Sensors and Transducers

Introduction
To be useful, systems must interact with their environment.
To do this they use sensors and actuators
A sensor is a device that converts a physical

phenomenon into an electrical signal.

Sensors represent part of the interface between the physical

world and the world of electrical devices, such as computers.

The other part of this interface is represented by actuators,
which convert electrical signals into physical phenomena

Sensor Performance Characteristics

Transfer Function
The

transfer

function

shows

the

functional

relationship between physical input signal and

electrical output signal.
Usually, this relationship is represented as a graph
showing the relationship between the input and output
signal, and the details of this relationship may constitute

a complete description of the sensor characteristics.

Sensitivity
The sensitivity is defined in terms of the relationship

between input physical signal and output electrical

signal.

It is generally the ratio between a small change in

electrical signal to a small change in physical
signal.
As such, it may be expressed as the derivative of the
transfer function with respect to physical signal.

Span or Dynamic Range

The range of input physical signals that may be
converted to electrical signals by the sensor is
the dynamic range or span.
Signals outside of this range are expected to cause
unacceptably large inaccuracy.
Typical units are kelvin, Pascal, newton, etc.

Accuracy or Uncertainty

Uncertainty is generally defined as the largest

expected error between actual and measured
output signals.
Eg.: An accuracy of 0.001 means that the measured value is within
0.001 units of actual value.

Accuracy is generally considered by metrologists to be

a qualitative term, while uncertainty is quantitative.
Eg.: one sensor might have better accuracy than another if its

uncertainty is 1% compared to the other with an uncertainty of 3%.

Precision

Precision is the ability of an instrument to reproduce a

certain set of readings within a given accuracy.

Precision is dependent on the reliability of the instrument.

Nonlinearity (often called Linearity)

The maximum deviation from a linear transfer function

over the specified dynamic range.
There are several measures of this error.

Resolution

When the input varies continuously over the range , the

output signals for some sensors may change in small
steps
The smallest increment in the measured value
that can be detected.
Also

known

as

degree

measurements can be made.

of

fineness

with

which

Stability

Ability of a sensor to give the same output when

used to measure a constant input over a period

of time.
Drift Change in output that occurs over a time
Zero drift Changes that occur in output when there is
zero input

Dead Band: Range of input values for which there is no

output
Dead time: Length of time from the application of an input

until the outputs begins to respond and change

Output Impedance

Inclusion of the sensor significantly modify the behavior of

the system to which it is connected
Output impedance of sensor is being connected in either

series or parallel with the circuit

Repeatability/Reproducibility

Sensors ability to give the same output for

repeated applications of the same input value
Expressed as percentage of full range output

Hysteresis error
Sensors can give different outputs from the same value of quantity
being measured according to whether that value has been reached
by a continuously increasing change or a continuously
decreasing change this effect is called Hysteresis

Maximum difference in output for increasing and decreasing values

Selection parameters
Nature of the measurement required
Nature of output required from the sensor

Range
Accuracy

Linearity
Speed of response

Reliable
Maintainability
cost

Role of sensor/transducer in mechatronics

Provides position, velocity and acceleration information of

the measuring element

Acts as protective mechanism for a system
To eliminate complex & costly feeding and sorting devices

Provides identification and indication of the presence of

different components
Provides real time information concerning the nature of

the task being performed

Sensor Classification
Based on Signal Characteristics:

Analog
Digital
Based On power Supply:

Active
Passive

Based

on

Subject

of

measurement:

Acoustic,

Biological, Chemical, Electric, Mechanical, Optical,

Radiation, Thermal, etc..

Analog Sensors:
Typically have an output that is proportional to the variable being
measured.
The output changes in a continuous way
Digital sensors:

Outputs are digital in nature. i.e. a sequence of essentially

on/off signals which spell out a number whose value is
related to the size of the variable being measured.
Known for accuracy, precision and do not require any converters
when interfaced with a computer monitoring system

Active sensors:
Requires an external source of excitation.
Resistor-based sensors such as thermistors, RTDs (Resistance

Temperature Detectors), and strain gages are examples of active

sensors, because a current must be passed through them and the
corresponding voltage measured in order to determine the

resistance value.
Passive Sensors:
Generate their own electrical output signal without
requiring external voltages or currents.
Examples of passive sensors are thermocouples and photodiodes
which

generate

thermoelectric

voltages

and

photocurrents,

respectively, which are independent of external circuits.

PROPERTY

SENSOR

Temperature

Thermocouple Passive
RTD
Active
Thermistor
Active

Voltage
Resistance
Resistance

Force/Pressure

Strain Gage
Piezoelectric

Resistance
Voltage

Acceleration

Accelerometer Active

Capacitance

Position

LVDT

Active

AC Voltage

Light Intensity

Photodiode

Passive

Current

ACTIVE/PASSIVE

Active
Passive

Typical sensors and their outputs

OUTPUT

Classification of Sensors
1.

Position sensor

2.

Velocity sensor

3.

Light sensor

4.

Flow sensor

5.

Proximity / Range sensor

6.

Tactile sensor

7.

Vision system

POSITION SENSORS:

1.

Potentiometer

Linear potentiometer

Rotary potentiometer

2.

Encoder

Absolute encoder

Incremental encoder

VELOCITY SENSOR:

Tacho-generator

LIGHT SENSORS:
1.

Photo Diode

2.

Photo Transistor

FLOW SENSORS:

1.

Ultrasonic transducer

2.

Laser Doppler anemometer

PROXIMITY/ RANGE SENSORS:

1.

Ultrasonic sensor

2.

Eddy current sensor

3.

Optical proximity sensor

4.

Inductive proximity switch

TACTILE SENSORS:

1.

Micro switch

2.

Reed switch

VISION SYSTEM:
1.

Machine Vision System

Position sensors
Position

sensors

are

concerned

with

the

determination of the position of some object with

reference to some reference point.
While selecting consideration to be given:
Size of the displacement

Linear or angular
Resolution, accuracy, Cost..

Material of the measuring object.

Potentiometer
Consists of a resistance element with a sliding contact
which can be moved over the length of the element
Used for linear or rotary displacements, by converting
displacement into potential difference

Linear potentiometer:

Wiper
E

Figure: Potentiometer transducer principle

Linear

potentiometer:
V

Wiper
E

Voltage across the wiper of the linear potentiometer is measured in

terms of the displacement r

It is given by the relationship,

r
V=E.
R
V Voltage across the pot.
R Full scale displacement of pot.

Rotary potentiometer:

Wiper

- Measures angular position

-If the track has a constant resistance/ unit length (angle),

output is proportional to the angle through which slider rotates.

 The rotary potentiometer consists of a circular wire wound track or a

film of conductive plastic over which a rotatable sliding contact can be

rotated.
With a constant input voltage between terminal 1 and 3 the output

voltage between terminal 2 and 3 is a fraction of the input voltage, the

fraction depending on the ratio of the resistance between terminal 2
and 3 compared with total resistance between 1 and 3

Optical Encoder
Encoder is a device that provides a digital output as a
result of a linear or angular displacement.
These are widely used as position detectors.

Optical Encoders
Use light & photo-sensors to produce digital code.

Can be linear or rotary

Optical Encoder Components

 An opaque disc with perforations or transparent windows at

regular interval is mounted on the shaft whose Displacement or

Speed is to be measured.
A LED source is aligned on one side of the disc in such a way
that its light can pass through the transparent windows of the
disc.

 As the disc rotates the light will alternately passed through

the transparent windows and blocked by the opaque

sections.

A photo-detector fixed on the other side of the disc

detects the variation of light and the output of the
detector after signal conditioning would be a square
wave whose frequency is decided by the speed and
the number of holes (transparent windows) on the disc.

Types of Optical Encoders

2 types of Optical Encoders:
1. Incremental

Measure displacement relative to a reference point.

2. Absolute
Measure absolute position.
Advantages A missed reading does not affect the next reading.
Only needs power on when taking a reading.
Disadvantages More expensive/complex. Cost/complexity
proportional to resolution/accuracy.

Incremental Encoder
Consists 3 concentric tracks with 3 sensor pairs
Inner track has just one hole and is used to locate the
home position of the disc
The other two tracks have a series of equally spaced holes
that go completely round the disc

Incremental Encoder
But with the holes in the middle track offset from the holes
in the outer track by one half the width of a hole
This offset enables the direction of rotation to be
determined. In a clockwise direction the pulses in the
outer track lead those in the inner; and in the

anticlockwise direction they lag. The resolution is

determined by the number of slots on the disc. With 60
slots in 1 revolution then, since one revolution is a rotation
of 360 degree, the resolution is 360/60 = 6degrees

 An optical type speed sensor has a disc with 36

rectangular holes placed at regular intervals on

the periphery of the disc. The frequency of the

photo-detector output is 360 Hz. Find the speed

of the shaft in rpm on which the disc is mounted.

Absolute Encoder
Gives an output in the form of a binary number of several

digits, each such number representing a particular

angular position.
3 Bit Absolute Binary Rotary encoder : The rotating
disc has three concentric circles of slots and three sensors
to detect the light pulses.

The slots are arranged in such a way that the sequential

output from the sensors is a number in the binary code.

Velocity Sensors
and
Light Sensors

Tachogenerator
An electromechanical generator is a device capable of

producing

electrical

power

from

mechanical

energy, usually the turning of a shaft.

A generator specially designed and constructed for this
use is called a tachometer or tachogenerator.
Tachogenerator are frequently used to measure the

speeds of electric motors, engines, and the equipment they

power: conveyor belts, machine tools, mixers, fans, etc.

Variable reluctance Tachogenerator

Consists

of

toothed

wheel

of

ferromagnetic magnetic material which is

attached to the rotating shaft.

A pickup coil is wound on a permanent

magnet
As the wheel rotates, so the teeth move

past the coil and the air gap between the

coil

and

ferromagnetic

material

changes.[Magnetic circuit with periodically

changing air gap]

Thus flux linked by a pickup coil changes

The resulting cyclic change in the flux linked produces

an alternating e.m.f. in the coil.
Induced e.m.f. is given as e = Emax sinwt, where Emax is
Nnw is a measure of the angular velocity
Pulse shaping signal conditioner can be used to

transform the output into a sequence of pulses which can

be counted by a counter
The number counted in a particular time interval being a
measure of the angular velocity

Tacho-generator (Tachometer):

Figure 1) D.C. Tacho- generator

e0

Application:
e = Vc - Vp

Comparator

Vc

Amplifier

Reference
Signal
Vp

Va

Motor

Tacho-generator

Figure: Speed Measurement system

Vp = K p
Vp Feedback voltage

Kp Tachometer const.

Angular speed of rotor

Light Sensor
Photodiodes are pn junction diodes connected in reverse bias
condition. The reverse bias junction has high resistance
Incoming light can excite electrons being bound in the crystal
lattice and will generate free electron hole pars in the

junction. As a consequence the resistance drops and current

increases being proportional to the intensity of radiation or
light.

Light Sensor - Phototransistor

Phototransistor has three layer such as either pnp or
npn layers.
Light falls on the collector base junction reducing
the junction resistance being rise to collector current
sufficient enough for detection.
Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the output
voltage to the incident energy.

The capability to convert light energy to electrical

energy is expressed as quantum efficiency.

Window
Base

Emitter

p-type

n-type

Collector

Proximity switches
A sensing device which gives output to a proximity sensor when
the object is present.
Micro switch:
Small electrical switch which needs small physical contact
Reed switch:
It is a non contact proximity switch

Micro switch
Button to operate
Switch contacts

Lever
Figure 1): Lever operated

Figure 2): Roller operated

Figure 3): Cam operated

Non contact type Switches

Reed switch
Magnet

Electrical
contacts

In a reed switch, the two contacts are made from magnetic

material and housed inside a thin glass envelope.
bring a magnet up to a reed switch, it magnetizes the contacts in
opposite ways so they attract and spring together and a current
flows through them.
Take the magnet away and the contactsmade from fairly stiff
and springy metalpush apart again and return back to their
original positions.

Eddy current proximity sensors

Consists two coil
Active /sensor coil : which is influenced by the presence of a
conducting material.
Reference/balance coil : serves to complete a bridge circuit.
The coil is supplied with alternating current which produces an
alternating magnetic field.

Reference coil

Sensor coil

Object

Eddy current proximity sensors

If there is conducting object in close proximity to this magnetic
flux lines the eddy currents are induced in it.

As the conducting object comes closer to the sensor the eddy

current become stronger which changes the impedance of

the sensor coil and causes a bridge unbalance related to

object position.
This impedance change of the coil results in changing the
amplitude of the alternating current.
At some preset level this change can be used to trigger a

switch.

 Used for detection

conductive materials

of

non-magnetic

Advantage
Relatively inexpensive
Small in size
High reliability
High sensitivity to small displacements

but

Ultrasonic Sensors
Basic principle of operation:
Emit a quick burst of ultrasound (50kHz), (human hearing:
20Hz to 20kHz)
Measure the elapsed time until the receiver indicates that an
echo is detected.
Determine how far away the nearest object is from the sensor

D=v*t
D = round-trip distance
v = speed of propagation(340 m/s)
t = elapsed time

Bat, dolphin,
59

Detection system is based on 2 techniques:

Pulse technique: The detector measures the time, dt, spent
between the transmitter/receiver and the object
Doppler technique: The frequency of the received

ultrasonic signal changes in relation to the emitted frequency

depending on the velocity v of the object.
If the object is approaching the detector, then the frequency of
the signal received increases in relation to the emitted
frequency.

It is reduced when the object is moving away from the

detector.

 The penetrative quality of ultrasonic waves makes

them

useful

for

noninvasive

measurements

in

environments that are radioactive, explosive or

difficult to access
Used for sensing distance, level and speed and for

medical imaging devices, dimensional gauging and

robotic application.

Ultrasonic distance sensor

Transmitter

Control
circuit
Receiver

Ultrasonic distance sensing

Distance,

v
t
cos

d=
2

Object

Optical proximity sensor:

X
Receiver (Sensing array)

Light
source

Lens

Y
A
Scheme for a proximity sensor using reflected light against a sensor array
Distance between the object & sensor,
Y Dist. of the object from sensor

Y = 0.5X tan (A)

X dist. between source & reflected beam

A Angle between object & sensor

Emitter

Object

Object

Receiver
(in the range)

(out of range, too far)

Optical proximity sensor

Inductive proximity switch

Consists of a coil wound round a core, next to a
permanent magnet.

When the end of the coil is close to metal object its

inductance changes
This change can be monitored by its effect on a resonant
circuit and the change used to trigger a switch
It can only be used for the detection of metal

objects and is best with ferrous metals

Flow measurement - Introduction

Flow sensing for measurement and control is one of the most
critical areas in the modern industrial process industry

The continuous manufacturing process relies on accurate

monitoring and inspections involving raw materials, products
and waste throughout the process.

Conventional devices for flow sensing employ

Orifice plate
Nozzle
Venturi tube

 The probe introduces a disturbance in the

measured quantity by modifying the flow that would

exist in the absence of the probe.

The measurements also are prone to errors due to

errors non alignment of the probe with respect to

the flow direction.

FLOW SENSORS
Flow

sensor is an electronic device which measures flow

irrespective of nature of the fluid and transforms it in to a signal.

Ultrasonic transducer:
Measures fluid velocity by passing high-frequency sound waves
through the fluid.

Laser Doppler Anemometer:

Measures instantaneous flow velocity of fluids in a transparent

channel.

Ultrasonic sensor
Ultrasonic flow meters measure fluid velocity by passing
high-frequency sound waves through the fluid.

Sometimes called transit time flow meters, they

operate by measuring transmission time difference of an
ultrasonic beam passed through a homogeneous fluid
contained in a pipe both an upstream and a downstream
location.

Ultrasonic transducer:

 The transducer consists of transmitter and receiver

pairs.
One pair A and B act as transmitters and the other pair C
and D act as receivers

If a sound pulse is transmitted from transmitter B to

receiver C the transit time is calculated as

 If the pulse is transmitted from transmitter A to receiver D,

the transit time is

=
+

Where
d = diameter of the tube, m
V = velocity of the fluid flow, m/sec
= angle between the path of sound and pipe wall
C = sound velocity in the fluid, m/sec

(Assume V<<C)

 The transit time difference t is difference between 2 eqn. it is

proportional to flow velocity and fluid flow and can be used as an

input to the computer

By measuring the transit times at both upstream and

downstream locations the fluid velocity can be expressed
independently of the sound velocity in the fluid
Since the measurement is independent of the velocity of sound
through the fluid the effects of pressure and temperature are
avoided.

2
=

Laser Doppler Anemometer

A laser beam is focused at a point in the fluid where the velocity is to be
measured.
The laser beam is scattered by the small particles flowing in the liquid.
Due to viscous effects, the small particles move at the same velocity as
the fluid, So the measurement of the particle velocity is the same as the
fluid velocity.

Signal processing of the photo detector output produces the magnitude

of the Doppler frequency shift, which is directly proportional to the
instantaneous 'velocity of flow.

Laser Doppler Anemometer:

2

1
LASER

1 - Beam splitter
2 - Focusing optics
3 - Photo detector
Signal
processing

Figure: Laser Doppler anemometer

Frequency shift,

2V
cos

f
0
f =

V particle Velocity

Angle between laser beam and the particle

C speed of light

f0 frequency of the beam

 Machine vision can be defined as the acquisition of image

data, followed by the processing and interpretation of these
data by computer for some useful application.
Vision systems are classified as being either 2-D or 3-D.
The operation of a machine vision system can be divided into

the following three functions:

(1) image acquisition and digitization.

(2) Image processing and analysis, and

(3) interpretation.

Image Acquisition and Digitization

Image acquisition and digitization is accomplished using a
video camera and a digitizing system to store the image data

tor subsequent analysis.

The camera is focused on the subject of interest and an Image
is obtained by dividing the viewing area into a matrix of
discrete picture elements (called pixels) in which each
element has a value that is proportional to the light intensity

of that portion of the scene.

The intensity value for each pixel is converted into its
equivalent digital value by an ADC

the likely Image obtained from the simplest type of vision system called a binaryvision system

 In binary vision the light intensity of each pixel is

ultimately reduced to either of two values white or black

depending on whether the light intensity exceeds a given

threshold level.
A most sophisticated vision system is capable of

distinguishing and storing different shades of Gray in the

image. This is called a Gray-scale system.

 Each set of digitized pixel values is referred to as a frame;

Each frame is stored in a computer memory device called a
frame buffer.

The process of reading all the pixel values in a frame is

performed with a frequency of 30 times per second

 Types of Cameras: Two types of cameras are used in machine

vision applications:
Vidicon cameras (the type used for television) - operate by
focusing the image onto a photoconductive surface and
scanning the surface with an electron beam to obtain the

relative pixel values

Solid-state cameras - operate by focusing the image onto a
2-D array of very small, finely spaced photosensitive
elements. An electrical charge is generated by each element
according to the intensity of light striking the element

 Illumination: Another important aspect of machine vision is

illumination. The scene viewed by the vision camera must be

well illuminated, and the illumination must be constant over

time.

Laser Interferometer
Interferometry = interference + measurement
Basic application: hi-res measurement of distances
Basic principle: superposition of light waves

Constructive interference

Destructive interference

Laser interferometer
Optoelectronic instrument that measures distance in terms of the
wavelength of the light by examining the phase relationship between a
reference beam and a laser beam reflected from a target object.
Laser produces collimated light rays of single frequency present with
phase coherence.
The laser beam with an optical arrangement produces the reference beam
A part of the reference beam is transmitted to the target and a part is sent
to the interferometer
The rays reflected from the target are recombined at the interferometer
The phase difference between the reference beam from the source and the
reflected beam from the target is equal to the extra length traversed by the
beam.
The digitized information from the difference between the two signals
provides the distance information

 Used for precision motion measurement

and for checking the linearity of precision

machine tool slides and the

perpendicularity of machine tool

structures mainly during installation of

machine tools

What is a Laser Interferometer?

The Michelson Interferometer
Difference in path length
results in phase difference
Phase difference causes
interference
Interference determined by
analysis of fringe patterns

What is a Laser Interferometer?

Why lasers ?

High coherence
Collimated
Predictable
Frequency known

Types of Laser Interferometers

Homodyne detection (standard interferometry)
DC output signal from photodiode related to intensity
of light from interference
Both beams have same frequency

Heterodyne detection
One beam is frequency modulated prior to detection
Phase determined by signal analysis

How Do They Work?

Homodyne already discussed (Michelson
interferometer)

Heterodyne
Dual frequency,
polarized
laser source
Polarizing
beam splitter

Range Finder
Time of Flight
The measured pulses typically come form ultrasonic, RF and
optical energy sources.

D=v*t
D = round-trip distance
v = speed of wave propagation
t = elapsed time
Sound = 0.3 meters/msec

RF/light = 0.3 meters / ns (Very difficult to measure short

distances 1-100 meters)

Ultrasonic sensor
Consists of a transmitter, a receiver and a processing
unit
The transducer produces ultrasonic waves normally in

the frequency in the range of 30KHz to 100Khz.

In proximity sensing applications the ultrasonic beam is

projected on the target and time it takes for the beam to

echo from the surface is measured. [Sensor transmits a
signal and receives the reflected beam]

Ultrasonic Sensors
Basic principle of operation:
Emit a quick burst of ultrasound (50kHz), (human hearing: 20Hz
to 20kHz)
Measure the elapsed time until the receiver indicates that an echo
is detected.
Determine how far away the nearest object is from the sensor

D=v*t
D = round-trip distance
v = speed of propagation(340 m/s)
t = elapsed time

Bat, dolphin,
97

Detection system is based on 2 techniques:

Pulse technique: The detector measures the time, dt,
spent between the transmitter/receiver and the object
Doppler technique: The frequency of the received
ultrasonic signal changes in relation to the emitted
frequency depending on the velocity v of the object.
If the object is approaching the detector, then the
frequency of the signal received increases in relation to
the emitted frequency.
It is reduced when the object is moving away from the
detector.

 The penetrative quality of ultrasonic waves makes them

useful for noninvasive measurements in environments

that are radioactive, explosive or difficult to access
Used for sensing distance, level and speed and for
medical imaging devices, dimensional gauging and
robotic application.

Noise Issues

100