is usually achieved through satisfying work and/or parenthood. The primary
source of intimacy is friendship and by members of the same sex and of the opposite sex.

The deepest source of intimacy is found through sexual bonding with a mate. This bonding might
involve cohabitation and/or marriage. Work is a major source of satisfaction and esteem. The
pleasure of a job well done helps meet the need to be generative. Work is an outlet of self-
expression and a source of status. The labour market is changing radically and individuals
should expect to experience job changes and an increasing need for knowledge and flexibility
within a diverse group of co-workers. To keep pace with changes in the workplace we are
witnessing an influx of adult students in colleges.

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Middle Adulthood (35-60 Years)

Although middle age brings about personal and family changes, personality is characterized by
stability than change. The stability of personality is party genetic, partly the result of early life
experiences and partly the result of the individual's creation of an ecological niche (the lifestyle
and social context adults settle into which are compatible with their individual personality needs
and interests). One personality change that occur is the narrowing of the gap between masculine
and feminine personality traits. This means that there is a likelihood of loosening of rigid gender
roles that allow both men and women to explore feelings and behaviours previously reserved for
the other sex, such as men getting involved in cooking

Middle-aged adults usually have rewarding relationships with their adult children and
grandchildren, without the stress that responsibility for child rearing creates. Marriages tend to
become less conflicted. Decreasing family and work responsibilities may allow a couple to
devote more time to each other.

Work continues to be an important source of both stress and status in middle age. Many adults
learn how to co-ordinate the demands of a partner, children and an employer. Many workerss
retire at the age of 55.

Late Adulthood (65 + Years)

Different theories focus on development in late adulthood.

 Self-theories emphasize the core self, or the search to maintain one's integrity and
identity. According to Erikson, individuals seek integrity that connects them with the
human community. themselves.

 Stratification theories emphasize that social forces especially those related to a person s
social stratum or social category, limit individual choices and affect the ability to function.
Many societies tend to segregate their oldest citizens, giving them limited roles,
compelling them to retire, offering less lifesaving medical treatment etc.

 Disengagement theory assumes that aging makes a person's social sphere increasingly
narrow, resulting to role relinquishment, withdrawal and passivity.

 Activity theory holds that the elderly remain active in a variety of social spheres with
relatives, friends and community groups. If they do disengage and withdraw, they do so
unwillingly. The more active the elderly are, and the more roles they play, the greater
their satisfaction and the longer their lives.

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 Participation in community activities or in politics enhances the health and well-being of
the elderly. Social support from spouse, friends or family members is important at old age.
As the elderly grow frail care by a family or from a nursing home will be necessary.

WEEK 9: PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Personality is defined as an individual's unique, relatively consistent pattern of thoughts, feelings

and behaviours.” Personality” refers to our attempts to capture or summarize an individuals

‘essence’.

Sigmund Freud conceived of personality as a dynamic system of energies directed by three res
the id, the ego and the super ego. Each is a complex system in its own right, and behaviour in
most situations involves the activity of all three.

According to Freud, there are three levels of consciousness:

 Conscious (small): this is the part of the mind that holds what you are aware of. You can
verbalize about your conscious experience and you can think about it in a logical fashion.

 Preconscious (small medium): this is ordinary memory. So although things stored here
aren't in the conscious, they can be readily brought into conscious.

 Unconscious (enormous): Freud felt that this part of the mind was not directly
accessible to awareness. In part, he saw it as a dump box for urges, feelings and ideas that
are tied to anxiety, conflict and pain. These feelings and thoughts have not disappeared
and according to Freud, they are there, exerting influence on our actions and our
conscious awareness. This is where most of the work of the id, ego and superego take
place.

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Structure of Personality

The 1d

The id is made up of inherited biological instincts and urges present at birth. It is "self-serving",
irrational, impulsive and unconscious. The id operates on the pleasure principle, meaning that
pleasure-seeking impulses of all kinds are freely expressed. Newborn infants are sometimes
described as "all id" since they desire immediate satisfaction of their needs. Most id energies are
directed towards discharge of tensions associated with sex and aggression.

The Ego

The ego, sometimes described as the "executive", draws its energies from the id. The id can only
produce mental images of things it desires called "primary process thinking". The ego wins
power to direct the personality by matching the desires of the 1d with external reality. In contrast
to the id, which operates on the pleasure principle, the ego is directed by the reality principle
(which involves delaying action until it is appropriate). The operation of the reality principle
results in "secondary process thinking", which is basically realistically problem solving. The go
is thereby a system of thinking, planning and deciding. It is in conscious control of the
personality.

Super ego

The Super ego acts as a judge or censor for the thoughts or actions of the ego. One part of the
Superego, called the conscience, represents all actions for which a person has been punished.
The "ego ideal" represents all behaviour one's parents approved or rewarded. The "ego ideal" is
Source of goals and aspirations. When its standards are met, pride is felt. By these processes, ne
superego acts as an "internalized parent, to bring behaviour under control. In Freud's view, a
person with a poorly developed super ego may exhibit a delinquent, criminal or anti-social
personality. In contrast, an overly strict or repressive super ego will cause inhibitions, rigidity or
intolerable guilt.

Personality Development

Sigmund Freud's theory of human development provides a clear picture of how a person's
personality develops from childhood up to adulthood. The cumulative treatment and interaction
subjected to a person, right from birth through the growth stages until one attains adulthood,
influences the kind of personality that a person develops.

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Oral Stage

During the first year of life, most of the infant's pleasure comes from stimulation of the mouth. If
a child is overfed or frustrated, oral traits may be created. Adult expressions of oral needs include,
gum-chewing, nail biting, smoking, kissing, overeating and alcoholism.

Anal Stage

Between the ages of one and three years, the child's attention shifts to the process of elimination.
When his parents attempt to toilet-train him, the child can gain approval or aggression by
"holding on" or "letting go". Therefore, harsh toilet training may establish such responses as a
personality trait. Freud characterized the "anal retention" (holding on) personality as obstinate,
stingy, orderly and compulsively clean. The "anal expulsive" (letting go) personality is
disorderly, destructive, cruel or messy.

Phallic Stage

Freud theorized that between the age of three to six years, increased sexual interest causes the
child to become physically attracted to the parent of the opposite sex. In males, this generates the
"Oedipus conflict", in which the boy feels rivalled by his father for the affection of the mother.
Freud felt the father threatens the male-child. To alleviate his anxieties, the boy must identify
with the father. Identification causes him to take the father's values and to form a conscience.
The counterpart to the Oedipus conflict, the *"Electra-conflict," the girl loves her father and
competes with the mother. According to Freud, the girl's identification with the mother is more
gradual and less effective in creating a conscience.

Genital Stage

The genital stage begins at puberty and is marked by a growing capacity for mature and
responsible social and sexual relationships. The genital stage culminates in heterosexual love and
the attainment of full adult sexuality.

Adult Personality

Freud's developmental theory has been influential for several reasons. It pioneered the idea that
the first years of life help shape adult personality. lt identified feeding, toilet training and early
Sexual experiences as critical events in personality formation. Freud was also among the first to
propose that development proceeds through a series of stages

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WEEK 10: MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Introduction Moral development is the process through which an individual acquires the ability
to distinguish between bad and good or right and wrong. Moral behaviour means behaviour
which is in conformity with the moral code of the social group. It refers to the behaviour of the
members of a given culture which have been accepted and should be followed. Moral behaviour
is developed through socio-cultural conditioning. Changes in moral development come with
increasing age. The ways in which people come to think, act, and feel morally depends partly on
developmental changes in cognitive understanding, and thus moral development has a cognitive
element. Schooling plays a significant role in moral development, since in school, the child
learns new rules. According to Piaget, moral development is related to intellectual development.

Internalization of moral behaviour follows the principle of minimal sufficiency, which states that
a child will strive to internalize due to sufficient pressure applied and at the same time feeling
that he/she is not being forced to do so. Gradually, the individual learns even to become altruistic
i.e. to do something for others even at some cost to himself/herself. Altruism leads us to become
empathetic i.e. to have a direct emotional response to other people's emotions.

KOHLBERG'S STAGES OF MORAL REASONING

Lawrence Kohlberg advanced the theory that moral reasoning proceeds through a series of
successive stages. There is a progression from a primitive morality guided by personal fear of
punishment or desire to gain, through right or wrong defined by convention (what people will
say), to internalized principles that have become one's own. As it may seem, there is a tendency
to think that Kohlberg's stages can be correlated to age, but in fact that is not the case. Very few
adults are of high morality level and Kohlberg quotes moral giants such as Mahatma Gandhi and
Dr. Martin Luther King Junior.

There are three levels of moral reasoning categorized into six stages according to Kohlberg;

Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality

It is also known as premoral level. In this level children do not understand morality and they
simply obey rules to avoid punishment and to obtain approval. Behaviour is under emotional
control i.e. the child is obedience and punishment oriented.

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 Stage 1: Heteronomous Morality- The individual does what is right simply to avoid
punishment. This is the most basic level of moral reasoning. Behaviour is controlled by its
consequences i.e. Punishment. For instance, the individual who does homework so as not to be
punished.

Stage 2: Instrumental Behaviour (Individualism) - Here the individual's adherence to rules is

Simply to gain a reward. The behaviour is egocentric since the individual thinks only of his/her
gains, without considering others. An act is good if its outcomes are to the advantage of the
individual. The individual is inclined to exchange favours "I will do this for you if you will do
that for me".

Level 2: Conventional Morality

The individual learns conventional rules and conformity, and that non conformity leads to social
disapproval.

Stage 3: Mutual Interpersonal Expectations or the Good Boy-Good Girl Morality - The
individual will do what is expected so as to gain approval from others, or so as not to be
disapproved by others. The individual tries to please those around him, seeking to be viewed as
good. Moral decision is based on how the parents and peer group expects him to behave.

Stage 4: Social Systems and Conscience or authority and Social Order - Here the person will
act as expected simply because this is the code of law and order i.e., the rule states thus. Rules
are defined by institutions of the society and obedience is viewed as a civic duty or obligation
while morality is based on respect for authority and social order. Moral thinking is based on the
dictates of authority. Confronted by a moral choice the person, may say "because he is the
president "because the bible says so," or "a rule is a rule." Many people tend to stagnate at this
level.

Level 3: Postconventional or Principled Morality

This level sets in during adolescence when persons accept the rules of society, but only because
they accept some general principles underlying the rules. The personal principles take priority if
rules of society are in conflict with such principles. Morality is based on self-accepted principles.
The person becomes flexible and develops social standards to avoid self condemnation and
blame.

Stage 5: Social Contract or Utility and Individual Rights - The behaviour of the individual in
this case is defined by a social contract which is generally agreed upon for the common good. At
this stage, the individual accepts majority rule but also works to change rules that he/she feels are

41
unfair or unjust. Adolescents question oppressive rules and will demonstrate in secondary school
unlike in primary school. Rules are seen as social contracts made for a purpose, and the purpose
can change if need be. The person may say "the end does not justify the means'". This is the kind
of reasoning Jesus was using when He said that, If your donkey falls in a ditch on a Sabbath, you
are not breaking the law to save it.

Stage 6: Universal Ethic Principle- This is the highest level of moral reasoning in which the
individual acts right, based on internalized abstract ethical principles that determine ones own
moral code. Moral reasoning is conscience and principle oriented, and individuals follow self-
chosen ethical principles such as justice, equality, and freedom. The person has internalized
principles which he/she thinks are universally valid, holds principles irrespective of whether they
are laid down by the authority or not. Some principles may demand deviation from conventional
rules. One may feel morally obliged to disobey rules that violate certain universal principles.
Very few people reach the last stage. Examples of people who attained this level are people such
as Nelson Mandela, Martin Luther King Jr, and Mahatma Gandhi, Mother Teresa among others.

Studies show that people move through the same stages of moral development in a sequential
invariant manner. Kohlberg assessed the individual's level of development by means of interview
in which an individual answers questions about stories that pose a moral dilemma. For example,
one story is about a man (Heinz) who stole money to buy drugs for his cancer-stricken wife. He
could not afford the drugs and could not watch her die. "Was the stealing a moral or an immoral
act? The moral stage of an individual would be determined by the kind of justification he
provides for a moral decision in such situation.

 In the pre-conventional level, the person focuses on the personal consequences or nc

behaviour by avoiding punishment and says the husband should not steal the drugs
because he might get caught and put in jail. The stealing is wrong because if caught he
will be punished or jailed.

 In the conventional level, the person will reason that the man should not steal because it
is against the law. The action is wrong because it is against the law.

 In the post-conventional level, the person may say that the man should not steal the
drugs because if everyone took such actions, social order could break down. If you dont
steal the drugs your conscience will haunt you, and if you steal your conscience will
suffer. The action can be justified by the fact that a life will be saved.

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WEEK 12: ADULTHOOD AND AGEING

Introduction

Most human beings spend more than half of their lives as adults. It is during adulthood that one
fulfils the objectives of his/her life and sets to leave a legacy for his/her offspring. It is important
to understand how adulthood evolves and the challenges, which arise from adult responsibilities.
Further, as an individual nears the end of life (death), the psychological effects of this realization
and preparedness should be well understood.

Early Adulthood

Early adulthood is characterized by strength, energy and endurance. This is the period during
which most body functions reach their peak such as muscular strength. During this stage of
development the person makes major decisions and commitments that determine his later life.
These decisions include selecting a mate, starting a family, rearing a family, getting started in an
occupation and taking on civic responsibility. Personal lifestyles at this stage will affect physical,
mental, social and emotional aspects of development. What the person does affects the way
he/she feels. According to Erikson, in the early adulthood a healthy individual has to achieve the
capability for closeness and intimacy through love, or else suffer a sense of isolation which will
permit only shallow relationships.

Middle Adulthood (middle age)

In middle adulthood, one has to develop a sense of creativity that extends beyond that of the self,
an attribute known as altruism. This includes concern and regard for others, work, and the
community. During this stage there occurs what psychologists call midlife crisis, when an
individual reappraises what he/she has done with life and may re-evaluate one's career and
marriage. Men's mid-life crisis sets in later than that of women and although they have no
menopause, they also experience rapid psychological changes. 1 his period is marked by gradual
decline in many aspects of physical development. For example, there is decline in visual and
hearing acuity. At the age of 40, it becomes difficult to view very close objects. The heart and
coronary arteries undergo change and cardiovascular disease is likely to occur. Muscular

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What is Aging?
Aging: Aging is a natural phenomenon that refers to changes occurring throughout the life span
and result in differences in structure and function between the youthful and elder generation.
Gerontology: Gerontology is the study of aging and includes science, psychology and sociology.
Geriatrics: A relatively new field of medicine specialising in the health problems of advanced
age.
 Social aging: Refers to the social habits and roles of individuals with respect to their
culture and society. As social aging increases individual usually experience a decrease in
meaningful social interactions.
 Biological aging: Refers to the physical changes in the body systems during the later
decades of life. It may begin long before the individual reaches chronological age 65.
 Cognitive aging: Refers to decreasing ability to assimilate new information and learn new
behaviours and skills.
Degenerative Diseases: Slow progressive physical degeneration of cells in the nervous system.
Genetics appear to be an important factor. Usually start after age 40 (but can occur as early as
20s).
1. Alzheimer's disease Degeneration of all areas of cortex but particularly frontal and
temporal lobes. The affected cells actually die. Early symptoms resemble neurotic
disorders: Anxiety, depression, restlessness sleep difficulties. Progressive deterioration of
all intellectual faculties (memory deficiency being the most well known and obvious).
Total mass of the brain decreases, ventricles become larger. No established treatment.
2. Pick's Disease Rare degenerative disease. Similar to Alzheimer's in terms of onset,
symptomatology and possible genetic aetiology. However it affects circumscribed areas
of the brain, particularly the frontal areas which leads to a loss of normal affect.
3. Parkinson's Disease. Neuropathology: Loss of neurons in the basal ganglia. Symptoms:
Movement abnormalities: rhythmical alternating tremor of extremities, eyelids and
tongue along with rigidity of the muscles and slowness of movement (akinesia). It was
once thought that Parkinson's disease was not associated with intellectual deterioration,
but it is now known that there is an association between global intellectual impairment
and Parkinson's where it occurs late in life. The cells lost in Parkinson's are associated
with the neuro-chemical Dopamine and the motor symptoms of Parkinson's are
associated the dopamine deficiency. Treatment involves administration of dopamine
precursor L-dopa which can alleviate symptoms including intellectual impairment.
Research suggests it may possibly bring to the fore emotional effects in patients who
have had psychiatric illness at some prior stage in their lives.
Summary
 Physical development and growth are very rapid within the first two years of life.
 From 2 to 6 years, growth and development are fairly rapid.
 Between 7 and 11 years, development slows down.
 During the adolescent stage (12-20 years) growth and development pick up again.
Adolescence is perhaps one of the challenging and complicated periods of life to describe.
Major physical, cognitive, psychological and social changes that take place during the
adolescence stage affect adolescents in different ways.
 During early adulthood (20-30 Years), individuals are at the prime of their lives in terms
of health and physical conditions. Sexual bonding and friendship fulfil the need for
intimacy with other people.

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  The middle age years (30 – 65) are characterized by changes in development that include
health problems, decline in intellectual powers, decline in sexual responsiveness, physical
changes, loss of visual acuity etc.
 Late adulthood (65 years and beyond) is characterized by major changes such as deficits
in vision and hearing, memory loss, impaired ability to process information and social
dependency.
Self Assessment and Revision Questions
1. Briefly explain the factors that influence physical development
2. Identify and explain four motor reflexes that are present at birth.
3. Differentiate between gross and fine motor skills.
4. What causes individual differences in physical development among adolescents?
5. What factors trigger the onset of puberty?
6. What are the main changes that characterize physical development during adolescence?
7. Identify four problems of development during the adolescence stage and explain how
they may affect academic performance.
8. Why is identity formation difficult for majority of adolescents today?
9. What are the likely physical changes that occur during middle and late adulthood?
10. What is the difference between primary and secondary aging?

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