The nature of rocks

Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals. The nature and

properties of a rock are determined by the minerals in it (particu-
larly those essential minerals.
An individual rock specimen is always described in terms of its
mineral composition and texture and both are used in its
classification.
According to their mode of formation, rocks are of 3 main types:
• Igneous rocks are formed from magma, which has originated well
below the surface of the Earth.
• Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation and
compaction/consolidation of (a) fragments from pre-existing rocks;
(b) organic debris such as shell fragments or dead plants; or (c)
material dissolved in the surface waters or groundwater.
• Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks of any type,
which have been subjected to increases of temperature (T) or
pressure (P).
The formation of the above types of rocks can be best explained
by the rock cycle.
The earth’s crust is
overwhelmingly igneous in origin.
An igneous rock is one that
formed from the solidification of
magma.

Magma is the hot-liquid molten

material, generated within the
Earth, that forms igneous rocks
when solidified. Most magmas
are generated through the partial
melting of the upper mantle.

Magma is composed of three

parts: (1) melt; (2) silicate mineral
crystals; and (3) volatiles.
 The melt is the liquid component of the magma composed of mobile ions of the eight most common
elements found in Earth’s crust – Si and O, along with lesser Al, K, Ca, Na, Fe and Mg.

The crystals of silicate minerals are the solid

components of magma. As the magma cools, the
size and number of silicate crystals increases until
such time that the magma resembles a “crystalline
mush” with small amounts of remaining melts.

The volatiles are the gaseous component of the

magma that forms into gas at surface pressures.
These are water vapor, CO2 and SO2. The volatiles
separate from magma as pressure decreases when
magma ascends. When deeply buried magma
crystallizes to plutons, volatiles collect into hot,
water-rich fluids that migrate through the (c) Earth, an introduction to physical geology 11th ed.
surrounding rocks; these fluids play an important By Tarbuck, Lutgens, Tasa
role in metamorphism of rocks [more later session].
When magma crystallizes at depth, it forms intrusive igneous rocks also known as plutonic
rocks. Uplift and erosion exposes the plutonic rocks to the surface.

When lava, a term for magma reaching the surface, solidifies at the surface, they form
extrusive igneous rocks also known as volcanic rocks.

Earth, an introduction to physical geology 11th ed.

By Tarbuck, Lutgens, Tasa
The magmas rise towards the surface, and they are either stored within the crust
where they form intrusive bodies called plutons.

 Sills are concordant plutons; they are flat, tabular bodies intruded parallel to the
layering of the host rock.

 Dikes are discordant plutons that cut across the layering of the host rock. When
no layering in the host rock is evident, the pluton is called a dike.

 Volcanic neck is an intrusive structure apparently formed within the throat of a

volcano.
 Laccoliths are mushroom-shaped bodies that rises near the surface and domes the
overlying layers while it spreads laterally.
 Batholiths are enormous, complex rock bodies that cover at least 100 km2.
 Stocks are plutons similar to batholiths but smaller in size (<100 km2).
Types of Igneous Textures

A. Aphanitic Texture

Rocks that form at the surface where cooling is

rapid exhibit a fine-grained texture called
aphanitic. Minerals in these rocks are so small
and not visible to the naked eye; polarizing
microscopes are used for their identification.
B. Phaneritic Texture

Rocks that crystallize slowly at great depth exhibit a coarse-grained texture called
phaneritic. Mineral crystals are large and interlocking; they are visible to the naked eye for
identification and geologists usually use magnifying lens.
C. Porphyritic Texture

Rocks that form under two cooling conditions

exhibit porphyritic texture; large minerals form at
depths until such time that the magma moves to
the surface through eruption causing rapid cooling
of the remaining melt. The resulting rocks have
large crystals (called phenocrysts) embedded at a
matrix of smaller crystals (called groundmass).

(c) Earth, An introduction to Physical Geology 11th ed.

Tarbuck, Lutgens, Tasa
D. Vesicular Texture

Extrusive rocks sometimes exhibit voids left by

escaping gas bubbles as they solidify. These voids
are called vesicles and rocks that possess these
nearly spherical openings have a vesicular
texture. They usually solidify from the top
portion of the lava where cooling is rapid enough
to preserve the voids of expanding gas bubbles.
E. Amygdaloidal Texture

When the voids in the rock are filled with

latter minerals which may have been
precipitated from water circulating in the
rock just before, or at some time after,
consolidation, these are called amygdales
and the rock exhibit an amygdaloidal
texture. Amygdales can be distinguished
from phenocrysts because of their rounded
shape.
F. Glassy Texture

Molten rocks are ejected into the

atmosphere during volcanic
eruptions where it is quenched and
cooled rapidly. These rocks exhibit a
glassy texture.
G. Pyroclastic Texture

When individual rock fragments from explosive volcanic

eruption are consolidated into a rock, they exhibit a
pyroclastic texture or fragmental texture. The fragments can
be a combination of ash, molten blobs or large angular blocks
torn from the walls of the vents during an eruption.
Pyroclasts are classified according to their composition size and shape.

IUGS classification of pyroclastic debris based Common fragmental (pyroclastic) textures as classified
on diameter clast size (After Fisher, 1961, 1966) by size and degree of roundness (Schmidt, 1981)
H. Ophitic Texture

This is produced when plagioclase feldspar

and augite crystallize at the same time to
produce a felted arrangement of
interlocking crystals. It is normally present
in hypabyssal rock dolerite (also known as
diabase), and is the reason for its high
crushing strength, and hence for its
suitability as roadstone.
I. Pegmatitic Texture

This is produced where the concentration of

water and other fluxes in the late-residue of
a magma lowers the temperature of
crystallization of the minerals forming in it,
allowing individual crystal to achieve a size
well beyond what is meant by coarse
grained. Such texture characteristically
occurs in veins of very acid igneous rock
(pegmatite), which are sources of
economically important minerals that
include gold, tungsten, beryllium and rare
earth elements.
(c) Earth, an introduction to physical geology 11th ed. – Tarbuck, Lutgens, Tasa
Earth, An Introduction to Physical Geology 11th ed. – Tarbuck, Lutgens, Tasa
Engineering properties of some unweathered igneous rocks.I
How Magma Forms

Most magma originates in

Earth’s uppermost mantle.
The greatest quantities are
produced at divergent
zones (continental plates
move away from each
other), seafloor spreading at
mid oceanic ridges (MORs),
with lesser amounts forming
at convergent zones or
subduction zones
(continental plates collide
with one another), where
oceanic lithosphere
descends into the mantle.

Earth, An Introduction to Physical Geology 11th ed. – Tarbuck, Lutgens, Tasa

Divergent Zones (Mid-Oceanic Ridges) on earth. Credits: Divergent Plate Boundaries - 8TH GRADE SCIENCE (weebly.com)
Divergent Zones
Ex: Atlantic MOR

Continental
plates move
away from each
other because of
the upwelling
mantle material
at their
boundaries. New
igneous rocks are
created at MOR
which are
relatively
younger than the
existing, moving
plate rocks.
In convergent (subduction)
zones, magma can be
generated by: (1) a decrease
in pressure also called
decompression melting; (2)
introduction of water that
lowers the melting point of
hot mantle rocks; and (3)
heating of crustal rocks
above their melting
temperature.
Convergent
plate
boundaries
(in red) on
earth

Credits: Mr.
Miller
Courageous
Scientists: Unit 5
Geology Day 9:
Tectonic Plate
Boundaries
Igneous Settings
These are locations on earth where
magma are high in production

A. Hotspots zones due to Mantle Plumes

(right photo); Example: Hawaii
B. Rift valleys due to mantle pluming
(bottom photos); Example: Afar, Ethiopia
 Igneous Settings

C. Island arcs in convergent zones (oceanic-oceanic plates)

D. Continental arcs in convergent zones (oceanic-continental plates)
Andesitic/rhyolitic
E. Mid-ocean ridges (MOR) in divergent zones volcanoes
Basaltic MOR Basaltic lava Rhyolitic ash flow
Trench
plateau
Basaltic shield Rift
Andesitic island arc volcano Granitic valley
Trench
pluton
 IMPORTANCE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

GRANITE: It is widely used for architectural construction, ornamental stone and

monuments. It is also used both in building construction and for statues.

GABBRO: It is widely used as crushed stone for concrete aggregate, road metal, railroad
ballast, etc.

BASALT: It can be used as a construction aggregate, railroad ballast.