1. Definition of transformations.

In the process of translation a SLT as a whole or its segments may undergo varied
modifications that are known in the theory and practice of translation as translation
transformations.

The term ‘transformation’ is polysemantic and there are at least 6 meanings that are
associated with this word in translation studies.

L.S. Barkhudarov:
Translation transformations are numerous and varied in their quality inter-lingual changes
which are made to achieve adequacy in translation in spite of discrepancies in the formal
and semantic systems of a SL and a TL.

A.D.Shveitser:
The term ‘transformation’ is used in translation theory metaphorically, we mean special inter-
lingual operations of transpresentation («перевираження») of SL sense by means of TL.
He connects the character of transformations with his model of the levels of equivalence
which is based on three aspects of a linguistic sign: syntactic, semantic and pragmatic.

The syntactic level favours substitutions which retain the syntactic invariant despite various
other replacements, e.g.
The sun disappeared behind a cloud. – Сонце заховалося за хмарою.

The semantic level admits of a variety of transformations including passivization,

nominalization, replacement of a word by a word group, etc. e.g.
Your wife is a superb cook. – Ваша дружина прекрасно готує.

The pragmatic level regarded as a toplevel in the hierarchy of levels exists irrespective of
the other two levels and allows a wide range of transformations which cannot be described
in terms of a single type e.g.
Many happy returns of the day. – З Днем народження.

V.S.Vinogradov:
An understanding of translation transformations connects it with two stages in a translator’s
work:
- the 1st includes two types of perception of a message: pre-translational and translational
perception;
- the 2nd phase connected with re-creation by means of TL of what has been perceived in a
SL text (two phases: transpresentation and artisticidentification of translation).

L.K. Latyshev:
He defines transformations as conscious deviations from objectively possible language
parallelism in order to achieve communicative and functional equivalence of a SLT and a
TLT.

It is useful to keep apart related aspects of transformations:

1) transformations as modifications/changes of a SL text made on various levels,

2) transformations as certain operations made in particular conditions of activity and

3) transformations as translator’s techniques caused by certain translation difficulties and

problems.
2. Levels of translation transformations, operations and techniques of
translation

● Lexical transformations
● Grammatical transformations
● Stylistic transformations

V.N. Komissarov singles out lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical transformations.

L.K. Latyshev and A.L. Semenov differentiate between two classes of transformations:

● structure-layer (include categorical morphological, syntactical, stylistic and lexical

changes)
● content (involve a change in the content representation of a situation and include
redistribution of semantic components, situational semantic transformations
explication of implicit content.

In a systematic way translation transformations were considered and classified by prof. Ya.I.
Retsker in close connection with the theory of regular correspondences which distinguished
between adequate substitutions (later named ‘lexical transformations’) and equivalent,
variant and contextual correspondences.
Transformations are classified by Ya.I. Retsker into:

● lexical (differentiation, concretizing, generalization of meaning, sense development,

antonymic translation, entire phrase modification, compensation for losses),
● grammatical (full – with complete sentence restructuring and partial with partial
restructuring) and stylistic (expressive-emotional concretizing and expressive-
pragmatic concretizing)

Techniques of translation

Techniques of translation relate to a translator’s concrete actions and particular ways of

translation which bring about a certain modification or transformation of a SLT.

L.S. Barkhudarov described his transformations in terms of four basic techniques:

● restructuring (or transpositions)

● substitutions
● additions
● omissions (or deletions)

In his opinion, all the major classifications of translator’s techniques boil down to those
four.
A much broader classification of techniques of translation was advanced by J.-P. Vinay and
J. Darbelnet, who singled out seven types:

● borrowing
 ● loan translation
● word-for-word translation
● transposition
● modulation
● equivalence
● adaptation
Thus, we can take for a basis L.S. Barkhudarov’s classification and supplement it with one
more type:
● modification=integral modification

This system of techniques of translation comprising five types underlies various translation
transformations on all the levels discussed above, used alone or in various combinations.
3. Classification of translation transformations according to techniques of
translation

Transpositions cover all cases of restructuring. So naturally here refer to transformations

made on the syntactic level which result in changes in word order. They can be divided into
two kinds depending on the nature of a unit undergoing restructuring, its size and syntactic
functions:
● re-patterning on the level of a word-group
● re-patterning on the level of a sentence (changes in the word order within a sentence
or a clause, changes in the order of clauses within a complex or a compound
sentence, changes in the order of sentences)

Substitutions unlike the previous technique underlie transformations made on various

levels: lexical, stylistic, grammatical (morphological and syntactic).

Lexical substitutions include several subtypes depending on the character of changes in

the lexical meaning of a SL unit:

1) concretizing – a SL word with an abstract, broad and general meaning is replaced by a TL

word with a concrete, narrow and specific meaning, e.g.
Finally it is always a good idea to have someone in your party take notes of the meeting. –
Завжди доцільно мати когось у своїй команді для того, щоб занотувати деталі зустрічі.

2) generalization – a SL word with a concrete, narrow, specific meaning changed for a TL

word which has an abstract, broad, general meaning, e.g.
The samples exhibit high resistivity - Ці зразки характеризуються значним опором.

3) sense development – a SL word is replaced by a TL word the meanings of which denote

notions connected with each other through cause-result links. There may be basically 6
varieties of such transformations, e.g.
When I opened my eyes she had lit the lamp (Gr. Greene) (action). - Коли я розплющив
очі, лампа була засвічена (resultant state).

result – cause
action – cause
result – action
cause – result
action – result
cause – action

4) antonymic translation – a SL word is translated by its TL antonym which as a rule brings

about changes in the grammatical structure of a sentence, namely an affirmative sentence
often becomes negative and vice versa a negative sentence may turn into an affirmative
one, e.g.
We stayed at a small hotel. – Ми зупинилися у невеличкому готелі.

Grammatical substitutions refer to various changes of grammatical (morphological) forms

and syntactic structures that include several kinds of modifications:
 ● part-of-speech characteristics,
● parts-of-a-sentence substitutions,
● syntactic substitutions.

Compensation – the replacement of a SL word which has no ready correspondence by a

TL unit with an approximate / close meaning or an acceptable way of referring to an object
named. Compensation can be of two types:

● semantic compensation (e.g. five-and-ten-cent store trade – дешеві магазини),

● stylistic compensation

Additions are complex lexico-grammatical transformations which bring about changes in the
lexical elements of a SLT that are accompanied by grammatical changes. As a result of
additions one or more words are added when translating an original utterance which is a sort
of extension to it.

Omissions represent changes in a SLT which are opposite in nature to additions, though
they are also qualified as complex lexico-grammatical transformations.
Translation practice shows that omissions are more frequently made while translating from
Ukrainian into English in contrast to additions that are usual when translating from English
into Ukrainian.

Integral modifications are such changes which involve the whole semantic and formal
structure resulting in radical modifications of the speech utterance.
Integral modifications may take place on two levels:

● the level of a word-group (to be born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth –
народитися в сорочці)
● the level of a sentence (The others can go right along the road – Решта хай
забираються геть)
Землетруси в Новій Зеландії: Скасували попередження про цунамі після евакуації
В п'ятницю відбулися три потужні землетруси біля узбережжя Нової Зеландії, ініціюючи
попередження про цунамі, які згодом були скасовані.
Після третього і найсильнішого землетрусу було видано накази про евакуацію
жителям, які проживають у прибережних районах Північного острова.
Національне агентство з надзвичайних ситуацій попередило про загрозу цунамі вздовж
східного узбережжя.
Були повідомлення про хаос у деяких містах, оскільки сотні людей намагалися досягти
найвищих місць.

Але до обіду в п'ятницю влада заявила, що найбільші хвилі пройшли. Мешканцям

дозволили повернутися додому, але їх попередили, щоб вони трималися подалі від
пляжів.
Також було попереджено Південнотихоокеанські архіпелаги Нової Каледонії та
Вануату, щоб підготувалися до небезпечних хвиль.
Їх узбережжя могли бачити хвилі висотою до 3 м (10 футів), в той час як у частині
Південної Америки - включаючи Перу, Еквадор та Чилі - попередили, що досягти їхніх
узбереж можуть хвилі висотою 1м.
Тихоокеанський центр попередження про цунамі, який базується на Гаваях, заявив, що
"були видні хвилі цунамі” , але поки що про пошкодження не повідомлялося.
Трафік "від бампера до бампера"
Прем'єр-міністр Нової Зеландії Джасінда Ардерн опублікувала в Instagram:
“Сподіваюся у всіх все гаразд.”
Всі три землетруси відбулися зранку, силою понад сім.
Найпотужніший, з величиною 8,1, відбувся близько 08:30 (21:30 за Гринвічем) поблизу
незаселених островів Кермадек, 1000 км (621 милі) на північний схід від Нової
Зеландії.
Хоча попередні попередження про цунамі були скасовані, Національне агентство з
надзвичайних ситуацій надіслало нову сирену оповіщення про третій землетрус, яка
пролунала в декількох районах.

1. офіційні дані
Два друга спілкуються про останні новини почуті:
- А знаєш, що сьогодні відбулася сутичка людини з ведмедем?
- Цікаво, але щось не сильно схоже на правду.
- Та ти що, це ж газета “Волинь”. Це офіційні дані!
2. з неба звалитися
Дочка приходить додому з навчання:
- Привіт, як в тебе справи в університеті?
- Та все добре, відповідала, отримала бали, правда на 3 парі нас
повідомили, що в нас буде завтра модуль.
- Будеш зараз готуватися?
- Та в мене ще і так справи є, і робота, і цей модуль як з неба звалився на
мої плечі.