Cognitive Psychology Final Exam Reviewer

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEWER (Tugon: Thank you, bosxzsxs Monica!
😡
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● Ironic Effects of Mental Control -

CONSCIOUSNESS Describes how our efforts can
● Awareness that people have about backfire when we attempt to control
the outside world and about their the contents of our consciousness.
perceptions, images, thoughts, ➔ “Not to think about” vs. Think
memories, and feelings freely
● Perceptions of the world around you ● Blindsight - A condition in which an
● Visual imagery individual with a damaged visual
● The comments you make silently to cortex claims not to see an object.
yourself However, he or she can accurately
● The memory of events in your life report some characteristics of that
● Your beliefs about the world object, such as its location
● Your plans for activities later today
● Your attitudes toward other people
● Basic modes
➔ Passive, receptive (i.e. sitting
back, listening to music)
➔ Active, productive mental
activities (making plans)
CONCERNS with Consciousness

● Our inability to bring certain thoughts ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
into consciousness
● Our inability to let certain thoughts Meditation
escape from our consciousness ● People who engage in meditation
● Blindsight, which reveals that report feeling deeply relaxed, being
people with a specific visual disorder free from stresses and refreshed
can perform quite accurately on a Mindfulness
cognitive task, even when they are ● A current evidence based
not conscious of their accuracy intervention that is being used in the
field of psychology to address
CONCEPTS on Consciousness mental health concerns and in
● Mind wandering - Occurs when promoting overall well-being
your thoughts shift from the external ● Defined as the awareness that
environment in favor of internal arises from paying attention on
processing purpose, in the present moment,
● Thought Suppression - We try to nonjudgmentally
eliminate the thoughts, ideas, and
images that are related to an
undesirable stimulus
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Mindfulness and Neuroscience KNOWLEDGE AND CONCEPT

● Practice of mindfulness activates the
prefrontal cortex which governs CATEGORIZATION
executive functions and attention ● Process by which things are placed
● When people engage in into groups
mindfulness, their brain exhibit
oscillations called as oscillations
which are highly synchronized
across wide regions of the brain
● When an external stimulus is
presented, these oscillations
become phase locked to the external
stimulus
● Brain’s function is enhanced by
decreasing the noise and making
Definitional Approach to Categorization
stimulus become more salient
● We can decide whether something is
leading to positive effects such as
a member of a category by
improved attention
determining whether a particular
Hypnosis
object meets the definition of the
● Trance-like state
category
● Tapping into the unconscious mind
● “Not effective”
● Characterized by:
➔ Intense concentration
➔ Extreme relaxation
➔ High suggestibility
Hypnotherapy
● Use of hypnosis to help a client
overcome a mental or physical
condition
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Family Resemblance ● Little overlap means the family

● Refers to the idea that things in a resemblance is low.
particular category resemble one Typicality Effect
another in a number of ways ● Ability to judge highly prototypical
objects more rapidly
THE PROTOTYPE APPROACH
★ Prototypical Objects are Name
Prototype First
● “Typical member” of the category Category: mammals dog over bat
● Average representation of the ★ Prototypical Objects are Affected
category More by Priming
Prototype Approach
● High prototypicality - A category
member closely resembles the
category prototype
● Low prototypicality - Category
member does not closely resemble a
typical member of the category
High Family Resemblance

● When an item’s characteristics have
a large amount of overlap with the
characteristics of many other items
in a category, this means that the
family resemblance of these items is
high
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THE EXEMPLAR APPROACH SEMANTIC NETWORKS:

Example: actual members of the category
that a person has encountered in the past COLLINS AND QUILLIAN’S
● Dog: shih tzu, chow-chow, labrador HIERARCHICAL MODEL
Example: Objects that are like more of the
exemplars are classified faster.
● Eagle over penguin
Best approach for categorizing

● Exemplar approach may work best
for small categories
● Prototype approach may work best
for larger categories such as birds.
LEVELS OF CATEGORIES
Hierarchical Organization ● Cognitive Economy : way of

● Kind of organization, in which larger, storing shared properties just once
more general categories are divided at a higher level node
into smaller, more specific
categories, creating a number of
levels of categories
Knowledge and Organization

● Our ability to categorize is learned
from experience; it depends on
which objects we typically encounter
and what characteristics of objects ● Spreading activation: activity that
we pay attention to. spreads out along any link that is
connected to an activated node
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Criticism to Hierarchical Model:

● Couldn’t explain typicality effect
Lexical Decision Task
COLLINS AND LOFTUS MODEL:

PERSONAL EXPERIENCE AFFECTS
NETWORKS
● Spacing between various concepts
can differ for various people
depending on their experience and
knowledge about specific concepts.
Criticism to Collins and Loftus model:

● Too flexible and difficult to falsify
● If a theory can explain almost any
result by adjusting various properties
of the model, what has it really
explained?
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CONNECTIONIST APPROACH ● Cognitive processes can be

explained by the activation of
Connectionism these networks.
● An approach to creating computer 3. Concept is represented by the
models for representing concepts pattern of activity distributed
and their properties based on throughout a set of nodes.
characteristics of the brain 4. Current context often activates only
● Parallel Distributed Processing certain components of a concept’s
(PDP) meaning.
Information can be stored in a network

form
Parallel Distributed Processing

● Approach proposes that cognitive
processes can be represented by a
model in which activation flows
through networks that link together a
large number of simple, neuron-like
units
● Distributed: activations occur in
several different locations
● Parallel: activations take place
simultaneously
Characteristics of PDP
1. Cognitive processes are based on
parallel operations, rather than serial
operations.
● Many patterns of activation ● PDP can help people make
may be proceeding spontaneous generalizations.
simultaneously. ● Spontaneous generalization: using
2. Network contains basic neuron-like individual cases to draw inferences
units or nodes, which are connected about
together so that a specific node has ➔ “Engineers as not good with
many links to other nodes language”
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● Spontaneous generalization can 3. Each new experience with a

lead to memory errors and particular item will change the
stereotyping. strength of connections among
● PDP can help people make default relevant units by adjusting the
assignments. connection weights.
● Default assignment: filling in 4. Sometimes we have only partial
missing information about a memory for some information, rather
particular person or a particular than complete, perfect memory.
object by making a best guess ● The brain’s ability to provide
based on information from other partial memory is called
similar people or objects graceful degradation
● Spontaneous generalization : we Ex. Tip-of-the-tongue
draw a conclusion about a general phenomenon
category
➔ ex. Psychology students SCHEMAS AND SCRIPTS
● Default assignment: we draw a
conclusion about a specific member SCHEMA
of a category ● Generalized, well-integrated
➔ ex. a particular psychology knowledge about a situation, an
student event, or a person
● Schema theories: Our memories
4 THEORETICAL FEATURES OF PDP encode ‘‘generic’’ information about
1. The connections between these a situation. Then we use this
neuron-like units are weighted, and information to understand and
these connection weights remember new examples of the
determine how much activation one schema
unit can pass on to another unit. SCRIPT
● As you learn more ● Simple, well-structured sequence of
information, the values of events in a specified order; this
these weights will change. script is associated with a highly
2. When a unit reaches a critical level familiar activity
of activation, it may affect another Life Script
unit, either by exciting it (if the ● A list of events that a person
connection weight is positive) or by believes would be most important
inhibiting (if the connection weight is throughout his or her lifetime
negative). ➔ Task: Identify seven most
● Ex. The characteristic polite important events
might have a negative ● A violation of life script is devastating
connection weight associated
with some of the less
civilized students
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Operation of Schemas & Scripts in

Cognitive Processing
1. During the selection of material to
be remembered.
2. In boundary extension (when your
memory stores a scene).
3. During memory abstraction (when
your memory stores the meaning,
but not the specific details of the
material).
4. During memory integration (when Schemas and Boundary
your memory forms a Extension
well-integrated representation of ● Refers to our tendency to
the material). remember having viewed a
greater portion of a scene
Schemas and Memory Selection than was actually shown
● People were highly likely to recall ● Our cognitive processes fill in
objects consistent with the ‘‘office the incomplete objects
schema.’’ ● Eyewitness testimony:
● People may not have time to Eyewitnesses may recall
process schema irrelevant items (ie. having seen some features
Wine bottle & picnic basket) of a suspect’s face, even
● Reconstruction error: though these features were
(schema-consistent error) the not actually visible at the
tendency to supply schema scene of the crime
consistent items ➔ Looking for a person
in a crowd
Schemas and Memory Abstraction
● Abstraction is a memory process
that stores the meaning of a
message, rather than the exact
words
● People sometimes show better ● Constructive Approach and
recall for material that violates our Pragmatic Approach
expectations
● People are more likely to recall Constructive Approach
schema inconsistent material when ● False alarm: occurs when people
that material is especially vivid and ‘‘remember’’ an item that was not
surprising originally presented
➔ People were especially likely
to make false alarms when a
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complex sentence was ● We are especially sensitive about

consistent with the original emotionally threatening material, so
schema. we make an effort to recall the exact
➔ People seldom made false words of the sentences.
alarms for sentences that
violated the meaning of the Memory Integration
earlier sentences. ● Our background knowledge
Example: encourages us to take in new
● ‘‘The tall tree in the front yard information in a schema-consistent
shaded the man who was smoking fashion.
his pipe.’’ vs ‘‘The scared cat that ● Individual’s unique interests and
broke the window on the porch personal background often shape
climbed the tree.’’ the contents of memory
Constructive Approach
● People integrate information from
individual sentences in order to
construct larger ideas.
● We typically store an abstract of the
information, rather than a
word-for-word representation.
Pragmatic Approach
● Proposes that people pay attention
to the aspect of a message that is
most relevant to their current goals
1. People know that they usually need
to accurately recall the gist of a
sentence
2. They also know that they usually do
not need to remember the specific
wording of the sentences.
Memory Integration and Gender
3. However, in those cases where they
Stereotypes
do need to pay attention to the
● Stereotypes can have the power to
specific wording, then they know that
influence people’s self-images and
their verbatim memory needs to
their sense of academic
be highly accurate.
competence.
● People are particularly likely to pay
attention to the exact wording of a
sentence if the words are part of a
criticism or an insult.
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LANGUAGE as a person creates

● A system of communication using speech.
sounds or symbols that enables us 3. Representation
to express our feelings, thoughts, ➔ How is language
ideas, and experiences represented in the
● A way of arranging a sequence of mind and in the
signals brain?
➔ sounds for spoken language ➔ how people group
➔ letters and written words for words together into
written language phrases and make
➔ physical signs for sign connections between
language different parts of a
● To transmit, from one person to story
another ➔ how these processes
Psycholinguistics are related to the
● Psychological study of language activation of the brain.
● Goal: to discover the psychological 4. Acquisition
processes by which humans acquire ➔ How do people learn
and process language language?
1. Comprehension ➔ How children learn
➔ How do people language
understand spoken ➔ How people learn
and written additional languages,
language? either as children or
➔ how people process later in life
language sound
➔ how they understand Words, Phonemes & Letters
words, sentences,
and stories expressed Lexicon
in writing, speech, or ● A person’s knowledge of what words
sign language; mean, how they sound, and how
➔ how people have they are used in relation to other
conversations with words.
one another. Components of Words
2. Speech production ● Phoneme: shortest segment of
➔ How do people speech that, if changed, changes the
produce language? meaning of a word
➔ Physical processes of ● Morpheme: smallest units of
speech production language that have a definable
and the mental meaning or a grammatical function
processes that occur
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Speech: Perceiving Phonemes

● Phonemic Restoration Effect:
“filling in” of the missing phoneme
based on the context produced by
the sentence and the portion of the
word that was presented
Speech: Perceiving Words
● Ability to perceive words in
conversations is aided by the
context provided by the words and
sentences that make up the
conversation Lexical Decision Task
● Knowing the meaning of words help ● People read high-frequency words
us perceive them faster than low-frequency words.
● Speech segmentation: process of ➔ “Sam wore the horrid coat
perceiving individual words in the though his pretty girlfriend
continuous flow of the speech signal complained”
Reading: Perceiving letters ➔ “Sam wore the horrid coat
● Word superiority effect: refers to though his demure girlfriend
the finding that letters are easier to complained”
recognize when they are contained ● Readers looked at the low frequency
in a word than when they appear words (such as demure) about 40
alone or are contained in a nonword ms longer than the high-frequency
● letters in words are not processed words (such as pretty)
one by one but that each letter is Word Frequency Effect
affected by its surroundings. ● Demonstrates how our past
experience with words influences
our ability to access their meaning
Lexical Ambiguity
● When ambiguous words appear in a
sentence, we usually use the context
of the sentence to determine which
Understanding Words definition applies
➔ Example: bug (as insect) •
Word Frequency Effect bug (as hidden device)
● Refers to the fact that we respond
more rapidly to high-frequency Understanding Sentences
words like home than to low ● Semantics : meaning of words and
frequency words like hike sentences
● Example: The cat won’t eat. vs The
cat won’t bake.
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● Syntax : specifies the rules for Interactionist Approach to Parsing

combining words into sentences ● Sentence understanding is
➔ Example : The cats won’t influenced by meaning of words
eating. Cat bird the chased.
● Parsing : grouping of words into
phrases : a central process for
determining the meaning of a
sentence
➔ Example: Cast iron sink
quickly rusts. Cast iron sink
Cast iron sink quickly Cast ● Sentence understanding is
iron sink quickly rusts. influenced by environmental setting
● Garden Path Sentence : it leads ● “Put the apple on the towel in the
the reader “down the garden path” box.”
(down a path that seems right, but
turns out to be wrong) Understanding Text and Stories
➔ Example: Cast iron sink ● The reader’s task is to use these
quickly rusts. Cast iron sink relationships between sentences to
Cast iron sink quickly Cast create a coherent, understandable
iron sink quickly rusts. story
Syntax-First Approach to Parsing ● Inferences : determining what the
● focuses on how parsing is text means by using our knowledge
determined by syntax to go beyond the information
● parsing mechanism groups phrases provided by the text.
together based on structural ● Coherence : the representation of
principles the text in a person’s mind so that
Principle of Late Closure information in one part of the text is
● when a person encounters a new related to information in another part
word, the person’s parsing of the text
mechanism assumes that this word Types of Inference
is part of the current phrase, so each ● (1) Anaphoric Inference :
new word is added to the current inferences that connect an object or
phrase for as long as possible person in one sentence to an object
or person in another sentence
➔ Example : Riffifi , the famous
poodle, won the dog show.
She has now won the last
three shows she has
entered.
➔ 1. They went to a café and

talked. She came home
crying.
2. She checked her email.
She was shouting from joy.
● (1) Anaphoric Inference : Readers Situation Model
are capable of creating anaphoric ● A mental representation of what a
inferences even under adverse text is about
conditions because they add ● A representation of the situation in
information from their knowledge of terms of the people, objects,
the world to the information provided locations, and events that are being
in the text described in the story
Mental Representations as Simulations
● a person simulates the perceptual
and motor (movement)
characteristics of the objects and
● (2) Instrument Inference :
actions in a story
inferences about tools or methods
➔ 1. He hammered the nail into
➔ Example : “William
the wall.
Shakespeare wrote Hamlet
2. He hammered the nail into
while he was sitting at his
the floor.
desk,”
➔ 1. The ranger saw the eagle
➔ What tools did Shakespeare
in the sky.
used in writing?
2. The ranger saw the eagle
● (2) Instrument Inference : The
in its nest
Spaniards sailed through the seas
● Readers represent story events in a
and landed in Mactan.
manner similar to actual perception.
➔ What vessel did the
● That is, they experience a story as if
Spaniards use in sailing?
they are experiencing the situation
● (3) Causal Inference : Inferences
described in the text.
that the events described in one
clause or sentence were caused by
Producing Language: Speaking
events that occurred in a previous
sentence
Producing a Word
➔ Example
● choose each word carefully, so that
1. Sharon took an aspirin.
its grammatical, semantic, and
Her headache went away.
phonological information are all
2. Sharon took a shower. Her
correct
headache went away.
Speech Errors
● Slip of the tongue errors
➔ errors in which sounds or Embodied Cognition

entire words are rearranged ● emphasizes that people use their
between two or more bodies to express their knowledge
different words ● there is an ongoing connection
Types of Slip-of-Tongue Errors between your motor system and the
1. Sound errors - occur when sounds way we process spoken language
➡️
in nearby words are exchanged
(Snow flurries Flow snurries) Producing a sentence
2. Morpheme errors - occurs when
morphemes are exchanged in
nearby words
➡️
(self-destruct instruction
self-instruct destruction) ● Linearization problem - challenge
3. Word errors - occur when words of arranging words in an ordered,
➡️
are exchanged linear sequence
(letter to my mother writing a ● Prosody - the ‘‘melody’’ of its
mother to my letter) intonation, rhythm, and emphasis
Explanation for Slip-of-tongue errors
1. We utter the sounds that are most
highly activated, and usually these
sounds are the appropriate ones.
2. Each sound can be activated by
several different words. Producing language: Conversations
3. Incorrect items sometimes have
activation levels that are just as high Semantic Coordination
as (or higher than) the correct items. ● Conversation go more smoothly
when the people talking bring shared
Using gestures knowledge
● Gestures are visible movements of ● Speakers take steps to guide their
any part of your body, which you use listeners through the conversation
to communicate Given-new contract
➔ can help you remember the ● constructing sentences given two
word you want to produce kinds of information
➔ when our verbal system ➔ 1. Given information -
cannot retrieve a word, a information that the listener
gesture can sometimes already knows
activate the relevant 2. New information -
information information that the listener is
hearing for the first time
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Bilingualism
Bilingual speaker
● is someone who is fluent in two or
more different languages
● A sentence not observing given-new ● Simultaneous bilingualism :
contract learning two languages
simultaneously during childhood
● Sequential bilingualism : acquiring
native language and then a second
language
Why people become bilingual

● Education (school curriculum)
● Colonialism
● Home environment (bilingual family
Syntactic Coordination members)
● When two people exchange ● Immigration
statements in a conversation, it is Acquiring second language
common for them to use similar ● Predictors of success
grammatical constructions. 1. Person’s motivation
2. Attitude towards the people who
speak the language
Syntactic Priming Attitude and Language Proficiency
● hearing a statement with a particular ● Language proficiency can influence
syntactic construction increases the attitudes
chances that a sentence will be ➔ English Canadians learn
produced with the same construction French in elementary school,
● it can lead people to coordinate the they are more likely to
grammatical form of their statements develop positive attitudes
during a conversation toward French Canadians,
● Confederate: “The girl gave the boy compared to children in a
the book.” monolingual control group of
“The father brought his daughter a English Canadian children
present. ➔ Arab students were more
positive about Jewish
Culture, Language and Cognition individuals when the fluently
● Language can influence cognition bilingual researcher was
speaking Hebrew than when
she was speaking Arabic.
Advantages of Bilingualism ● From sorting colours to

1. Bilinguals actually acquire more sorting shapes
expertise in their native (first) 5. Bilinguals perform better on concept
language. formation tasks and on tests of
● English-speaking Canadian nonverbal intelligence that require
children whose classes are reorganization of visual patterns
taught in French gain greater ● Bilinguals also score higher
understanding of on problem solving tasks that
English-language structure. require them to ignore
● Bilingual children are also irrelevant information
more likely to realize that a 6. Bilingual children are more sensitive
word such as rainbow can be to some pragmatic aspects of
divided into two morphemes, language
rain and bow ● English-speaking children
2. Bilinguals are more aware that the whose classes are taught in
names assigned to concepts are French are more aware than
arbitrary monolinguals that—when
● Many monolingual children you speak to a blindfolded
cannot imagine that a cow child—you may need to
could just as easily have supply additional information
been assigned the name dog 7. Bilingual adults who have dementia
3. Bilinguals excel at paying selective typically develop signs of dementia
attention to relatively subtle aspects later than monolingual adults with
of a language task, while ignoring dementia
more obvious linguistic Disadvantages of Bilingualism
characteristics 1. Pronunciation of speech sounds in
● Third-grade children were both languages
given some sentences that 2. Bilinguals may process language
were grammatically correct slightly slower compared to
but semantically incorrect. monolinguals
● ‘‘Apples grow on noses’’ 3. Bilinguals may have a smaller
● The bilingual children were vocabulary of language used at
more likely than the home
monolingual children to Second Language Proficiency and Age
recognize that the sentence of Acquisition
was grammatically correct. ● Critical Period Hypothesis : ability
4. Bilingual children are better at to acquire a second language is
following complicated instructions strictly limited to a specific period of
and performing tasks where the your life
instructions change from one trial to
the next.
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● Criticism: There is no biologically Paying attention to Important

based deadline for learning a information
second language ● decide which information is most
relevant to the problem’s solution
2nd Language Acquisition: Old vs Young and then attend to that information
➔ attention, memory, and
Vocabulary decision making
● Adults and children are equally ● Attention
skilled in learning words in their new ➔ competing thoughts can
language. produce divided attention
● People continue to learn new terms ➔ emotions can distract/divert
in their own language throughout attention
their lifetime. ➔ focusing on the appropriate
Phonology part
● People who acquire a second ● Effective problem solvers
language during childhood are more ➔ read the description of a
likely to pronounce words like a problem very carefully
native speaker of that language. ➔ pay particular attention to
● People who acquire a second inconsistencies
language during adulthood are more ➔ scan strategically and tell
likely to have a foreign accent when which information is most
they speak their new language. important
Grammar Methods of representing the problem
● Age of acquisition is sometimes
related to grammar for people whose Problem representation
first language is different from ● refers to the way you translate the
English. elements of the problem into a
● But there may be no relationship different format
when the first language is similar to ➔ having a good working
English. memory helps keep relevant
parts of the problem in your
Problem Solving mind simultaneously
Understanding the problem
Understanding
● you have constructed a
well-organized mental
representation of the problem, based
on both the information provided in
the problem and your own previous
experience
😡
Through symbols… Situated Cognition And problem solving

● We can use symbols to represent ● we often use helpful information in
variables. our immediate environment to create
spatial representations
Examples:
➔ Children who sell are good
with operations and money
➔ Real examples in education
➔ Internship
Embodied condition and problem
Through matrices…
solving
● Matrix - a grid consisting of rows
● we often use our own body and our
and columns; it that shows all
own motor actions, in order to
possible combinations of items
express our abstract thoughts and
➔ Matrix is an excellent way to
knowledge
keep track of items,
➔ Hand gestures to aid
particularly if the problem is
academic concepts
complex and if the relevant
information is categorical
Problem Solving strategies
➔ Suitable when the
information is stable
The Analogy Approach
Through diagrams…
● employing a solution to a similar,
● allows abstract information to be
earlier problem to help you solve a
represented in a concrete fashion
new problem
● discards unnecessary information
● useful when representing a large
amount of information
● can represent complicated
information in a clear, concrete form
● you have more ‘‘mental space’’ in
your working memory for solving
other parts of the problem
Through visual images…
Structure of analogy approach
● a visual image allows us to escape
● Problem isomorphs : a set of
from the boundaries of traditional,
problems that have the same
concrete representations
underlying structures and solutions,
● good visual-imagery skills also
but different specific details
provide an advantage when a
● Surface features : specific objects
problem requires you to construct a
and terms used in the question : “the
figure
obvious”
Kapagod so much!
➔ Problem: late submission of 3. Getting a college degree

class requirements because 4. Becoming rich
of online modality ● Drawback
● Structural features : the underlying ➔ Problem solvers must
core that they must understand in consistently choose the
order to solve the problem correctly alternative that appears to
➔ Problem: late submission of lead most directly toward the
class requirements because goal.
of online modality ➔ They may fail to choose an
The means-Ends heuristics approach indirect alternative, which
2 components may have greater long-term
1. Divide the problem into a number of benefits.
subproblems. ➔ It encourages short-term
2. try to reduce the difference between goals, rather than long-term
the initial state and the goal state for solutions.
each of the subproblems Example: spending savings
Identify the “ends” (final result) that you on purchasing items rather
want and then figure out the “means” or than investing
methods that you will use to reach those
ends. Factors that influence problem-solving
● focus their attention on the
difference between the initial Expertise
problem state and the goal state ● consistently exceptional skill and
● the most effective way to move performance on representative tasks
forward is sometimes to move for a particular area
backward temporarily ● experts in a particular discipline are
Computer simulation likely to have superior long-term
● write a computer program that will memory related to that discipline as
perform a task in the same way that well as detailed structure of their
a human would concepts
Example: Expert vs. Novice
➔ General Problem Solver ● In terms of knowledge base
The hill-climbing heuristics approach ➔ differ substantially in their
● When you reach a choice point—you knowledge base and
consistently choose the alternative schemas
that seems to lead most directly ➔ Experts may solve problems
toward your goal especially well if they have
➔ “trial and error” had training in a variety of
● Goal relevant settings, and if the
1. Submitting term paper training includes immediate
2. Getting the latest cellphone detailed feedback
● In terms of memory ➔ Their operations become

➔ The memory skills of experts more automatic, and a
tend to be very specific. particular stimulus situation
Examples: also quickly triggers a
1. Chess experts can response.
remember about ➔ Experts use parallel
50,000 ‘‘chunks,’’ or processing, rather than serial
familiar arrangements processing.
of chess pieces.
2. Chess experts can parallel processing: two or
remember about more items at the same time
50,000 ‘‘chunks,’’ or serial processing: handles
familiar arrangements only one item at a time
of chess pieces. ● In terms of metacognitive skills
● In terms of problem solving ➔ Experts are better than
strategy novices at monitoring their
➔ When experts encounter a problem solving.
novel problem in their area of ➔ Experts seem to be better at
expertise, they are more judging the difficulty of a
likely than novices to use the problem, and they are more
means ends heuristic skilled at allocating their time
effectively. appropriately when solving
➔ They are also more likely to problems
approach a problem ➔ Experts can also recover
systematically, whereas relatively quickly when they
novices are more likely to realize that they have made
have a haphazard approach. an error
● In terms of problem solving ➔ Novices are more accurate in
strategy realizing that they will have
➔ When solving physics trouble solving the problem
problems, experts are more
likely to emphasize the Mental Set
structural similarity between ● If you have a mental set, you close
problems. your mind prematurely, and you stop
➔ In contrast, novices are more thinking about how to solve a
likely to be distracted by problem effectively
surface similarities. ● When top-down processing is
● In terms of speed and accuracy overactive
➔ Experts are much faster than ● If you have a fixed mindset, you
novices and they solve believe that you possess a certain
problems very accurately. amount of intelligence and other
😡
skills, and no amount of effort can The nature of insight

help you perform better ● Gestalt psychology
● You give up on trying to discover ● emphasized organizational
new ways to improve your abilities. tendencies, especially in perception
● If you have a growth mindset, you and in problem solving
believe that you can cultivate your ● the parts of a problem may initially
intelligence and other skills. seem unrelated to one another, but a
● You challenge yourself to perform sudden flash of insight could make
better, whether you are trying to the parts instantly fit together into a
learn how to play tennis, how to solution
adjust to a new roommate, or how to ● top-down processing may prevent
perform better on your next one from solving an insight problem
integration paper in your course in
cognitive psychology Metacognition during problem solving
Functional fixedness ● Non-insight : gradual development
● Top-down processing is overactive of confidence
● We rely too heavily on our previous ● Insight: sudden leap in confidence
concepts, expectations, and memory especially when close to a solution
● We tend to assign stable (or ‘‘fixed’’) Advice about problem solving
functions to an object. As a result, ● Non-insight problems
we fail to think about the features of ➔ use top-down processing
this object that might be useful in ● Insight problems
helping us solve a problem. ➔ think outside the box
➔ internet hacks using common ➔ look for novel solutions
objects
Creativity
Insight vs. non-insight problems
Insight problem Guilford’s classic approach to creativity
● The problem initially seems Measure creativity in terms of…
impossible to solve, but then an ● Divergent production
alternative approach suddenly bursts ➔ number of different
into your consciousness. You responses made to a test
immediately realize that your new item
solution is correct. ➔ overcome functional
● large working memory capacity fixedness
Non-insight problem ● The solution must be both novel and
● solve the problem gradually, by useful.
using your memory, reasoning skills,
and a routine set of strategies
😡
Nature of creativity ● Students are high in self-efficacy,

1. Creativity included convergent and they tend to have high intrinsic
divergent thinking motivation, and this high intrinsic
Divergent – number of different motivation encourages their
responses/solution creativity
Convergent – single best response ● Perseverance was not
consistently correlated with
One single best response than creativity
several less useful solution
2. Creativity is associated within many Deductive Reasoning & Decision Making
regions in both the left and right 2 types of reasoning
hemisphere of the brain. 1. Deductive reasoning - involves
3. Creativity can occur when we use sequences of statements called
focused attention (conscious syllogism
attention) as well as defocused ➔ 85 average is required to
attention (altered states of graduate from state U. Josie
consciousness). is graduating from state U.
Therefore, Josie has at least
Extrinsic motivation and Creativity 85 average.
● People are often less creative if their 2. Inductive reasoning - We arrive at
extrinsic motivation is high. a conclusion about what is probably
● Creativity can be enhanced if the true based on evidence.
extrinsic factors provide useful ➔ Richard attended state U for
feedback. 4 years and is now the vice
Intrinsic motivation and Creativity president of a bank. We can
● People are more likely to be creative conclude that he has likely
if they are working on a task they graduated from state U. But
truly enjoy. we can’t conclude that he
● Students with high scores on definitely graduated from
intrinsic motivation tended to earn state U. His mom being the
high scores on creativity. president could’ve appointed
● If you are working on a project him as vice president.
because you find it interesting, your
work is likely to be more creative
We can make…
● Students with high scores on Definite conclusions based on
extrinsic motivation tended to earn deductive reasoning
low scores on creativity. Probable conclusions based
● If you are working on a project on inductive reasoning
because you want some kind of
reward, your work is likely to be
less creative.
😡
Deductive reasoning: Syllogism and ● Syllogisms can be invalid even

logic though each of the premises and the
conclusion seem reasonable.
Syllogism
Includes:
a. two statements called premises
b. third statement called conclusion
● Even though syllogisms may seem

“academic,” people often use
syllogisms to “prove” their point often
Categorical Syllogism
without realizing that their reasoning
● The statements begin with all, no or
might be invalid.
some.
● It is therefore important to realize
that even conclusions that might
sound true are not necessarily the
result of good reasoning.
Conditional Syllogisms
Syllogism: Validity & Truth ● Has two premises and a conclusion
● A syllogism is valid if its conclusion ● The first premise has the form “if….
follows logically from its two then...”
premises. Example: Knowing that Steve
doesn’t pay the money he borrowed.
If I lend Steve Php 50.00, then I
won’t get it back. I lent Steve Php
50.00. Therefore, I won’t get my Php
50.00 back.
Validity and Truth in Syllogism 4 types of Conditional Syllogisms
● Validity depends on the form of
syllogism.
● Truth depends on the content of the
premises which have to be
evaluated to determine whether they
are consistent with the facts.
● Valid syllogisms can result in false
conclusions. p (antecedent) - first or if term
q (consequent) - second or then term
😡
Role of Regulations: Real World Terms

● Participants performed better in the
beer cards than abstract cards.
Role of “Permissions”
● Pragmatic Reasoning Schema
➔ way of thinking about cause
and effect in the world that is
learned as part of
experiencing everyday life
Example: Permission
schema
If a person satisfies condition
A, he or she get to carry out
action B
😡
● People do well in the cholera task

because they can detect someone
who cheats by entering the country
without a cholera shot.
Inductive reasoning: Reaching

conclusions from evidence
Nature of Inductive Reasoning

Role of “Permissions” ● Conclusions are suggested, with
Permission effect for the second group: varying degrees of certainty, but do
● Instead of checking just to see not definitely follow from premises.
whether the correct diseases are
listed on the form, the immigration
officer is checking to see whether
the travellers have the inoculations ● Decide how strong the argument is
necessary to give them permission ➔ Strong arguments:
to enter the country. conclusions that are more
Role of Evolution likely to be true
● Social Exchange Theory - the ➔ Weak arguments:
ability for two people to cooperate in conclusions that are not as
a way that is beneficial to both likely to be true
people
😡
Factors for strength of argument Availability Heuristics

(How often we expect events to occur)
Representativeness of observations ● states that events that are more
● How well do the observations about easily remembered are judged as
a particular category represent all of being more probable than events
the members of that category? that are less easily remembered
➔ Lack of representativeness in ● can mislead us into reaching the
the crow example since wrong conclusion when less
crows from other parts of the frequently occurring events stand
country were not considered. out in our memory
Number of observations
● Adding more observations would Illusory Correlations
further strengthen the conclusion ● occur when a correlation between
➔ The conclusion about the sun two events appears to exist, but in
rising in Tucson is extremely reality there is no correlation or it is
strong because it is much weaker than it is assumed to
supported by a very large be
number of observations. ● can occur when we expect two
Quality of the evidence things to be related, so we fool
● Stronger evidence results in ourselves into thinking they are
stronger conclusions. related even when they are not
➔ Conclusions backed by ● May take the form of stereotypes
scientific evidences ➔ an oversimplified
generalization about a group
Inductive Reasoning or class of people that often
● Anytime we make a prediction about focuses on the negative
what will happen based on our Stereotypes
observations about what has
happened in the past, we are using
inductive reasoning.
● Inductive reasoning provides the
mechanism for using past
experience to guide present
● selective attention to the
behaviour.
stereotypical behaviours makes
● When people use past experience to
these behaviours more “available”
guide present behaviour, they often
use shortcuts to help them reach
conclusions rapidly.
😡
Representative Heuristics ● People tend to violate the

(How much one event resembles another conjunction rule even when it is clear
event) that they understand it.
Making Judgment Based on ● The culprit is the
Resemblances representativeness heuristic.
● the probability that A is a member of ● Example: Participants saw Linda’s
class B can be determined by how characteristics as more
well the properties of A resembles representative of “feminist bank
the properties we usually associate teller” than “bank teller.”
with class B
● when any descriptive information

is available, people disregard the Incorrectly Assuming that Small
base rate information, and this can Samples are Representative
potentially cause errors in reasoning ● Answer: smaller hospital
● Law of Large Numbers
➔ states that the larger the
number of individuals that
are randomly drawn from a
population, the more
representative the resulting
group will be of the entire
population
➔ samples of small numbers of
● Conjunction Rule
individuals will be less
➔ the probability of a
representative of the
conjunction of two events (A
population
and B)cannot be higher
The Confirmation Bias
than the probability of the
● our tendency to selectively look for
single constituents (A alone
information that conforms to our
or B alone)
hypothesis and to overlook
information that argues against it
Kapagod so much!
● we see the world according to rules Emotions and Decisions

we think are correct and are never Expected emotions are emotions that
dissuaded from this view because people predict they will feel for a particular
we seek out only evidence that outcome.
confirms our rule ● an outcome that results in a positive
emotion will likely be a good
Decision Making outcome
(How people make judgments that involve ● an outcome that results in a
choices between different courses of action) negative emotion will likely be a
poor outcome
Utility Approach ● Immediate emotions are emotions
● Expected Utility Theory - based on that are experienced at the time a
the assumption that people are decision is being made
basically rational, so if they have all 2 Types of Immediate Emotions
of the relevant information, they will 1. Integral immediate emotions
make a decision that results in the ● emotions that are associated
maximum expected utility with the act of making a
● Utility refers to outcomes that decision
achieve a person’s goals 2. Incidental immediate emotions
● Criticism: People regularly behave ● emotions that are unrelated
in ways that ignore the optimum way to the decision
of responding based on probabilities. ➔ Disposition of a
➔ playing in casinos person as happy
Utility Approach People inaccurately predict their
emotions.
Risk aversion
➢ the tendency to avoid taking risks
● Expected emotions are one of the

determinants of risk aversion
● Many participants chose the larger ● Believing that a particular loss will
bowl with the less favorable have a greater impact than a gain of
probability the same sizes increases the
● They somehow felt as if they had a chance of risk aversion.
better chance if there were more red
beans
People overestimate what their negative

feelings will be.
● when making their prediction they
don’t take into account the various
coping mechanisms they may use to
deal with adversity
Incidental emotions affect decisions
Disgust : associated with need to expel

things
Sadness: associated with a need for
change
Decisions can depend on how choices

are presented
Opt-in procedure - it requires the person to

take an active step
Example:
1. Need to sign a permission donor
card in order to donate one’s organs
(leads to lesser chance of donating)
2. Everyone is a potential organ donor
unless he or she requests not to be
(higher chance of donating)
Decisions can depend on how choices

are presented
Risk-aversion strategy : when choices are

presented in terms of gains
Risk-taking strategy : when choices are
presented in terms of losses
Justification in Decision Making

● Decision-making process often
includes looking for justification so
the person can state a rationale for
his or her decision

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COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEWER (Tugon: Thank you, bosxzsxs Monica!

● Ironic Effects of Mental Control -

CONCERNS with Consciousness

Mindfulness and Neuroscience KNOWLEDGE AND CONCEPT

Family Resemblance ● Little overlap means the family

High Family Resemblance

THE EXEMPLAR APPROACH SEMANTIC NETWORKS:

Best approach for categorizing

Hierarchical Organization ● Cognitive Economy : way of

Knowledge and Organization

Criticism to Hierarchical Model:

Lexical Decision Task

COLLINS AND LOFTUS MODEL:

Criticism to Collins and Loftus model:

CONNECTIONIST APPROACH ● Cognitive processes can be

Information can be stored in a network

Parallel Distributed Processing

● Spontaneous generalization can 3. Each new experience with a

Operation of Schemas & Scripts in

complex sentence was ● We are especially sensitive about

LANGUAGE as a person creates

Speech: Perceiving Phonemes

● Syntax : specifies the rules for Interactionist Approach to Parsing

➔ 1. They went to a café and

➔ errors in which sounds or Embodied Cognition

Why people become bilingual

Advantages of Bilingualism ● From sorting colours to

● Criticism: There is no biologically Paying attention to Important

Through symbols… Situated Cognition And problem solving

➔ Problem: late submission of 3. Getting a college degree

● In terms of memory ➔ Their operations become

skills, and no amount of effort can The nature of insight

Nature of creativity ● Students are high in self-efficacy,

Deductive reasoning: Syllogism and ● Syllogisms can be invalid even

● Even though syllogisms may seem

Role of Regulations: Real World Terms

● People do well in the cholera task

Inductive reasoning: Reaching

Nature of Inductive Reasoning

Factors for strength of argument Availability Heuristics

Representative Heuristics ● People tend to violate the

● when any descriptive information

● we see the world according to rules Emotions and Decisions

● Expected emotions are one of the

People overestimate what their negative

Incidental emotions affect decisions

Disgust : associated with need to expel

Decisions can depend on how choices

Opt-in procedure - it requires the person to

Decisions can depend on how choices

Risk-aversion strategy : when choices are

Justification in Decision Making

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