Rangefinder

FORCE SENSOR
• Piezoelectric force sensors (Refer module I notes)

• Force sensors using strain gauges
TACTILE SENSOR
• A tactile sensor is a device that measures information arising from physical
interaction with its environment. Tactile sensors are generally modeled after
the biological sense of cutaneous touch which is capable of detecting stimuli
resulting from mechanical stimulation, temperature, and pain (although pain
sensing is not common in artificial tactile sensors).
• Tactile sensors are used in robotics, computer hardware and security systems.
A common application of tactile sensors is in touchscreen devices on mobile
phones and computing.
• Tactile sensors may be of different types including piezoresistive, piezoelectric,
capacitive and elastoresistive sensors.
Piezoelectric tactile sensor
Range Finder
• The function of a range finder is to measure the distance from a reference
point normally on the sensor itself, to objects in the field of operation of
the sensor.
• Range sensors are employed for robot navigation and obstacle avoidance,
where interest lies in estimating the distance to the nearest object.
• Types of range finders are:
• Ultrasonic
• Light based range finders
ULTRASONIC RANGE FINDER (SENSOR)
• The ultrasonic sensors can be used as range sensor in robots as well as proximity
sensors, which is independent of the sensing material.
• It mainly consists of a ceramic piezoelectric transducer , which is protected by a

resin layer against humidity, dust , dirt and other environmental factors. It also
acts as an acoustic impedance matcher.
• Since the same transducer is used for transmitting and receiving, fast damping of
acoustic energy is necessary for detection of closer objects.
• The housing is so designed so that it produces a narrow acoustic beam for
efficient energy transfer and signal directionality.
• The operation of the sensor is best understood by analyzing the waveforms used
for both transmission and detection of acoustic energy signals as shown below.
• Waveform A is the signal to control transmission while waveform B shows
output signal as well as the resulting echo signal. The pulses shown in C are
either due to transmission or reception.
• In order to differentiate between the pulses corresponding to transmitted and

returning energy, a new waveform D (time window) is introduced.
• In D, the time interval Δt1 is the min. detection time and Δt1 + Δt2 the maximum .
(The above time intervals are equivalent to specifying distances since the
propagation velocity of an acoustic wave is known in a given transmission
medium.)
• An echo received when signal D is high produces the signal shown in E, which is
reset to low at the end of a transmission pulse in signal A
• Similarly signal F will be high whenever an object is present in the distance

interval specified by parameters of waveform D, i.e F will be the output of an
ultrasonic sensor operating in a binary mode.
Block Diagram of Ultrasonic range Finder
Light based range finder
Principle
• Optical distance-measuring devices typically use the coincidence method of
determining distance; which uses a series of lenses and mirrors to produce a
double image. The double images on mirrors are brought together by
rotating a dial until both images merge into one. The dial has a distance
indicator. When the two images merge, the distance to the target is read
directly off the dial,
• METHODS FOR FINDING INCLUDE

TRIANGULATION AND TIME-OF-FLIGHT
• The method used to measure distance depends on the accuracy
and distance capability required of the device. Measurement
principles include triangulation, time-of-flight measurement, pulse-
type time-of-flight systems, and modulated beam systems
• For distances of a few inches with high accuracy requirements,
"triangulation" sensors measure the location of the spot within the
field of view of the detecting element.
• Time of flight sensors derive range from the time it takes light to
travel from the sensor to the target and return. For very long range
distance measurements (up to many miles) "time-of-flight" laser
rangefinders using pulsed laser beams are used.
• Modulated Beam Systems use the time light takes to travel to the
target and back, but the time for a single round-trip is not
measured directly. Instead, the strength of the laser is rapidly varied
to produce a signal that changes over time.
TRIANGULATION MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE
• One method for accurately measuring the distance to targets is through the use of
laser triangulation sensors. They are so named because the sensor enclosure, the
emitted laser and the reflected laser light form a triangle.
• The laser beam is projected from the instrument and is reflected from a target
surface to a collection lens. This lens is typically located adjacent to the laser
emitter. The lens focuses an image of the spot on a linear array camera (CMOS
array). The camera views the measurement range from an angle that varies from
45 to 65 degrees at the center of the measurement range, depending on the
particular model. The position of the spot image on the pixels of the camera is
then processed to determine the distance to the target. The camera integrates the
light falling on it, so longer exposure times allow greater sensitivity to weak
reflections. The beam is viewed from one side so that the apparent location of the
spot changes with the distance to the target.
• Triangulation devices are ideal for measuring distances of a few inches with high
accuracy. Triangulation devices may be built on any scale, but the accuracy falls off
rapidly with increasing range. The depth of field (minimum to maximum
measurable distance) is typically limited, as triangulation sensors can not measure
relative to their baseline, the distance between the emitter and the detector.
• The exposure and laser power level are typically controlled to optimize the
accuracy of the measurements for the signal strength and environmental light level
measured. The range data may be internally averaged over multiple exposures
prior to transmitting if the sample rate is set appropriately.
• TIME OF FLIGHT
• Modulated beam systems also use the time light takes to travel to a target
and back, but the time for a single round trip is not measured directly.
Instead, the strength of the laser is rapidly varied to produce a signal that
changes over time. The time delay is indirectly measured by comparing
the signal from the laser with the delayed signal returning from the target.
One common example of this approach is “phase measurement” in which
the laser’s output is typically sinusoidal and the phase of the outgoing
signal is compared with that of the reflected light.
• Phase measurement is limited in accuracy by the frequency of modulation
and the ability to resolve the phase difference between the signals. Some
modulated beam rangefinders work on a range-to-frequency conversion
principle, which offers several advantages over phase measurement. In
these cases, laser light reflected from a target is collected by a lens and
focused onto a photodiode inside the instrument. The resulting signal is
amplified up to a limited level and inverted, and used directly to modulate
a laser diode. The light from the laser is collimated and emitted from the
center of the front face of the sensor. This configuration forms an
oscillator, with the laser switching itself on and off using its own signal.
The time that the light takes to travel to the target and return plus the
time needed to amplify the signal determines the period of oscillation, or
the rate at which the laser is switched on and off. This signal is then
divided and timed by an internal clock to obtain a range measurement.
The measurement is somewhat nonlinear and dependent on signal
strength and temperature, so a calibration process can be performed in
the sensor to remove these effects.
CONFOCAL CHROMATIC
Unlike our time-of-flight and triangulation sensors which use lasers, the CCS Prima
Confocal sensors use a white light source to accurately measure the distance to
surfaces. Some models are accurate to within 20 nanometers. Additionally, this
technology permits measurement and profile of transparent materials like glass,
lenses, liquids, etc.
The essence of our confocal chromatic imaging principle is the accurate detection of
colors from light that is reflected back from target surfaces. The white light is focused
onto the target surface by a multi-lens optical system. These lenses disperse the light
into monochromatic stages (colors) along the measurement axis. A specific distance to
the target is assigned to each color’s wavelength in a factory calibration. Only the
wavelength which is exactly focused on the target is used for the measurement. This
light reflected from the target surface is transmitted from the probe, through a
confocal aperture and onto a spectrometer which detects and processes the spectral
changes and calculates distances. These distance measurements are transmitted at
high speed via ethernet communications protocol.

Rangefinder

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FORCE SENSOR

• Piezoelectric force sensors (Refer module I notes)

• It mainly consists of a ceramic piezoelectric transducer , which is protected by a

• In order to differentiate between the pulses corresponding to transmitted and

• Similarly signal F will be high whenever an object is present in the distance

• METHODS FOR FINDING INCLUDE

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