CHAPTER TWO

GEOLOGY

The geology of Kent reflects hundreds of millions of years of natural processes, all of which have left their
identifying marks on the landscape. It is, to say the least, a complex tale. To read the sequence of dynamic, sometimes
cataclysmic events that created the terrain of Kent, and ultimately the overlying soils as well, geologists begin by studying
its bedrock.

Bedrock Fundamentals
Essential to reading Kent’s history of geological cataclysms is a rudimentary knowledge of the bedrock underfoot.
Bedrock is the rigid, stable rock crust that covers the Earth’s hot, semi-solid interior. The part that is visible on the surface
is commonly termed “ledge.” It is formed of many different kinds of rocks, each of which is an aggregate of minerals of
differing chemical composition, crystal form, color, hardness and other properties. The bedrock under Kent is at least three
miles thick and may be many times thicker than that in some locations. Logically, older “basement” rock, in having been
deposited first, should be found deeper in the earth and later formations should be located nearer the surface; occasionally,
due to up thrusts and down thrusts caused when sections of the Earth’s crust are subjected to massive tectonic shifts, the
reverse may be true. All bedrock is classified as igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic according to the way it was formed.
Igneous (volcanic) rock was created deep in the Earth from semi-liquid molten rock or magma as it bubbled and
seethed upward. It can have many different textures, determined by whether the bedrock cooled slowly at great depths
(igneous of intrusive origin) or cooled rapidly on the Earth’s surface (igneous of extrusive origin). Granites, which are
igneous intrusives, cooled slowly at great depths and are characterized by large crystals, coarser grains and lighter colors;
granites are revealed on the Earth’s surface only after long periods of erosion. Basalts, which are igneous extrusives, are
most often the result of lava flow that cooled and solidified rapidly upon reaching the surface and are characterized by
finer grains and generally darker colors. Bedrock also varies in its chemistry and mineral composition.
Sedimentary rock generally forms from the breakdown of older rocks or the accumulation of skeletons and shells
of organisms in a watery or oceanic environment. The breakdown occurs through weathering—chiefly physical erosion
due to wind, water, ice and temperature extremes, but also chemical changes and other agents of disintegration and
decomposition. The weathered material is transported from its point of origin and deposited elsewhere in more or less
horizontal layers, often in a marine environment (i.e. beneath an ancient sea), but also on lake floors, river flood plains and
deltas. The sedimentary layers gradually become lithified (compressed and cemented together into consolidated rock) by
the effects of weight, pressure and chemical action. Sandstone, shale, limestone and gypsum are examples of sedimentary
rock formations. Traces of fossilized organisms—the imprint of a leaf or a skeletal remain—are sometimes discernible in
sedimentary rocks.
Metamorphic rock can be either igneous or sedimentary in origin, but in either case it has undergone additional
physical and chemical alteration due to deformation and extremes of heat and pressure that the tectonic collisions cause.
The mineral layers of metamorphic rock sometimes reveal a folded, wavy pattern. Granitic gneiss is the metamorphic
form of granite. Marble is the metamorphic form of limestone. Slate is metamorphic shale. Schist is a general term for
a family of metamorphic rocks characterized by coarse grains, often including mica and quartz, and a tendency to split
easily. Gneiss is a severely metamorphosed rock of varying mineral composition. Amphibolite is a dark-colored gneiss
rich in the minerals amphibole, hornblende and plagioclase. Metamorphic rocks dominate the landscape of Kent and the
Western Highlands of Connecticut, an indication of the tremendous forces that played out here over millions of years.


 Movement along fractures in what was originally a continuous bedrock formation is known as a fault. Different
types of faults are produced by different compressional and tensional stresses, but once created they become focal points
for repeated displacement. To the experienced eye, faults can be discerned in many locations in Kent. A particularly good
example is at Kent Falls, where a fault runs from the top of the falls toward Dugan Rd. Another is the thrust fault that rises
on the north side of Rte. 341 behind the Kent School’s headmaster’s house.
Seven primary bedrock types, most of them metamorphic due to the tectonic deformations that occurred here,
are shown on the Bedrock Geology Map #4. Each bedrock type is identified on the map and in the text below according
to the standard system of geological nomenclature. Capital letters such as Y, C and O, are used to indicate the geological
age of the bedrock. The small letters that follow indicate the names of the primary rock types based upon their mineral
aggregates and how the bedrock was formed.

A Glance Back in Geological Time

The physical landscape of Connecticut has undergone many changes over the eons. Most of what is reported here has
been summarized from The Geologic History of Connecticut Bedrock, a book by Margaret Coleman (2005), and from
the Bedrock Geological Map of Connecticut, a map and supporting documents compiled by John Rodgers (1985). The
geological events in Connecticut’s history are also presented in tabular form opposite, with the most recent era and period
appearing at the top and the earliest at the bottom of the chart.
Kent is part of the Connecticut extension of New York’s Hudson Highlands and Taconic Mountains to the west
and of the Berkshire Mountains to the North. Known as the Northwest Highlands, its geology was created over more than
a billion years of geologic time, as ancient proto-continents and oceans shifted in size and shape, in relationship to each
other, and to their orientation on the surface of the earth (latitudes and longitudes). For example, what we know today
as New England was once part of a topsy-turvy proto-continent located close to the Earth’s Equator. And the familiar
rounded peaks and valleys of today’s Northwest Corner are mere remnants of far older mountain ranges that once stood
here.
Connecticut’s geological base was built from west to east. The oldest rock formations in Kent and in Connecticut
are 1.3 billion years old, and are part of the Precambrian Grenville Massif that formed the eastern edge of the continental
plate of Laurentia. Laurentia, with modifications, is the precursor of the North-American continent. About one billion
years ago, most of the earth’s tectonic plates collided to form one super continent called Rodinia. The eastern edge of
the Laurentian plate crumbled in a major mountain building event called the Grenville Orogeny and the Grenville rocks
were raised, deformed and metamorphosed. On the map, these rocks are indicated with the symbol Yg (Y stands for
Proterozoic era). They include gneiss (Ygn), schist (Ygs), and amphibolite (Ygh), sedimentary rocks that have been
metamorphosed, and granitic gneiss (Ygr), metamorphosed igneous rock. (See also the Bedrock Formations table below).
Most of the uplands west of the Housatonic River, Treasure Hill and Sugar Loaf Hill on the southeast border of Kent,
are built of ancient Grenville bedrock. Look for exposed segments of PreCambrian bedrock along the Appalachian Trail
above Schaghticoke Rd., in broad bands along Fuller Mountain and Skiff Mountain roads, along St. John’s Ledges, and in
several locations along Ore Hill and Treasure Hill roads.
Over the next 400-500 million years the mountains gradually eroded. Eventually the super continent of Rodinia
started to break apart and the new Iapetos Ocean formed. What would become western Connecticut was at the edge of the
ocean and located somewhere south of the equator. Tropical white sand beaches during the early Cambrian epoch were
lithified to sandstone, and later metamorphosed to quartzite of the Dalton formation (Cd). This quartzite is found in a
narrow band along the west side of the Housatonic River valley and around Treasure Hill.
When the sea level rose during the middle and late Cambrian Periods (520-500 million years ago or MYA), the
Laurentian continental shelf was covered by a shallow sea. Carbonate mud, consisting mostly of calcareous skeletons of
marine micro-organisms, was laid down over the quartz sands. This lasted from about 520-470 MYA, continuing into the
early Ordovician epoch. This mud solidified to limestone and later metamorphosed into the Stockbridge marbles (tagged
as Csa (“C” for Cambrian), Csb and Ocs (“O” for Ordovician on our map). Because marble erodes and weathers more
easily than most other rocks, the Stockbridge marbles were gradually carved into river valleys. In Kent large bands of
marble are found along the Housatonic River, in Kent Hollow, and along Bull Mountain Brook and Merryall Brook.


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Geologic Time Table
GEOLOGIC TIME TABLE
ERA PERIOD EPOCH START IN MYA* LIFE FORMS GEOLOGICAL EVENTS IN CONNECTICUT
Holocene 0.012 human societies after last ice age
Quaternary Pleistocene 1.8 earliest humans repeated glaciations
Pliocene 5 appearance of hominids cooling
Miocene 24 grasslands spreading
Oligocene 34 first apes warmer
Ecocene 55 heavy erosion of mountains
Cenozoic Tertiary Paleocene 65 earliest large mammals
65 extinction of dinosaurs
Cretaceous 144 first flowering plants Tectonic stability in Connecticut. Formation of Alps, Andes, Rockies and Himalayas.
Jurassic 206 earliest birds and mammals Atlantic Ocean forms. Shallow seas over much of N.America.
Mesozoic Triassic 248 first dinosaurs, many deserts Pangea starts breaking up. Hartford Rift Valley forms.
248 widespread extinction
Permian 290 widespread glaciation Large faults forming. Appalachian Mountains eroding.
first reptiles; amphibians dominant Alleghenian orogeny: Appalachians formed as high mountain range, and metamorphosis of
Pennsylvanian 323 first conifers older rocks
Carboniferous Mississippian 354 large forests and swamps Erosion of Acadian mountains
Acadian orogeny. Eastern highlands of CT formed. Older formations folded, fractured and
Devonian 417 earliest amphibians metamorphosed.
Silurian 443 first land plants and insects Periods of calm. Central-CT on coastal plain/marine shelf. Western-CT rolling hills.
Taconic orogeny: Manhattan shales (Cm+Cma) from lapetos Ocean pushed over
late 458 first corals Stockbridge limestone.
W-CT continental shelf subsides. Deep-sea muds cover limestone, later
middle 470 lithify to dark shales, and evt. to Walloomsac schist Owm+Ow
Last carbonate deposits (later Stockbridge marble Ocs).
Ordovician early 490 lapetos Ocean begins to close. W-CT shallow sea
late 500 More carbonate muds (Csb)
W-CT covered by shallow sea; deposits of carbonate muds, which lithify to limestone and
middle 520 earliest fish later metamorphose to Stockbridge marble (Csa)
Paleozoic Cambrian early 543 many trilobites Tropical beach sand deposits lithify to quartz sandstone (Cd)
explosion of life in oceans 570-490 MYA lapetos Ocean forms.
~600 MYA supercontinent Rodina starts breaking up; continental rifting.
1000 MYA Grenville orogeny: Laurentia (proto N-America) collides with other continents;
first soft-bodied invertebrates Grenville basement rocks deformed and buried.
1300 MYA age of oldest rocks in CT: Grenville gneiss, schist, granitic gneiss and
first multi-celled organisms amphibolite (Ygn+Ygs+Ygr+Ygh on map).
Proterozoic 2500 West edge of CT part of precambrian Grenville Massif.
Archean 3800 first algae and bacteria ~4000 MYA oldest dated rocks in the world.
Precambrian Hadean 4600? Formation of the earth.
* Age in million years ago. From Geological Society of America, 1999
 The marble bedrock stretched many miles southeastward, but during the Ordovician Period (490-443 MYA) the
Taconic Orogeny took place. A narrow band of volcanic islands pushed up against the edge of Laurentia and over the
Stockbridge marble. Deep sea muds were deposited atop this shelf and these later lithified to dark shales and eventually
were metamorphosed to Walloomsac schistose marble (Owm) and schist (Ow). These rock formations can now be found
on the lower slopes east of the Housatonic River, along Womenshenuk and Cobble Brooks and on much of The Cobble
itself. (The iron ores so assiduously extracted from Kent’s bedrock deposits for more than a century were also laid down
as sediments in the mid-Ordovician Period when most of the region was under water. They are principally distributed
along the contact line between the younger Stockbridge marble and the older Grenville gneiss, at such locations as the
junction of Ore Hill and Geer Mountain roads in South Kent.)
The Taconic plate then pushed shales, formed much further out during the Cambrian period, over the younger
Stockbridge marbles and Walloomsac schists, along fault surfaces. The area was significantly uplifted and deformed.
Later erosion exposed the marbles again in the major valleys while the eastern uplands of Kent consist of those displaced
shales. The shales were later metamorphosed to the Manhattan schistose gneiss (Cm) mixed with schistose gneiss rich in
amphibolites (Cma). An isolated part of this formation sits on top of the schistose marble between the Housatonic River
and Womenshenuk Brook. Part of Peet Hill, consisting of granitic gneiss, is a remnant of an underlying magma chamber,
or pool of magma, that fed the overlying Taconic volcanoes (Og). So, while the bedrock formations of the eastern uplands
are not that dissimilar from those in the west, they are much younger. Behind the Manhattan formation, another series of
Iapetos Ocean sediments were pushed up against the continent along thrust faults.
The most significant of these faults is Cameron’s Line, named for Eugene Cameron, the geologist who first
described it. The line traces diagonally across the Western highlands,
separating the formation of Connecticut’s northwest corner from
the rest of western Connecticut. Cameron’s Line appears just east
of Torrington and Litchfield to follow more or less the course of
Rte. 202 until it eventually crosses the Housatonic River two miles
south of New Milford’s center. On the western side of Cameron’s
Line, Kent included, was deposited an abundance of marine-shelled
creatures that in dying had lithified into deep beds of limestone. On
the eastern and southern side is found a distinctly different geology.

The First Land Plants and Animals

The bedrock base of Kent was completed roughly 440 MYA. This
marks the end of the Ordovician Period and the first appearance of land plants and animals. Subsequent tectonic events
caused several phases of intense deformation, metamorphosis and fracturing of older formations, and periods of uplifting
to high mountain ranges followed by long periods of erosion. But no bedrock formations occurred in Kent after the
Ordovician Period, and the area west of Cameron’s Line was relatively little impacted.
Further east, the situation was different. The Acadian Orogeny, which occurred during the Devonian Period (417-
354 MYA), added another part to the North American continent, including the eastern half of Connecticut. At the same
time the area east of Cameron’s Line was severely compressed. During the late Carboniferous Period (323-290 MYA),
the African, South American, and European plates collided with North America to form the super continent of Pangea.
Known as the Alleghenian Orogeny, this collision compressed and broke apart Connecticut’s crust. Estimated to have
been anywhere from 500 miles to 3,000 miles across at the time, the crust was folded into the land mass that is today no
more than about 100 miles across. In the process, our section of the Appalachian Mountain chain—the Berkshires and
Taconics—was thrust up, the mountains’ peaks reaching heights of 20,000 to 30,000 feet, equivalent in grandeur to those
of the modern Himalayas.
About 220 MYA, during the Mesozoic Era, Connecticut, like its surroundings, was still covered with semi-tropical
vegetation and dinosaurs roamed the region. A rift valley started to form in central Connecticut. But the breakup stopped
and a new rift further east made the African continent break away from North America, separated by the beginnings
of what would become the Atlantic Ocean. Also at that time North America finally drifted north across the Equator to

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its present location. The Hartford Rift Basin partially filled up with sedimentary brownstone, washed down from the
surrounding eroding mountains during the Triassic and Jurassic Periods.
Volcanic intrusions left plates of basalt that later were tilted; after erosion of the softer bedrock around it, the
basalt became exposed as the present trap rock ridges that form the north-south spine of the state. By 145 MYA, the whole
of Connecticut was a stable part of North America’s continental crust; eastern North America has remained tectonically
quiet since.
By the late Cretaceous Period much of the bedrock under Connecticut was gradually worn down by erosion to
become part of a large coastal plain that at times was flooded by the sea. Several times though, most recently about 40
MYA, upward arching of the inland area caused new river valleys to form. These valleys mostly followed the north-south
fractures and cut deep into the less-resistant carbonate rocks, while the harder bedrock was shaped into ridges and hills.
The flowing water gouged out the valleys, but it was during the last two million years that moving ice became the last
great elemental force, polishing Kent’s landscape to the terrain and textures we know today. The Geologic Time Table
below gives a chronological summary of the geological events that played out in our part of the state.

Global Cooling and Glacial Geology

Beginning around three to five million years ago the generally warm, semi-tropical climate that prevailed for tens of
millions of years changed. Long periods of dramatic cold led to a succession of advancing and retreating continental ice
sheets that scoured the Earth’s surface and killed off the semi-tropical biota that lived here.
In the eastern U.S. the Wisconsin Ice Age—75,000 to 12,000 years ago—was the last and had the greatest impact.
The so-called Wisconsin Glacier or Laurentide Ice Sheet is estimated to have been as much as a mile deep at the latitude
of Hartford, thinner as it approached the coast. At its peak so much water was locked up in ice across the globe that ocean
levels fell to unprecedented lows, as much as 300 to 350 feet below present levels. A land bridge was revealed between
Asia and North America permitting the ancestors of Native American peoples to migrate to the New World.
The Wisconsin Glacier scoured out the larger river valleys. Then, as the climate warmed once again and the
glacier began its retreat about 19,000 years ago, it continued to transform surficial features. At the southern end of the
retreating edge, a large amount of unsorted debris was left behind, creating the peninsula of Cape Cod and the chain of
coastal islands from Nantucket to Long Island. The last remnants of the glacier disappeared from the Kent area around
14,000 years ago. Withdrawing in a generally south-to-north direction, it left marks still visible today—glacial striations
and scrapes—on many exposed ledges and rocky balds.
The retreating glacier deposited two kinds of surficial materials atop the basement bedrock: glacial till and
meltwater deposits. Both are important features of Kent’s landscape, playing determining roles in creating the overlying
soil and thus in determining the suitability of the land for various human and natural developments.
Glacial till is debris carried on top of the glaciers, collected at the edges of glaciers, or pushed before them. In
physical form glacial till is an unsorted mix of gravel, sand, silt, clay and variable amounts of stones and large boulders.
The debris can be more than 100 feet thick on lower concave slopes, in the valleys and on plateaus, such as the east flank
of the Housatonic River valley north of the Flanders district. Similar deposits of glacial till are found in the Cobble Rd.
area, Beardsley Rd. area, Spooner Hill and parts of Skiff Mountain. By contrast, it can be thin or absent on higher, steeper
slopes.
Glacial till is further described in terms of specific physical formations, including moraines, which take the form
of ridges usually deposited at the edges of glaciers, and drumlins, cigar-shaped mounds of glacial till formed under the
glacier, usually of north-south orientation. Most drumlins are formed of till deposited during an earlier glaciation and
shaped and compacted by the last glacier. They run NNW-SSE in the direction the ice sheet moved. Spooner Hill is an
example of such a drumlin.
Erratics are another kind of glacial remainder. Unmatched to surrounding bedrock, they are large rocks that
have been broken off and transported from parent bedrock elsewhere to be deposited in isolation in an area of differing
geology. One notable erratic can be seen just off the Appalachian Trail and just above Numeral Rock above Kent School.
Another erratic is the legendary Molly Fisher Rock atop Spooner Hill. As described in 1789 by Ezra Stiles, president of
Yale University, who came through here on a land survey, he observed this rock “by itself and not a portion of a Mountain;

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it is of White Flint. It ranges N & S & is about 12 to 14 feet long; eight to ten wide at base & on the top; … and of an
uneven … surface.”
A later visitor, Kent historian Clifford Spooner, added his own description in the 1930s: “It is one of several large
boulders [that] lie right
out on top of the ground
… . Doubtless these
large boulders came here
during the glacial period
as they are not the kind
of rocks we usually see in
the fields.”
Spooner went
on to confirm Stiles’
measurements, adding
that it had a stripe of
pure white quartz about
four inches thick running
lengthwise through it. The
rock was so unusual, and
so strangely scratched
or inscribed, that locals
attributed a story to it that Molly Fisher Rock, a massive erratic atop Spooner Hill

involved buried gold, Captain Kidd, and a colorful medicine woman named Molly Fisher, who was said to be the only
one who knew where the treasure lay. Whatever the truth of that story, the erratic is a reminder of the glaciers’ one-time
dominance in the area.
The second type of glacial debris, glaciofluvial or meltwater deposits, were laid down in front of the melting,
retreating ice sheets, mostly in temporary lakes that formed in valley bottoms. Meltwater deposits appear as layers of well
sorted to poorly sorted gravel, sand, silt and clay, giving them the alternative name of stratified drift deposits. Stratified
drift can be up to 200 feet deep and, when coarse, forms very productive aquifers. (See Chapter Four and Map #8 for
locations in Kent). Kames are small, compact knolls of stratified sand and gravel formed by meltwater at the edge of a
retreating glacier. A kame terrace can be observed on the east side of the Housatonic River near Kent Falls.
Talus is often mentioned in connection with glacial alteration of the landscape; it is more precisely the result of
other kinds of weathering. Talus is a steeply-sloped collection of usually angular rock that tumbles down from the face
of steep rock faces, often from considerable heights; a gathering of talus can be seen beneath St. John’s Ledges, below
the steep escarpments of Segar Mountain at Club Getaway, and at the back side of the Lake Waramaug State Park camp
grounds.

Today’s Landscape
The advancing and retreating glaciers acted like gigantic bulldozers, scraping, leveling off and filling in the low areas
of bedrock with rock, gravel and dirt, providing the raw materials for many of today’s soil types. At the same time the
constant flow of melting ice water altered the land, forming wide flood plains, lakes, ponds and rivers. By the end of the
Wisconsin Ice Age the once V-shaped valley of the Housatonic River had been reshaped into to its present U-shaped
profile as unimaginable amounts of meltwater drained seaward.
As meltwater slowed here and there due to more resistant land forms, and to ice dams and till ridges blocking its
way, the larger particles settled out first, then the finer particles, and lastly the finest-grained. This sorting out gave rise
to gravel and sand deposits as well as clay banks. Boulder fields were also left behind. Along the rivers fertile sediments
(alluvium) were laid down in flood plains on either side, preparing the way for the agricultural activities that would
eventually become so important to Kent.

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 A meander plain, caused as stream water traverses relatively flat land and wanders in evenly spaced side-to-side
loops, is seen near the intersection of Macedonia Brook and the Housatonic River. This area is believed to have once been
an arm of Lake Kent, the bed of a vast ancient lake that extended from the area of Housatonic Meadows on the Kent/
Cornwall line southward to the pinch point at Bull’s Bridge, the water trapped by a glacial dam several hundred feet thick.
During periods of stronger erosion, the rivers would cut down deeper, leaving former floodplains as raised terraces. Kent
has many such terraces, ranging from 20 to 100 feet above the Housatonic’s present bed.
Other glacial effects are seen in the many existing lakes and ponds that formed in Kent’s glacial depressions. Both
Hatch and Leonard ponds are glacial ponds. Elsewhere, large ice blocks left behind were surrounded by thick deposits of
debris that created raised earthen walls; these became what are known as “kettle ponds.” Fuller Pond is a classic example.
The shallowest depressions became wetlands.
Even before the last glaciers were fully gone, plants and animals began to repopulate the once-barren landscape.
We can begin to fill in these gaps in our past from two archaeological finds in the vicinity of Kent. Many decades ago
an amateur digger uncovered mastodon bones in a Sharon gravel pit; more recently, in 1999, using scientific excavation
methods and dating techniques, the entire skeleton of a mastodon weighing up to 15,000 pounds and estimated to have
lived c.11,500 B.C. was discovered in Hyde Park, NY, 25 miles west of the state line. It is reasonable to presume that
other such prehistoric creatures passed through Kent as well before becoming extinct around 9,000 years ago.
In a sense, Connecticut is still “recovering” from glaciation as glacial ponds gradually fill in to become marshes
and bogs, swamps become wet forests, rivers and streams continue to carry glacial sediments to the sea, and stones
deposited by glaciers pop through the soil with every springtime frost-heave. The old stone walls that border countless
fields and roads in Kent are also reminders of the glaciers’ actions, as are the occasional erratics that stand out in the
landscape like so much natural sculpture.

RECOMMENDATIONS
l. Keep strict limits on the extent to which landscape can be reshaped for development or resource extraction
including mining. Promote the philosophy of working with the land, not against it.

REFERENCES
Bell, M. (1985) The Face of Connecticut: People, Geology and the Land. Connecticut Geological and Natural History
Survey Bulletin No. 99, CT DEP, Hartford
Coleman, Margaret (2005). The Geologic History of Connecticut Bedrock. CT DEP.
Geological Society of America (1999). Geologic Time Scale. www.geoscienceworld.org
Gordon, Robert and Michael Raber (2000). Industrial Heritage in Northwest Connecticut, A Guide to History and
Archaeology. The Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, New Haven, CT
Kirby, Ed (1995) Exploring the Berkshire Hills, A Guide to Geology and Early Industry in the Upper Housatonic
Watershed, Valley Geology Publications, Greenfield, MA.
Radway-Stone, Janet et al (2005), Quaternary Geologic Map of Connecticut and Long Island Sound Basin,
scale 1:125,000, U.S. Geological Survey with CT DEP.
Raymo, Chet and Maureen Raymo (2001). Written in Stone. A Geological History of the Northeastern United States.
Black Dome Press Corp.
Rodgers, John (1985) Bedrock Geological Map of Connecticut. CT DEP in cooperation with US Geological Survey.
Walsh, G.J. (2003) Bedrock Geological Map of the New Milford Quadrangle, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report
03-487 (http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2003/of03-487) and e-mail correspondence

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