Origin of Earth and Tectonics

Basic Review of Earth

 Our Earth is about 4,570,000,000 years
old
 The oldest rocks geologists have been
able to find are 3.9 billion years old.
 In context of our home planet the entire
earth was molten rock - a magma ocean
before.
Components of Earth
 Lithosphere
 Atmosphere
 Hydrosphere
 Biosphere
Lithosphere
 Outermost part of a rocky planet.
 In case of earth, lithosphere comprises of
crust and upper part of mantle.
 It is hard and rigid layer of the earth
 The lithosphere is broken into tectonic
plates.
 There are two types of lithosphere:
◦ Oceanic lithosphere, which is associated
with Oceanic crust and exists in the ocean
basins
◦ Continental lithosphere, which is
associated with Continental crust
 Structure of Earth
 The structure of earth is divided based on two
methods
◦ Mechanically:
 Lithosphere- hard and rigid outermost layer of
earth
 Asthenosphere- highly viscous, mechanically
weak and ductilely-deforming layer
 Mesosphere- more denser and rigid layer below
asthenosphere
 Outer core- highly dense liquid core
 Inner core- highly dense solid core
◦ Chemically
 Crust- thin, rigid layer rich in silica and
alumina
 Mantle- composed of silicate rocks that are
rich in iron and magnesium relative to the
overlying crust
 Core- rich in heavy elements like iron and
transition elements.
 Outer and
 Inner
Geological Time Scale
 The geologic time scale provides a system
of chronologic measurement relating
stratigraphy to time that is used by
geologists, paleontologists and other
earth scientists to describe the timing and
relationships between events that have
occurred during the history of the Earth.
 The geological time scale is divided into
Eon, Era, Period and Epochs.
 Most recent
“Ice Age”
“Humans”
arrive

Major Mass
Extinction

Age of
Dinosaurs
Major Mass
Extinction
Age of Coal
Formation

Age of Fishes

First multi-
celled
The Geologic Time Scale
organisms
Origin of the Earth
4.55 Billion years
Internal Structure of Earth
 Earth: the only habitable planet in our solar system
 A ‘ball’ of rock covered 2/3rd part by water.
 Lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and atmosphere
forms the earth’s outer zone.
 But interior of earth is not easy to observe.
 It gets hotter with depth inside the earth.
 The deepest borehole a human has ever made is
12,289 metres deep (in Qatar, 2008)
 This is very less compared to the average radius of the
earth i.e. 6378.1 km, (radius is little more at equator
than at poles)
 As direct observation is not possible, indirect
observations for the study of internal structure
of earth has been carried out.
 Study of volcanic products has its own drawbacks
due to the complex chemical mixing of magma
(molten rock) with host rocks.
 The study now is done by studying of
propagation of seismic waves (earthquake waves)
through the earth.
 Earthquake generates different types of waves
two of which are important for indirect study
of earth’s internal structure
◦ Primary wave (P-wave) and
◦ Secondary wave (S-wave)
 The velocity of these waves differ even in the
same medium.
 And the velocity of the waves depends on
density of the material they pass through.
 The study of the nature of P and S waves
passing through the earth showed that the
earth is not uniform inside.

 This heterogeneity is not random rather there

are zones with different density, state and
elastic property inside the earth separated by
‘discontinuities’.
 Internal structure of earth
 it was not until the turn of the 20th
century that scientists determined that
our planet is made up of three main
layers: crust, mantle, and core.

This layered structure can be

compared to that
• Density, (mass/volume),
of a boiled egg.
Temperature, and Pressure
increase with depth in the Earth.
Note*: Draw this figure
 Crust
 Uppermost solid shell of the earth.
 Rigid and very thin compared with other two layers
 The thickness of crust varies in oceans and continents
◦ under the oceans: 5-6 km
◦ under the continents: 30-35 km
◦ under the mountains: 60-70 km
◦ Average thickness of the crust: 35 km
 Silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3) are the most
dominant component of the crust.
 Solid aggregate that make up the crust is termed ‘rock’.
 Scientists believe that below the
lithosphere is a relatively narrow (250-
350 km), mobile zone in the mantle called
the asthenosphere (from asthenes, Greek for
weak).

 The rigid lithosphere is thought to "float"

or move about on the slowly flowing
asthenosphere.
 Mantle
 The seismic velocity abruptly increases
further inside the earth marking the mantle.
 It is separated from the crust by
‘Mohorovicic discontinuity’ or ‘Moho’.
 Mantle is also divided as upper, middle and
lower mantle.
 The upper and middle mantle is about 1000
km thick.
 Origin of magma, triggering of earthquake,
tectonics takes place in this upper and
transition zone mantle.
 The mantle, which contains more iron,
magnesium, and calcium than the crust, is
hotter and denser because temperature and
pressure inside the Earth increase with
depth.
 But very little is known about the mantle as
all the observation have been of indirect
nature (mostly by the behaviour of the
seismic waves)
 The lower mantle is more homogenous and
reaches upto 2900 km depth.
 Core
 Separated by ‘Guttenbergg-Weichert
Discontinuity’ from the mantle the core reaches
the centre of earth.
 Constitutes 17 % of the volume and 34% of mass
of earth.
 S-wave do not pass through the core indicating
the core is liquid. The velocity of the P-wave also
decreases from 12.6 to 8.4 km/sec.
 The core is made up of iron and transition
elements.
 Earth's core is actually made up of two
distinct parts: a 2,200 km-thick liquid outer
core and a 1,250 km-thick solid inner core.
 As the Earth rotates, the liquid outer core
spins, creating the Earth's magnetic field.
 The density of the core varies from 5.5 x
103 kg/m3 to 10.6 x 103 kg/m3. the density at
core is up to 13 x 103 kg/m3
 The temperate is extremely high (6000°C)
and so is the pressure (3 million
atmospheres)
Plate Tectonics
 In geologic terms, a plate is a large, rigid slab of solid
rock. The word tectonics comes from the Greek root
"to build." Putting these two words together, we get
the term plate tectonics, which refers to how the
Earth's surface is built of plates.
 The theory of plate tectonics states that the Earth's
outermost layer is fragmented into a dozen or more
large and small plates that are moving relative to one
another as they ride atop hotter, more mobile
material.
 A tectonic plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a
massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock,
generally composed of both continental and oceanic
lithosphere.
 The lithosphere is broken up into tectonic plates.
 There are currently seven or eight major (depending
on how they are defined) and many minor plates.The
lithospheric plates ride on the asthenosphere.These
plates move in relation to one another
 Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building,
and oceanic trench formation occur along these
plate boundaries.The lateral relative movement of
the plates typically varies from 0–100 mm annually
Continental drift ????
 Continental drift is the movement of
the Earth's continents relative to each other. The
hypothesis that continents 'drift' was first put
forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596 and was fully
developed by Alfred Wegener in 1912. However, it
was not until the development of the theory of plate
tectonics in the 1960s, that a
sufficient geological explanation of that movement
was found.
Alfred Wegner
 Alfred Wagener contended that, around 200 million
years ago, the supercontinent Pangaea began to split
apart.
 Alexander Du Toit, Professor of Geology at
Johannesburg University and one of Wegener's
supporters, proposed that Pangaea first broke into
two large continental landmasses, Laurasia in the
northern hemisphere and Gondwanaland in the
southern hemisphere.
 Laurasia and Gondwanaland then continued to break
apart into the various smaller continents that exist
today.
 Wegener's theory was based in part on what appeared
to him to be the remarkable fit of the South American
and African continents
 Wegener was also impressed by the occurrences of
unusual geologic structures and of plant and animal
fossils found on the matching coastlines of South
America and Africa, which are now widely separated by
the Atlantic Ocean.
 He reasoned that it was physically impossible for most of
these organisms to have been transported across the
vast oceans. To him, the presence of identical fossil
species along the coastal parts of Africa and South
America was the most compelling evidence that the two
continents were once joined.
 In Wegener's mind, the drifting of continents after the break-
up of Pangaea explained not only the matching fossil
occurrences but also the evidence of dramatic climate
changes on some continents.
 For example, the discovery of fossils of tropical plants (in the
form of coal deposits) in Antarctica led to the conclusion that
this frozen land previously must have been situated closer to
the equator, in a more temperate climate where lush, swampy
vegetation could grow.
 Other mismatches of geology and climate included distinctive
fossil ferns (Glossopteris) discovered in now-polar regions, and
the occurrence of glacial deposits in present-day arid Africa,
such as the Vaal River valley of South Africa.
 Evidences of Plate Tectonics (Summary)
1. Remarkable fitting if coastline of south
American and African Continents.
2. The presence of identical fossil species along
the coastal parts of Africa and South America.
3. Occurrence of glacial deposits in present-day
arid Africa.
4. The discovery of fossils of tropical plants (in the
form of coal deposits) in Antarctica.
5. Formation of Himalayas
6. Formation of Mid-Oceanic ridges, Oceanic
Trenches and Rift Valleys.
What really causes the continents to drift??
 Mid-Oceanic Ridge
 Before the 19th century, the depths of the open ocean were
largely a matter of speculation, and most people thought that
the ocean floor was relatively flat and featureless.
 However, as early as the 16th century, a few intrepid
navigators, by taking soundings, found that the open ocean can
differ considerably in depth, showing that the ocean floor was
not as flat as generally believed. It was very much rugged.
 all along the globe, a system of mid-oceanic ridges was
detected. An important conclusion was that along this system,
new ocean floor was being created.
 In 1961, scientists began to theorize that mid-ocean
ridges mark structurally weak zones where the
ocean floor was being ripped in two lengthwise along
the ridge crest.
 New magma from deep within the Earth rises easily
through these weak zones and eventually erupts
along the crest of the ridges to create new oceanic
crust.
 This process, later called seafloor spreading,
operating over many millions of years has built the
50,000 km-long system of mid-ocean ridges.
 The concept of plate tectonics was
independently and more fully developed
by Alfred Wegener in his 1915 publication,
"The Origin of Continents and Oceans".[5]
 However, at that time the hypothesis was
rejected by many for lack of any motive
mechanism.
 The English geologist Arthur Holmes later
proposed mantle convection for that
mechanism
There are three types of plate boundaries
Divergent boundaries -- where new crust is generated as the plates
pull away from each other. Features- Rift Valley, Mid-Oceanic Ridge
Convergent boundaries -- where crust is destroyed as one plate dives
under another. Features- Mountains, Trenches
Transform boundaries -- where crust is neither produced nor destroyed
as the plates slide horizontally past each other.

Note*: Draw these above three figures.

India
India
India
India
India
India
India
India
India
India
India
India
India
India
India
India
India
India
India
India
India
India
Origin of the Himalaya
The Everest Peak:The highest point
on earth. Around 400 million years
ago the area was under sea
 How Himalayas are Formed ?

Himalaya is the product of collision between Indian and Eurasian plates

Indian Plate
Physical Features of Earth
 Mid-oceanic ridge is normally found rising above
the ocean floor at the centre of the ocean basins.
These features are involved in the generation of new
oceanic crust from volcanic fissures produced by
mantle up-welling. Some volcanic islands are part of
the mid-ocean ridge system (Iceland).
 The mid-oceanic ridge constitutes 23% of the Earth's
surface. In the centre of the mid-oceanic ridge is a
rift valley, between 30 to 50 km wide, that dissects
1000 to 3000 metres deep into the ridge system.
 Ocean trenches are long, narrow, steep-sided
depressions found on the ocean floor that contain
the greatest depths in the ocean (11,000 meters -
western Pacific). There are 26 oceanic trenches in the
world: 3 in the Atlantic Ocean, 1 in the Indian Ocean,
and 22 in the Pacific Ocean (Figure 10p-3). Generally,
the trenches mark the transition between continents
and ocean basins, especially in the Pacific basin.
Trenches are also the tectonic areas.
Note*: Draw this figure
 Mountains
 A feature that towers or rises above the level of
surrounding area more or less abruptly
 Usually mountains occur in chains or ranges
 Have complex structures due to folding, faulting, volcanic
activity, igneous intrusions etc.
 Different types of mountains have different methods of
origin
 Types of mountains
◦ Fold mountains
◦ Block mountains
◦ Volcanic mountains and
◦ Residual mountain
 Fold mountain
 It results from the earth’s crust being
compressed from the sides
 The layers of rocks in the
crust are pushed up
to form a fold
mountain.
 Alps, Himalayas,
Andes are the examples.
Note*: Draw this figure
 Block mountains
 Mountains formed due to faulting.
 A part of the land block is depressed so that the remaining
block stands conspicuously above the surroundings.
 The uplifted section is termed the block mountain (horst)
 When the middle section falls down instead of going up, it
forms the rift valley (graben).

Note*: Draw this figure

 Volcanic mountains
 The outrushing magma forms the fissures the
crust of the earth at a place into a dome,
mountains formed in such a way are called
volcanic or lacolith mountains.
 Volcanoes emit gases, liquid, solids as well.
 The gases are lost in atmosphere but the liquid
and solid get accumulated and heaps around the
fissure or orifice.
 During continued activity for years, the
accumulation grow into an enormous size
justifying the name- mountain.
Note*: Draw this figure
 Residual mountain
 When existing mountains or plateaus are in
eroding state the resulting structures are
called residual mountains or relict mountains
 The eroding agents are snow, wind, rain
 They erode the softer materials from the
existing mountains thus reshaping the lower
hills and valleys
 Plateaus
 Plateau or ‘tablelands’ are relatively flat area.
 Its one side may rise steeply from the flat
area while other side may drop steeply from
the flat area.
 In some plateaus all the sides may drop away.
 Types of plateaus
◦ Piedmont plateau: lying at the base of a mountain
◦ Intermont: plateau surrounded by mountain
ranges
◦ Continental: flat, large island plateau. e.g.
Greenland
 The Tibetan plateau is the highest plateau in
the world with the altitude more than 4000 m
sometimes termed the ‘roof of the world’.
 Shields
 Large region of exposed basement rock
/Precambrian igneous rock (older than 570
million years old and sometimes dates back 2 to
3.5 billion years) with gentle convex surface
surrounded by sediments.
 Origin is mostly volcanic but high-grade
metamorphic rocks also found
 Tectonically stable
 are relatively flat regions where mountain
building, faulting, and other tectonic processes are
greatly diminished compared with the activity
that occurs at the margins of the shields and the
boundaries between tectonic plates.