MINISTRY OF GENERAL EDUCATION

KITWE DISTRICT EDUCATION BOARD

SIR ISAAC NEWTON(1642-1727) “FATHER OF CALCULUS”1642

SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

ORDINARY LEVEL

ADDITIONAL MATHEMATICS
PAMPHLET

−1
∫ sin ( cx+ d ) dx= c
cos ( cx +d ) + k

SECOND EDITION 2018

1|Page
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENT PAGE

Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….(i)

Editorial Team……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….(ii)

1.0 Coordinate Geometry……………………………………………………………………………………………………….1

2.0 Systems of Equations…………………………………………………………………………………………………………6

3.0 Functions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..13

4.0 Circular/Radian Measures…………………………………………………………………………………………………..18

5.0 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions………………………………………………………………………………24

6.0 Binomial Theorem……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..31

7.0 Permutations and Combinations…………………………………………………………………………………………37

8.0 Remainder and Factor Theorem………………………………………………………………………………………….43

9.0 Trigonometry……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..50

10.0 Vectors……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..64

11.0 Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions……………………………………………………………………………78

12.0 Calculus…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….91

13.0 Statistics………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….103

(iii)

2|Page
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Several teachers of Mathematics and Heads of Mathematics Department in Kitwe district contributed to
the accomplishment of writing this Pamphlet. First and foremost, we would like to thank the office of
the District Education Board Secretary (DEBS) and Headteacher from all secondary schools for their
support and encouragement.

Lastly, but not the least, we are thankful to various people (too numerous to mention individually)
provided us with valuable contribution at different phases in the writing of this manuscript. Above all we
want to thank God for giving us life and for making us fine mathematics professors to our learners.
Indeed, Additional Mathematics is a very important subject that a 21 st century pupil should learn and
have access to in order to prepare them for their future competitive career in fields such as
Engineering,Medicine,Economics and many more. We believe that no one in life can do anything
without mathematics as it is a tool in decision making and problem solving skills.

EDITORIAL TEAM

Mr.Kaoma Allan - Kitwe District Education Board Secretary-Overseer

Lt .Mwanza Saili -Additional Mathematics Pamphlet Editing Team leader/HoD Mathematics, Wesley
Nyirenda Secondary School,Kitwe.

Mr.Sinyangwe - Mathematics Pamphlets Editing Coordinator/ HoD Mathematics ,Chimwemwe

Secondary School,Kitwe.

Mrs Mwale B - Mathematics Pamphlets Editing Coordinator /HoD Mathematics ,St’Francis Secondary
School,Kitwe.

Mr. Mubanga S- HoD Mathematics ,Mukuba Secondary School, Kitwe.

Mr .Tembo K-HoD Mathematics ,Mitanto Secondary School, Kitwe.

Mr. Kalume Howard, HoD Mathematics ,Ndeke Secondary School, Kitwe.

Mr.Mulenga Obrian - HoD Mathematics ,Twashuka Secondary School, Kitwe.

Mrs .Chishimba Mildred Namwelu- HoD Mathematics , Malela Secondary School, Kitwe.

3|Page
Mr. Chama Owen –Acting Hod Mathematics ,Hellen Kaunda Girls Secondary School ,Kitwe.

Mr.Zulu Levison - Additional Mathematics/Mathematics Teacher ,Malela Secondary School, Kitwe.

Mr Banda ,Additional Mathematics/Mathematics Teacher, Chimwemwe Secondary, Kitwe.

(ii)

1.0 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

Coordinate geometry is the study geometrical properties of points, straight lines and curves using
algebraic methods.

1.1 FINDING THE LENGTH OF A LINE GIVEN TWO POINTS:

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

The length of a line joining two points is given by

EXAMPLE 1

1. Find the length of the line joining

4|Page
1.2 FINDING THE MID POINT OF TWO POINTS

The midpoint of the line joining two points , has coordinates

EXAMPLE 2

1. Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the straight line joining the points .

Midpoint =

1.3 FINDING THE GRADIENT AND EQUATION OF A STRAGHT LINE

GRADIENT OF A STRAIGHT LINE

EXAMPLE 3

Find the gradient of the line joining the points .

SOLUTION

5|Page
1.4 FINDING THE EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE
The following three common formulae can be used to find an equation of a straight line.

Where is the gradient and is the point where the line meets y axis ( y-

intercept).

2. Used when m is known and given a point

3. Where two points are known

EXAMPLE 4
Find an equation of the straight line with gradient 2 passing through the point (5, -3)

SOLUTION

Using y− y 1=m(x−x 1)

y - (-3) = 2(x -5)

y + 3 = 2x - 10
y = 2x - 10 - 3
y = 2x - 13 or y - 2x = -13

1.5 PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

1. If two lines AB and CD are parallel then there gradients are equal.

2. If two lines AB and CD are perpendicular then the product of their gradients always equal to

-1

EXAMPLE 5

Find the equation of the line which is

6|Page
(a) parallel to 2x + y = 3 and passes through (0, 1)
(b) Perpendicular to 3x + y = 5 and passes through (-2,-1)

SOLUTION

(a) 2x + y = 3

y = -2x + 3

m = -2 and point (0, 1)

y - y1 = m(x -x1)

y - 1 = -2(x - 0)

y = -2x + 1

-for any two Parallel lines their gradients are the same

(b) 3x + y = 5

y = -3x + 5

= -3

-For Perpendicular lines

7|Page
1.6 AREA OF A PLANE FIGURE
1. Given that triangle ABC has vertices A(5, 5), B(-6, 7) and C(-7, -2) Find its area

AREA OF RECTILINEAR FIGURES

Area of triangle ABC is

A(x 1 , y 1), B(x 2 , y 2 ) and C ¿ )

8|Page
 1
( x y + x y + x y −x y −x y −x y )
2 1 2 2 3 3 1 1 3 3 2 2 1
Then Area
x1 y1
1 x2 y2 x x2 x3 x1
| |or| 1 |
2 x y3 y1 y2 y3 y1
3
x1 y1

The points should be taken in the anticlockwise direction.

Starting point is repeated at the end in order to complete the figure

1
= ( x1 y 2 +x 2 y 3 +x 3 y 3 −x 1 y 3 −x 3 y 2−x 2 y 1 )
Area of ∆ABC =
2
1
¿ [ 5(7 )+(−6 )(−2 )+(−7 )(5 )−5 (−2)−(−7 )(7 )−(−6)(5)]
2
2.0SYSTEMS ¿ 1 [ 35+12−35+10+49+30 ] OF
EQUATIONS 2
¿50 .5 Squreunits
2.1 ONE LINEAR ONE QUADRIATIC

EXAMPLE 1

Solve the following simultaneous equations

3x + 4y = 2
x2 + 8xy + 12 = 0
SOLUTION

3x + 4y = 2................ (1)

x2 + 8xy + 12 = 0....... (2)

Step (1) from equation (1) 3x + 4y = 2

=˃ 3x = 2 - 4y

2−4 y
=˃ x = .............. (3)
3

Step (2) substitute (3) in equation (2)

x2 + 8xy + 12 = 0

9|Page
 2−4 y 2 2−4 y
=˃ ( ) +8( ) y + 12 = 0
3 3

4−16 y +16 y 2 16−32 y 2

=˃ + + 12 = 0
9 3

=˃ 9 [ 4 – 16y + 16y2 + 3(16 – 32y2) + (9)(12) = 0]

=˃ 4 – 16y + 16y2 + 48 – 96y2 + 108 = 0

-80y2 + 32y + 112 = 0

5y2 – 2y – 7 = 0

(5y - 7)(y + 1) = 0

=˃ 5y – 7 = 0 or y+1=0

7
y= y = -1
5

7
7 2−4( )
Step (3) substitute y = into (3): x = 5
5
3

6
=-
5

1
= -1
5

2−4(−1)
Substitute y = -1 into (3): x =
3

6
=
3

=2

1 2
Therefore, x = -1 when y = 1 and x = 2 when y= -1 .
2 5

EXAMPLE 2

Solve the equations x 2+ y 2=5

x + y=3

SOLUTION

10 | P a g e
 2 2
x + y =5……(1)

x + y=3 …….(2)

From equation (2) y=3−x to get eqn (3) we substitute in eqn (1) ,we get
2 2
x +(3−x) =5
2 2
x + 9−6 x + x =5
2
2 x −6 x+ 4=0

Diving all terms by 2 we get

2
x −3 x+ 2=0

( x−1 ) ( x−2 )=0

x=1 , x=2

Substituting the values of x in eqn (3)

Therefore x=1 , when y=2 and x=2 , when y=1

EXAMPLE 3

Given that ( a ,7) is a solution of the simultaneous equations 3x - y = 8 and bx2 – xy + 9 = y2 .

Find the (a) value of a and b.

(b) coordinates of the other solution.

SOLUTION

(a) Step (1) substituting x = a and y = 7 in equations (1) and (2)

=˃ 3a – 7 = 8............ (3)

=˃ ba2 – 7a + 9= 72 =˃ ba2 – 7a + 9 = 49

ba2 – 7a = 40........ (4)

Step (2) Solving equations (3) and (4) simultaneously

From equation (3) 3a – 7 = 8

3a = 8 + 7

a = 5................. (5)

Step (3) substituting (5) into (4)

11 | P a g e
 ba2 – 7a = 40

=˃ b (5)2 – 7(5) = 40

25b - 35 = 40

25b = 75

b = 3................................ (6) Therefore, a = 5, b = 3.

a) Step (1) substituting (6) into (2) and solving equations (1) and (2) simultaneously
3x – y = 8........................................... (1)

3x2 – xy + 9 = y2................................. (2)

Step (2) from equation (1) y = 3x – 8........... (3)

Step (3) substituting equation (3) into (2)

=˃ 3x2 – x ( 3x – 8) + 9 = (3x - 8)2

=˃ 3x2 – 3x2 – 8x + 9 = 9x2 – 48x + 64

=˃ 9x2 – 56x + 55 = 0

=˃ (9x - 11) (x - 5) = 0

=˃ 9x – 11 = 0 or x–5=0

9x = 11 x=5

11
x=
9

Substituting the value of x in equation (3)

11
y = 3( )-8
9

11
= -8
9

−13
=
3

1
=-4
3

2 1
Therefore, the coordinates of the other solution are (1 , -4 )
9 3

12 | P a g e
EXAMPLE 4

Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the line x + y = 3 and the curve

x2 – 2x + 2y2 = 3.
SOLUTION

Step (1) to find the coordinates of the point of intersection

Solve the two equations simultaneously

x + y = 3......................... (1)

x2 – 2x + 2y2 = 3………..(2)

From equation (1) x= 3 - y

Step (2) substitute equation (3) into (2)

=˃ (3 - y) 2 – 2(3 - y) + 2y2 = 3

9 – 6y + y2 – 6 + 2y + 2y2 = 3

3y2 – 4y + 9 – 6 – 3 = 0

3y2 – 4y = 0

y (3y – 4) = 0

4
y=0 or y=
3

Step (3) substitute the values of y in equation (3)

4 4
When y = , x=3- when y = 0 , x = 3 - 0
3 3

2
x=1 x=3
3

2 1
Therefore, the coordinates of the point of intersection are (1 , 1 ) and (3, 0).
3 3

2.2 THREE VARIABLES SYSTEMS

EXAMPLE 5

Solve the following equations

2x + y + 3z = 11

13 | P a g e
 x + 2y – 2z = 3

4x + 3y + z = 15

SOLUTION

2x + y + 3z = 11...................... (1)

x + 2y – 2z = 3.........................(2)

4x + 3y + z = 15....................... (3 )

Step (1) eliminating z from equation (1) and (2)

2(2x + y + 3z = 11), 3(x + 2y – 2z = 3)

=˃ 4x + 2y + 6z = 22 3x + 6y – 6z = 9

Adding the two equations gives

7x + 8y = 31............................ (4)

Step (2) eliminating z from equation (2) and (3)

X + 2y - 2z = 3 , 2(4x + 3y + z = 15)

8x + 6y + 2z = 30

Adding the two equations gives

9x + 8y = 33................................... (5)

Step (3) solving equations (4) and (5) simultaneously

7x + 8y = 31

(-) 9x + 8y = 33

−2 x −2
=
−2 −2

x=1

Replacing x = 1 in (4)

7(1) + 8y = 31

14 | P a g e
 giving y=3

Replacing the values of x and y in (1)

2 (1) + 3 + 3z = 11

5 + 3z = 11

3z = 6

z= 2

Therefore, x = 1, y = 3 and z = 2

2.3 USING CRAMMER’S RULE TO SOLVE THREE VARIABLE SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS

EXAMPLE 6

Find the solution of the systems of equations below using the crammer’s rule

2x + 3y + 4z = -4,

4x + 2y + 3z = -11

3x + 4y + 2z = -3

SOLUTION

2x + 3y + 4z = -4.................................. (1)

4x + 2y + 3z = -11................................ (2)

3x + 4y + 2z = -3.................................. (3)

Step (1) forming matrices

( )( ) ( )
2 3 4 x −4
4 2 3 y = −11
3 4 2 z −3

( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 4 −4 3 4 2 −4 4
Step (2) let A = 4 2 3 , B = −11 2 3 , C = 4 −11 3 , and D =
3 4 2 −3 4 2 3 −3 2

( )
2 3 −4
4 2 −11
3 4 −3

15 | P a g e
Step (3) finding determinants

| A|= 2 |24 32| - 3|43 32| + 4|43 24|

= 2(4 – 12) – 3(8 - 9) + 4(16 - 6)

= -16 + 3 + 40

= 27

|B| = -4 |24 32| - 3|−11

−3 2
3
| + 4|
−3 4|
−11 2

= -4(4 - 12) – 3(-22 + 9) + 4(-44 + 6)

= -81

|C| = 2 |−11
−3 2|
3
- (-4) |
3 2|
4 3
+ 4|
4
3
−11
−3 |
= 2(-22 + 9) + 4(8 - 9) + 4(-12 + 33)

= 54

|D| = 2 |24 −11

−3 | |
-3
4 −11
3 −3
-4 | | |
4 2
3 4

= 2(-6 + 44) – 3(-12+ 33) – 4(16 - 6)

= -27

|B| |C| |D|

Therefore, x = , y= , z=
| A| | A| | A|
−81 54 −27
= = =
27 27 27

x = -3 y=2 z = -1
EXERCISE

1.Solve the equations x + y=5

xy=x +3
2.Solve the simultaneous equations

x− y −2 z=−6
3 x+ 2 y =−25
−4 x+ y−z=12

16 | P a g e
EXPECTED ANSWERS

1. x=3 when y=2 or {3,2}

x=1 when y=4 or {1,4}
2. x=−5 , y=−5 , z=3

3.0 FUNCTIONS

 When two members of the two sets are connected, it is called a relationship.
 A relation is a collection of ordered pairs. A function is a special type of relation.
 Functions and relations can be represented by
(a) a mapping (b) a table (c) an ordered pair (d) an algebraic sentence
(e) a graph
EXAMPLE 1

A relation from set A = 2, 4, 6, 8 to set B = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 is given as “is one more

than”.Draw an arrow diagram to show the relation

SOLUTION

A
(i) is one than
2 1

4 3

6 5

8 7

(a)the type of relationship

one – to – one relationship
EXAMPLE 2

Study the mapping below

3. .1

4. .2

5. .7
17 | P a g e
 (a) Complete the following
(i) 3 is mapped into ….. and ….
Answer 1 and 2
(ii) 4 is mapped into………
Answer 2
(iii) 5 is mapped into…….
Answer 7
(b) List the set of:
(i) The domain
Answer - Domain = 3, 4, 5
(ii) The range
Answer - Range = 1, 2, 7

EXAMPLE 3

Set D = (2,4), (2, 6), (2,8), (2,10), (3, 6), (3, 9), (4,4), (4,8), (5, 10)

(a) Illustrate this information on an arrow diagram.

4
2
6
3
8
4
9
18 | P a g e 5
10
 (b)Complete the following table

Input f: x 3x + 1 Output Ordered pair

i. 1 f:x 3 (1) + 1 4 1,4)

ii. 0 f:x 3 (0) + 1
iii. 2
iv.

Answer

input f: x 3x + 1 Output Ordered pair

i. 1 f: x 3(1) + 1 4 (1,4)
ii. 0 f: x 3(0) + 1 1 (0,1)
iii. -2 f: x 3 (-2) + 1 -5 (-2, -5)
iv. -3 f: x 3(-3) + 1 -8 (-3, -8)

SOLVED PROBLEMS

1. A function f is such that f (x) = 2x – 2. Find:

−1
(a) f (0) (b) f (2) (c) ( )
2
(a) f (x) = 2x – 2 (b) f (x) = 2x – 2 (c) f (x) = 2 (x) -2
−1
f (0) = 2 (0) -2 f (2) = 2 (2) -2 =2( ) -2
2
= 0–2 = 4–2 = -1-2
= -2 = 2 = -3
2. Given that the ordered pairs (m, 25) and (n, -10) belong to the mapping h:x x+4
Find the values of M and n.
Answer
(M, 25)
h:x x+4 (n, -10)
h (x) = x + 4 h:x x+4
h(m) = M = 4 h(x) x+4
25 = M + 4 h(n) = n + 4
25 – 4 = M -10 = n + 4

19 | P a g e
 21 = M -10 – 4 = n
-14 = n

3. In the first year, Grace made K800 selling cellphones. She increased her earnings by
K50 each year for the next four years
(a) Draw up a table (b) Draw up a linear graph
Answer Answer
Year Earnings 1000

1 K800
950
2 K850
3 K900
4 K900

850

800

0 1 2 3 4
(c) Write the co-ordinate pairs (d) write an algebraic sentence
Answer
(x, y) (1, K800) Algebraic Sentence
(2, K850) Y = x + K50
(3, K900)
(4, K950)
(a) Give the domain and range
Domain = {1, 2, 3, 4}
Range = {K800, K850, K900, K950}

EXERCISE
2
1. If f : x + 5, find
3x
a) f(2)
b) x when f(x) =7
c) f-1(x)

20 | P a g e
 1
2. A function h is defined as h(x) = x – 5, find
2
a) h(-4)
b) the value of x for which h(x)= 3
c) h-1(x)
3 x −5 x−4
3. Given that f(x) = and g(x) = , find
2 6
a) f(-9)
b) f-1(x)
c) the value of x for f(x) = 3g(x)
d) fg
e) gf
4. If h(x) = 3x – 5, find
a) h(3)
b) h(x) = 10
c) h-1(x)
EXPECTED ANSWERS

2 1 1 2
1. a) 5 or 5 b) x = c) f-1(x) =
6 2 3 3 x −15
-1
2. a) h (-4) = -7 b) x = 16 c) h (x) = 2x + 10

2 x +5 1 x−14 3 x −13
3. a) f(-9) = -16 b) f-1(x) = c) x = d) e)
3 2 4 12

x+5
4. a) h(3) = 4 b) x = 5 c) h-1(x) =
3

4.0 CIRCULAR/RADIAN MEASURES

QUESTIONS

1. Two circles have radii r cm and 4r cm.

21 | P a g e
 Find, in terms of π and r.
(a) the area of the circle with radius 4r cm,
(b) given that the area of the circle with radius 4r cm is 201.06cm find the area of the
shaded ring,
(c) The total length of the inner and outer edges of the shaded ring.

2. The diagram shows a sector OACB of a circle, centre O, in which angle AOB = 2.5 radians.
The line AC is parallel to OB.

(i) Show that angle AOC = (5 – π ) radians.

Given that the radius of the circle is 12 cm, find
(ii) the area of the shaded region,
(iii) the perimeter of the shaded region.
π
3. AOB is a sector of a circle, centre O with∠ OAC= radians and ∠ OCA a right angle. Given
3
that the arc AB has length 5 cm,

22 | P a g e
 (a) Show that OA = 9.55cm,
(b) Calculate the perimeter of the shaded region
(c) Calculate the area of the shaded region
4.The diagram shows a circle, centre O, radius 4 cm, enclosed within a sector PBCDP of a circle,
π
centre P. The circle centre O touches the sector at points A, C and E. Angle BPD is radians.
3

(i) Show that PA = 4 √ 3 cm and PB = 12 cm.

Find, to 1 decimal place,
(ii) The area of the shaded region,
(iii) The perimeter of the shaded region.

23 | P a g e
5.The diagram shows a sector OAB of a circle, centre O, radius 4 cm. The tangent to the circle at
A meets the line OB extended at C. Given that the area of the sector OAB is 10 cm2, calculate

(i) the angle AOB in radians,

(ii) the perimeter of the shaded region.

SOLUTIONS

1 2
1. (a) A= r θ
2
1
A= ¿
2

2
A=16 π r

2
(b) A=16 π r

2
⟹ 201.06=16 π r

2 201.06
r= .Thus r =2
16 π

Shaded Area = Area of Outer circle - area of Inner circle

1 2 1 2
A= r 1 θ− r 2 θ
2 2

24 | P a g e
 1 1 2
A= ( 16 r ) 2 π− r (2 π )
2
2 2

2
A=60 π c m

(c) Length = Outer circumference – Inner circumference

¿ r 1 θ+r 2 θ
¿ 8 ( 2 π )+ 2(2 π )
¿ 16 π +4 π
¿ 20 π cm
^ C= A C
2. (i) B O ^ O=C ^
AO

^
Let B OC=θ

^ C=( 2.5−θ ) rad

then A O

¿ ¿ the Isosceles ∆ AOC ,

^ C+O C
AO ^ A+C ^
A O=π

⟹ ( 2.5−θ ) +θ+θ=π

⟹ θ=π −2.5

^ C=2.5−( π −2.5 )
∴ AO

^ C=5−π
AO

(ii) Shaded Area = Area of sector AOC - Area of triangle AOC

1 2 1 2
Shaded area= r θ− r sinθ
2 2
1 2
¿ r ¿
2
1 2
¿ ( 12 ) ¿
2
2
¿ 133.8 133.9 cm
(iii) Perimeter = line AC + arc length AC
¿ rθ+ AC where
2 2 2 2
( AC ) =r +r −2 r cos θ

25 | P a g e
 AC= √ ¿ ¿
Perimeter ¿ 12 ( 5−π ) + √ ¿ ¿
Perimeter ¿ 41.5 41.6
3. (a) Arc Length AB=rθ

π π
where OA=r∧θ= −
2 3

π
Thus 5=OA ×
6

30
⟹ 0 A= =9.55 cm to 2.d.p
π

(a) Perimeter ¿ arc AB+ AC +CB

π π
¿ 12( )+9.55 sin +¿
6 6
Perimeter¿ 12.34 cm
(b) Shaded area = Area of sector – area of triangle AOC
1 2 1
¿ r θ− OC ×CA
2 2

1
¿ ¿
2

A=17.95 17.96

π 4
4. (i) tan =
6 PA
4
PA= π 1
π , by special angles tan =
tan 6 √3
6
∴ PA=4 √ 3 QED
And PB = PC = radius of circle centre P

⟹ PB=PO+ OC

¿√¿¿ ¿ √ 64+ 4 ¿ 12 cm

26 | P a g e
(ii) Shaded Area = Area of sector PBD – area of quadrilateral PAOE

1 2 1
¿ r θ−2( PA × AO)
2 2
1 2 π 1
¿ (12) −2( (4 √ 3)× 4)
2 6 2
¿ 12 π −16 √ 3
≈ 10.0
(iii) Perimeter ¿ 2 ( AO ) +2 ( AB )+ Arc length BCD

¿ 2 ( 4 ) +2 ( 12−4 √ 3 )+12 ( π3 )
¿ 30.71 to 2 decimal places
1 2
5. (i) Area of Sector = r θ
2

1
10= (4 ¿¿ 2)θ ¿
2
10 ×2
θ=
16
5
θ= radians
4
(ii) Perimeter = Arc AB + BC + AC
5
¿ rθ+ ( OC−OB ) +4 tan
4

¿4
[ ]
( 54 )+ ( cos4 5 )−4 +4 tan 54
4

27 | P a g e
5.0 LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

5.1 IMPORTANT RULES IN INDICES

1.a m × an =am +n
2.a m ÷ a n=a m−n
−n 1
3.a = n
a

4.a 0=1
5.(a m)n =amn
m
6.a n =√n am or ( √n a)m
−n n
7.( a ) =( b )
b a

5.2 LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

The logarithm of a number n to base a is the number, say x, to which a should be raised to give
n. That is to say log a n=x .This can also be written in exponential form as a x =n .

EXAMPLE 1

Evaluate the following (a) log 3 27 (b) log 8 2

SOLUTIONS

28 | P a g e
(a) Let x=log 3 27
x
3 =27
x 3
3 =3

∴ x=3

(b) log 8 2=x

x
8 =2
3x 1
2 =2

3 x=1

3x 1
= Divide through by 3
3 3

1
x=
3

5.3 RULES OF LOGARITHMS

 log a m+¿ log a n=¿ log a mn ¿ ¿
m
 log a m−log a n=log a
n
n
 log a m =n log a m
 log a a=1
 log a 1=¿ 0 .¿
5.4 CHANGE OF BASE
The rule to change from log to base a to log to base b is

log b n
log a n=
log b a

EXAMPLE 2

Evaluate log 3 15

SOLUTION

(To evaluate this we change the base to 10 as the calculator does not have base 3)

29 | P a g e
 log 15
log 3 15=
log 3

1.176091259
¿
0.477121254

¿ 2.465 correct ¿3 d . p

EXAMPLE 3

Evaluate log 4 100−¿ log 2 10 ¿

SOLUTION

log 4 10
log 4 100− (changing¿base 2¿base 4 aa common base)
log 4 2

log 4 10
¿ log 4 100−
1
2

¿ log 4 100−2 log 4 10

2
¿ log 4 100−log 4 10

¿ log 4 100−¿ log 4 100 ¿

¿0

EXAMPLE 4

Find the value of log 5 9 x log 3 7 x log 7 25

SOLUTION

Clue: This question involves changing bases

log 5 7 log 5 25
¿ log 5 9 x x
log 5 3 log 5 7
2
log 5 7 log 5 5
2
¿ log 5 3 x x
log 5 3 log 5 7

log 5 7 2 log 5 5
¿ 2 log 5 3 x x
log 5 3 log 5 7

( dividing common items∈the numeraators∧denominators )

30 | P a g e
2 x 2=4 ¿

5.5 THE NATURAL LOGARITHM

The natural logarithm has e as the base so the natural logarithm of x is written as log e x or lnx
where e=2.718…….lne=1 , ln e 2=2 lne=2. Similarly e ln 2=2 , e ln =1and so on and so forth.

Equations involving logarithms

EXAMPLE 5

Solve the equations

a) 6 x−1=11

b) 72 x−1 =23

c) log a 8+ ¿ log a 4−¿ log a 2=2¿ ¿

d) 2+2 log 2 ( 2 x )=log 2 (2 x+5)

SOLUTIONS

a)
x−1
6 =11
x−1
ln 6 =ln 11

( x−1 ) ln 6=ln 11

ln 11
x−1=
ln 6

x−1=1.338290833

x=1.338290833+1

∴ x=2.34 ¿ 2 d . p

b)72 x−1 =23

2 x−1
log 7 =log 23
31 | P a g e
 (2 x−1)log7=log 23

log 23
2 x−1=
log 7

1.361727836
2 x−1=
0.84509804

2 x−1=1.61132528

2 x=1.61132528+1

2 x=2.61132528(divide throung by 2)

∴ x=1.31¿ 2 d . p

c) log a 8+ ¿ log a 4−¿ log a 2=2¿ ¿

( 8 x 4)
log a =2 ( using therules of logarithms )
2

32
log a =2
2

log a 16=2
2
a =16

a=√ 16

∴ a=4

(we only get the positive component as the base is never negative , we thefore discard−4)

d) 2+2 log 2 ( 2 x )=log 2 (2 x+5)

log 2 ( 2 x+5 )−2 log 2 ( 2 x )=2

2
log 2 ( 2 x+5 )−¿ log 2 ( 2 x ) =2 ¿
2
log 2 ( 2 x+5 )−¿ log 2 4 x =2 ¿

log 2
( 24x+x 5 )=2
2

32 | P a g e
 2 x +5 2
2
=2
4x

(4 x¿ ¿ 2) ( 4 )=2 x+ 5¿
2
16 x −2 x−5=0

Solving the quadratic equation

2
16 x + 8 x−10 x −5=0

8 x (2 x +1 )−5 ( 2 x+1 )=0

( 8 x−5 ) ( 2 x+1 )=0

8 x−5=0∨2 x +1=0

8 x=5∨2 x=−1

5 −1
∴ x= ∨x=
8 2

EXAMPLE 6

Draw the graph of y=e2 x −4 for values of x at intervals of 0.5, for -2≤ x ≤ 1,
SOLUTION

First come up with table of values in intervals of 0.5

X -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1

Y -3.98 -3.95 -3.86 -3.63 -3.00 -1.28 3.39

33 | P a g e
 a) By drawing a suitable a suitable straight line on your graph obtain an approximate
solution to the equation x=ln √ 1−4 x

SOLUTION
b ¿ x=ln √ 1−4 x

Introduce the exponential on both sides of the equation

e =e ln √ 1−4 x
x

e = √ 1−4 x Square both sides

x

2x
e =1−4 x Subtract 4 on both sides
2x
e −4=1−4−4 x
2x
e −4=−3−4 x

∴ therequired straight line is y=−4 x−3

b)

X -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1

Y -3.98 -3.95 -3.86 -3.63 -3.00 -1.28 3.39
Y 5 3 1 -1 -3 -5 -7

EXERCISE

34 | P a g e
1. Solve the equations

(a) 5 x−1 =13

(b) lg (2 x )−lg ( x−3 )=1

(c)32 x+1−28 ( 3 x−1 ) +1=0

2. The curve y=5−e 2 x meets the x-axis at A and the y-axis at B.

(i) Find the coordinates of A and B
(ii) Sketch the curve.
(iii) Find the equation of the straight line which must be drawn on the graph of
y=5−e to obtain a solution to the equation x=ln √ 2−x .
2x

6.0 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM

A binomial is an expression containing 2 unlike terms.

1
Examples: (x + y), (2 - b), (x2 + ), etc
r

6.1 Binomial Expansion

The expanding of a binomial expression raised to the power of n. in short, (a + b)n

Example 1: Expand (3x – 2)7

solution: (3x-2)7 = (3x – 2)×(3x – 2)×(3x – 2)×(3x – 2)×(3x – 2)×(3x – 2)×(3x – 2). Thus,
when there are many terms to be multiplied, we use binomial theorem to solve such questions.
Before we apply binomial theorem, we need to know the following:

n Factorial ( n ! )

This is given as n ! = n(n – 1)(n – 2)(n – 3)……to be used when solving ncr or (nr).
Note: n is the power of the binomial to be expanded and r indicates the positions of each
individual term in the expansion.

Examples 2: 7 ! = 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 5040

35 | P a g e
 3!=3×2×1=6

1!=1

n
Cr or (nr) = r ! (n−r
n!
)!
, where n ≥ r and n, r are integers. This is useful when solving binomial

theorem.

Example 3: if n is 6 and r is 2, then:

6
C2 = (62) = 2! (6−2)!
6!
=
6!
=
6 ×5 × 4 ×3 ×2 ×1
2! 4 ! 2 ×1× 4 ×3 ×2 ×1
= 15 or in short, ( )=
6 6 ×5
2 2 ×1
= 15.

We sometimes need to expand binomials as follows:

(a + b)0 = 1

(a + b)1 = a + b

(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3

(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4

(a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4b + 10a3b2 + 10a2b3 + 5ab4 + b5

Clearly, doing this by direct multiplication gets quite tedious and can be rather difficult for larger
powers or more complicated expressions

36 | P a g e
6.2 The Binomial Theorem

This is the quickest way of expanding a binomial expression that has been raised to some power
without direct multiplication. As we have seen, multiplication can be time-consuming or even
not possible in some cases.

The binomial theorem is used to expand expressions in the form ( a + b)n where n is a positive
integer. The formula for the expansion of binomials raised to exponential powers is given as
follows:

(a + b)n = nC0anb0 + nC1an−1b1 + nC2an−2b2 + nC3an−3b3 + ... + nCr an – rbr…..+ nCn a0bn

NOTE: 1) The powers of a in the formula are in descending order while the powers of b are
in ascending order.

2) The sum of the powers of a and b in any term is equal to the power of the binomial.

3) When the power is n, there are altogether n + 1 terms in the expanded binomial.

Solved Examples

1. Expand (x2 + 3)6

(x2 + 3)6 = 6C0 (x2)6(3)0 + 6C1(x2)5(3)1 + 6C2 (x2)4(3)2 + 6C3 (x2)3(3)3

+ 6C4 (x2)2(3)4 + 6C5 (x2)1(3)5 + 6C6 (x2)0(3)6

= (1)(x12)(1) + (6)(x10)(3) + (15)(x8)(9) + (20)(x6)(27)

+ (15)(x4)(81) + (6)(x2)(243) + (1)(1)(729)

= x12 + 18x10 + 135x8 + 540x6 + 1215x4 + 1458x2 + 729

2.Expand (2x – 5y)7

37 | P a g e
We will plug "2x", "–5y", and "7" into the Binomial Theorem, counting up from zero to seven to
get each term. (we must not forget the "minus" sign that goes with the second term in the
binomial.)

(2x – 5y)7 = 7C0 (2x)7(–5y)0 + 7C1 (2x)6(–5y)1 + 7C2 (2x)5(–5y)2

+ 7C3 (2x)4(–5y)3 + 7C4 (2x)3(–5y)4 + 7C5 (2x)2(–5y)5

+ 7C6 (2x)1(–5y)6 + 7C7 (2x)0(–5y)7pyright © Elizabeth Stapel999-2009 All Rights Reserved

= (1)(128x7)(1) + (7)(64x6)(–5y) + (21)(32x5)(25y2) + (35)(16x4)(–125y3)

+ (35)(8x3)(625y4) + (21)(4x2)(–3125y5) + (7)(2x)(15625y6)

+ (1)(1)(–78125y7)

= 128x7 – 2240x6y + 16800x5y2 – 70000x4y3 + 175000x3y4 – 262500x2y5

+ 218750xy6 – 78125y7

3.What is the fourth term in the expansion of (3x – 2)10?

(3x – 2)10 = 10C0 (3x)10–0(–2)0 + 10C1 (3x)10–1(–2)1 + 10C2 (3x)10–2(–2)2

+ 10C3 (3x)10–3(–2)3 + 10C4 (3x)10–4(–2)4 + 10C5 (3x)10–5(–2)5

+ 10C6 (3x)10–6(–2)6 + 10C7 (3x)10–7(–2)7 + 10C8 (3x)10–8(–2)8

+ 10C9 (3x)10–9(–2)9 + 10C10 (3x)10–10(–2)10

(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 (second power: three terms)

(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3 (third power: four terms)

(x + y)4 = x4 + 4x3y + 6x2y2 + 4xy3 + y4 (fourth power: five terms)

38 | P a g e
The expansion in this exercise, (3x – 2)10, has power of n = 10, so the expansion will have eleven
terms, and the terms will count up, not from 1 to 10 or from 1 to 11, but from 0 to 10. This is
why the fourth term will not be the one where we are using "4" as our counter, but will be the
one where we are using "3".

10
C3 (3x)10–3(–2)3 = (120)(2187)(x7)(–8) = –2099520x

4.Find the tenth term in the expansion of (x + 3)12.

To find the tenth term, we plug x, 3, and 12 into the Binomial Theorem, using the number 10 – 1
= 9 as our counter:

12
C9 (x)12–9(3)9 = (220)x3(19683) = 4330260x3

5.Find the middle term in the expansion of (4x – y)8.

Since this binomial is to the power 8, there will be nine terms in the expansion, which makes the
fifth term the middle one. So we will plug 4x, –y, and 8 into the Binomial Theorem, using the
number 5 – 1 = 4 as our counter.

8
C4 (4x)8–4(–y)4 = (70)(256x4)(y4) = 17920x4y4

SELF TEST EXERCISE

1. (a) Find the given terms in the following expansions:

( )
9
2 1 1
(i) x + , term containing 3 ,
x x
30
(ii) ( 2−3 x ) , 9 term,
th

( )
9
3
(iii) + 2 x , 4th term,
2
(iv) ( p−3 q )7, term containing p4 q 3 .
(v) (3+2 x) , term involving x 12.
15

2. Evaluate

(i) 6 ! (ii)
18! 16 !
12 !
(iii) (153)
39 | P a g e
 ( ) the fourth and fifth term are equal. Find
3
1
3. In the binomial expansion of 1+
z

the values of n.
3 n
4. The coefficient of x in the expansion of ( 1+ x ) is four times the coefficient of

x 2 . Find the values of n.

5. When ( 1+ax )n is expanded in ascending powers of x the first three terms of the

expression are 1 – 2x + 7x2. Find the values of a and n.

6 .Find the tem independent of x in each of the following expansions:

( ) ( ).
18

( )
8 12
3x 1 1 1
(a) − (b) 2 x+ (c) x−
2 3x x
2
√x
7. By substituting 0.01 for x in the binomial expansion of ( 1−2 x )10, find the value

of (0.98)10 correct to four decimal places.

8. By using the binomial expansion of ( 2+ x )7, show that (2.08)7 = 168.439 correct to 3
decimal places.

9. Use binomial expansion to estimate the value of the following to the stated degree of
accuracy:

(a) (1.01)10 correct to three decimal places.

(b) (1.998)8 correct to four decimal places.

10. Expand the following functions as series of ascending powers of x up to and

including the term in x3. In each case give the range of values of x for which the

expansion is valid:

( ) (√ 1−x
−1

).
x 2 2−x 1+ x
(a) 1+ (b) (c)
2 √1−3 x

−1 1
2
11. Expand ( 1−2 x ) as far as the term in x2. By using x = 9 ,

143
show that √ 7 = 54 .

40 | P a g e
12.
1
By substituting 0.08 for x in ( 1+ x ) 2 and its expansion , find √3
correct to six significant figures.

13. Use a suitable binomial expansion to find √ 1.01 correct to five decimal places.
14. Write down, without simplifying the first three terms of the expansion of

( x +b) , where n is a positive integer. If the coefficient of the second and third terms
n

are −8 and 30 respectively, find the value of n and b .

___________________________________________________________________________

7.0 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

7.1 PERMUTATIONS
A permutation is simply an arrangement of items; consider three letters A, B and C arranged in a
linear manner, we have
ABC
ACB
BAC
BCA All these are possible arrangements or permutations of the three letters.

41 | P a g e
CAB
CBA
In short in permutation attention is paid to the order in which items are arranged.

7.2 COMBINATIONS
A combination is about the number of possible choices or selections. Note that a combination
does not depend on order but the content of the group, while a permutation does.

It is extremely important to distinguish between permutation case and a combination case. This
will help someone to determine which formula or approach to use.

7.3 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS PROBLEMS

 Permutations of Objects which are all different

EXAMPLE 6

How many ways are there of getting from A to C, passing through each point at most once?
B
A C

How many arrangements are there of the letter

(a) CAT (b) COMPUTER

SOLUTIONS
In general number of arrangements, or permutations, of n different objects
n! = n(n -1)(n – 2)……..3 x 2 x 1

(a) Since the word CAT has three different characters we have n = 3
Implying that the number of different permutations = 3! = 3 x 2 x 1=6

(b) Here, n = 8
Therefore number of arrangements = 8!= 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1
= 40,320

7.4 ARRANGING R OBJECTS FROM N DIFFERENT OBJECTS

EXAMPLE 3
How many arrangements are there of
(a) the four letters from the word MICROWAVE
(b)the five letters from the word GARNISH?

SOLUTION
- This can be done in two ways; first consider the four letters to be arranged
from the word MICROWAVE as slots which are to be filled up
42 | P a g e
 Note that for each first each of the 9 choices
3 4 for first slot there 8 choices for the second , 7
1 2
for the third and 6 for the fourth

Therefore number of possible arrangements = 9 x 8 x 7 x 6

= 3, 024
- The second method involves the use of the formula;
In general if r objects are arranged from n different items then the number
of permutations is given by
n
Pr = n(n – 1 )(n – 2 )…….( n – r + 1)
n!
=
( n−r ) !
From the example r = 4 and n = 9
Therefore number of permutations of four letters from the word
MICROWAVE is
9!
= = 3, 024
( 9−4 ) !
(a) Check if your answer is 2, 520
Demonstrate the use of a calculator in solving these problems by applying
the function nPr in shift mode.

7.5 ARRANGEMENT OF LIKE AND UNLIKE THINGS

The number of arrangement of n things in which p are of one kind, q of another and r of another
n!
is given by
p! q!r!

Example 1
In how many ways can 4 red, 3 yellow and 2 green discs be arranged in a row if discs of the
same color are indistinguishable?
Solutions
Here n = 4+3+2 = 9
9!
Therefore the number of arrangements =
4!3!2!
= 1260 ways

Example 2
Find (a) in how many ways the letters of the word ALGEBRA can be arranged in a row
(b) in how many of these arrangements are the two A’s together,(c) in how many
arrangements the two A’s are not together.

SOLUTIONS
(a) There are 7 letters including the two A’s
7!
Therefore total arrangements =
2!
= 2520
(b) If the two A’s are together there are effectively 6 letters to arrange,
hence the number of arrangements = 6! = 720
(c) If the two A’s are not together = 2520 – 720
43 | P a g e
 = 1800
EXERCISE
1. In how many ways can the letters of the following word be arranged in a row
(a) PARALLELOGRAM (b)PHOTOGRAPHY
2. In how many ways can the letters of the word GEOMETRY
(a)Be arranged in a row
(b) In how many of these arrangements are the two E’s together?
(c) In how many of these arrangements are the two E’s not together?

7.6 COMBINATION PROBLEMS

A combination is selection. In making a selection from a number of items only the contents of
the group selected are important and not the order in which the items are selected. Consider the
following AD and DA has the same combination but different permutations

7.8 Formula
The number of possible combinations of n different objects, taking r at a time, is given by nCr
n n!
also written as where nCr =
r ( n−r ) ! r !

EXAMPLE 3
(a) How many selections of 4 letters can be made from the 6 letters a,b,c,d,e and f?

SOLUTION
Here n = 6 and r= 4
n
n! 6!
Cr = = 6C4 =
( n−r ) ! r ! ( 6−4 ) ! 4 !
= 15
(b) How many different committees, each consisting of 3 boys and 2 girls, can be chosen from 7
boys and 5 girls?

SOLUTION
7!
Number of ways of choosing 3 boys from 7 = = 35
( 7−3 ) ! 3 !
5!
Number of ways of choosing 2 girls from 5 = = 10
( 5−2 ) ! 2 !
Number of committees that can be chosen = 35 x 10 = 350
Note that 35 is multiplied by 10 since the choice of the boys and the choice of the girls are
independent operations

Example 4
A group consists of 4 boys and 7 girls. In how many ways can a team be selected if it is to
contain
(a)No boys (b) atleast one of each sex (c) 2 boys and 3 girls (d) atleast 3 boys

44 | P a g e
SOLUTION
The solution of this kind of a problem is best solved using a table indicating the possible
combinations as shown below.

Boys 4 Girls 7
0 5 (a) No boys selected, so the team is chosen from the
1 4 7 girls
2 3 7
C5 = 21
3 2 (b) At least one of each sex
4 1 Total number of possible selections without
5 0 restrictions = 11C5 = 462
Thus, number of possible selections = 462 -21
= 441
(c) Try to work out this one and check your answer if
you get 210
PAST EXAM QUESTIONS

1.1

2.1 A family consists of a father, mother

and six children. Find the number of [4030/2/2013]
ways of arranging them in a straight 5.1
line if (a) In how many ways can 7 red
(a) There are no restrictions marbles and 3 green marbles be
(b) The arrangements start and end put in a straight line, if
with a parent (i) There are no restrictions
[4030/2/2014] (ii) Green marbles should not
3.1 A chess team consisting of 8 boys be next to each other?
and 5 girls is to be chosen from 10 (b) A group of 6 pupils is to be
boys and 7 girls. In how many ways chosen from 10 boys and 8 girls.
can this be done Find the of ways of choosing at
[4030/2/2014] least 4 boys.
4.1
(a) Calculate the number of [4030/2/2012
arrangements of the letters in the
word PREVIOUSLY (a) Calculate the number
(b) A School has three grade 10 arrangements of the word
classes. In how many can three ‘’DISCOVERY’.
out of 8 Mathematics teachers be (b) A group of 7 pupils is to be
allocated to the classes? chosen from 11 boys and 9 girls.
(c) A group of 7 students is to be Find the number of ways of
chosen from 11 boys and 9 girls. choosing
Find the number of ways of (i) 7 pupils
choosing 5 boys and 2 girls. (ii) At least 5 boys
45 | P a g e
 6.1
(a) Calculate the number of
arrangements of the name
GROSJEAN
(b) Seven runners are hoping to take
part in a race, but the truck has
only five lanes. In how many
ways can five of the seven
runners be assigned to the lanes.
(c) A team of five persons is chosen
from 7 women and 8 men. How
many different teams can be
selected, if the team has to
contain at least 3 women?
[4030/2/2008]
7.1
(a) In how many ways can 5 boys
and 3 girls stand in a straight
line, if
(i) There are no restrictions
(ii) The boys stand next to
each other
(b) A collection of 16 books contain
one of Harry Potter’s book, Mary
is going to choose 6 of these
books to take on holiday.

46 | P a g e
 (i) In how many ways can she choose 6 books
(ii) How many of these choices will include the Harry Potter’s books?
[4030/2/2000]

47 | P a g e
 8.0 REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREMS
8.1 The Remainder Theorem

To understand the remainder theorem, let us consider the division of numerical values by long
division. Divide 752 and 756 by 6.

125 , 126
6 752 6 756
(-) 6 (-)6
15 15
(-) 12 (-)12
32 36
(-)30 (-)36
2 0

From the two divisions, we can see that 752 leaves a remainder of 2 and 756 leaves a
remainder of 0 when divided by 6.However, our focus will be on 752 divided by 6.The result if
we divide 752 by 6 can be written as
752=6 × 125+2
Where 6 is the divisor, 125 is the quotient and 2 is the remainder.
The concept of long division can also be applied on the division of the polynomial f ( x ) by a
linear expression x−a . Consider the polynomial x 3−4 x 2+ x +6. Divide this by x−1.
The result is as follows.

2
x −3 x−2
3 2
x−1 x −4 x + x +6
(-) x 3−x 2
2
−3 x + x
(-) −3 x 2+ 3 x
−2 x+ 6
(-) −2 x+ 2
4
The remainder 4 can be found by simply finding f ( 1 ) . The result is not a coincidence. This is
always true for any given polynomial f (x) divided by x−a the remainder will be f (a) and if
48 | P a g e
 divided by x +a the remainder is f (−a).This takes us to the remainder theorem which says that
−q
if f (x)is divided by the general expresssion px +q the remainder is f ( )
p
SOLVED EXAMPLES
1. Find the remainder when 3x3 – x2 – 5x + 2 is divided by 3x + 2
If f (x) is divided by (3x + 2)
3x + 2 = 0
−2
x=
3
f (x) = 3x3 – x2 – 5x + 2
−2 −2 3 −2 2 −2
f( ) = 3( ) –( ) -5 ( ) + 2
3 3 3 3
−8 4 10
= 3( ) - + + 2
27 9 3
= 4
2. Given f ( x )=a x3 + x 2−3 x−2 and that the remainder on dividing f (x) by x +2is 16.What
is the value of a .
x=−2

f (−2 )=8 a+ 4+6−2=16

8 a=8

a=1

3. If the expression x 3 + p x 2 +qx−3 gives the remainder 1 when divided by x−1 and
-9 when divided by x +1.Find the values of pand q .
Dividing by x−1 , gives the remainder f ( 1 ) =p +q−2=1

p+q=3-------------(i)

Dividing by x +1 ,gives the remainder f (−1 )=p−q−4=−9

p−q=−5-----------(ii)

Solving equations (i) and (ii) simultaneously we have, p=−1∧q=4

49 | P a g e
8.2 The Factor Theorem

This theorem is connected to the remainder theorem. Recall that if f ( x ) is divided by (x−a) the
remainder is f (a).Now if f ( a )=0 , there is no remainder, then ( x−a ) is a factor .The factor
theorem says that,

If px+ q is a factor of f ( x ) , f ( −qp )=0.

If f ( −qp )=0 , px + q is a factor of f ( x ) .
The factor theorem is used to factorise polynomials and solving cubic equations. This is done by
using trial and error and identical polynomials.

EXAMPLES

1. Factorise completely the expression

2x3 – 11 x2 – 20x – 7
By trial let p (x) = 2x3 – 11x2 – 20x – 7
If x = -1
P (-1) = 2 (-1)3 – 11 (-1) 2 – 20 (-1_ -7
= – 11 + 20 – 7
= 0 ∴ (x + 1) is a factor
2x3 – 11 x2 – 20x – 7 = (x + 1) (2x2 – 13x – 7)
= (x + 1) (2x2 – 14x + x – 7)
= (x + 1) [2x (x – 7) + 1 (x – 7)]
= (x + 1) (2x + 1) (x – 7)

2. Given that f (x) = 2x3 – 7x2 + 7ax + 16 is divisible by x – a, find

(i) the value of the constant a
(ii) the remainder when f (x) is divided by 2x + 1

(i) f (x) = 2x3 – 7x2 + 7ax + 16

50 | P a g e
 f (x) is divisible by x – a
f (a) = 0
2a3 – 7a2 + 7a (a) + 16 = 0
2a3 – 7a2 + 7a2 + 16 = 0
2 3 16
a + = 0
2 2
a3 + 8 = 0
a3 = -8
a3 = (-2) 3 ∴ a=−2

(ii) Since a = -2
f (x) = 2x3 – 7x2 – 14x + 16
−1 −1 3 −1 2 −1
f( ) = 2( ) - 7( ) - 14 ( ) + 16
2 2 2 2
−1 1 14
=2( ) - 7 ( ) + = 16
8 4 2
1 7
=- - + 7 + 16
4 4
= 21
3. Given that: 2x3 + 5x2 – 6x – 5 = (Ax – 3) (x = B) (x + 1) + C for all the values of x,
find the values of each of A, B and C.[identical polynomial]
2x3 + 5x2 – 6x – 5 = (Ax – 3) (x + B) (x + 1) + C
= (Ax2 + ABx – 3x – 3B) (x + 1) + C
= [Ax3 + (AB – 3)x2 – 3Bx + Ax2 + (AB – 3) x – 3B] + C
Comparing coefficients of x2
Ax3 = 2x3
A=2
5 = A −¿3 + AB
5 = 2 – 3 + 2B
−¿1 + 2B = 5
6
B=
2
B=3
−5=−3 B+C

51 | P a g e
 −3 ( 3 ) +C=−5
C=−5+ 9
C=4
∴ A = 2, B = 3, C = 4
4. Given that x2 + 2x - 3 is a factor of f (x), where f (x) = x4 + 6x3 + 2ax + bx – 3a, find
(i) the value of a and the value of b
(ii) the other quadratic factor of f (x)

(i) x2 + 2x - 3 = (x –1) (x + 3) f (1), f (-3)

f (x) = x4 + 6x3 + 2ax2 + bx - 3a

f (1) = 14 + 6 (1) 3 + 2a (1) 2 + b (1) – 3a

1 + 6 + 2a + b – 3a = 0

b – a = -7 ---------------- (i)

f (-3) = (-3)4 + 6 (-3)3 + 2a (-3)2 + b (-3) – 3a

81 – 162 + 18a – 3b – 3a = 0

15a – 3b = 81

5a – b = 27--------------- (ii)

Solving equations (i) and (ii) simultaneously, we have

-a + 5a = -7 + 27 b – 5 + -7

4a 20
= b = -7 + 5
4 4

a=5 = -2 ∴ a = 5, b = -2

(ii) x4 + 6x3 + 2ax2 + bx - 3a

= x4 + 6x3 + 2 (5) x2 -2x – 3 (5)
= x4 + 6x3 + 10x2 – 2x - 15
= (x2 + 2x – 3) (x2 + 4x +5)
∴ Other factor = x2 + 4x + 5
52 | P a g e
 5. Solve the equation2 x3 +3 x 2−3 x−2=0.
By trial, we factorise the polynomial.

f ( 1 ) =2+3−3−3=0 , ( x−1 ) is a factor

By synthetic division,

1 2 3 -3 -2

2 5 2

2 5 2 0

2 x3 +3 x 2−3 x−2=( x−1 ) ( 2 x 2 +5 x+2 ) =0

( x−1 ) ( 2 x +1 ) ( x+ 2 )=0

x−1=0∨2 x +1=0∨x+ 2=0

−1
⸫ x=1 , x= , x =−2
2

EXAM QUESTIONS

1. (a) Given that the expression 2 x3 + p x 2−8 x +q is exactly divisible by

2
2 x −7 x+ 6 , find the values of p and q .
(b) Given that 3 x 3−13 x 2+18 x−10=( Ax + B ) ( x −1 )( x−2 )+C for all values
of x . Find the values of A , B and C .

[4030/2/Z2015]

2. (a) Find the value of k , given that the expression x 3−k x 2 +7 x+ 10 is divisible by
( x +2 ) .

(b) Solve the equation x 3 + x 2−4 x−4=0

[4030/2/2017]

3. The expression x 3 +a x 2+ bx+12 is divisible by (x−1) and ( x +3 ) .

(a) Find the values of a andb .

53 | P a g e
 (b) Find the remaining factor of the expression.
(c) Hence or otherwise, solve the equation x 3 +a x 2+ bx+12=0.
[4030/2/2016]

EXPECTED ANSWERS

1. (a) p=−3 ,q=1

(b) A=3 , B=−4∧C=−2

2. (a) k =−3
(b) x=2 , x=−1 , x=−2

3. (a) a=0∧b=−13
(b) (x +4 )

(c) x=−4 , x=3 , x=1

9.0 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

54 | P a g e
9.1 TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS
The six trigonometric ratios are sine(sin), cosine(cos), tangent(tan), cosecant(cosec),
secant(sec) and cotangent(cot).
Definitions
The six trigonometric ratios are derived from the right-angled triangle.

opposite b adjacent a opposite b

sin θ = = cos θ = = tan θ = =
hypotenuse c , hypotenuse c and adjacent a.
The ratios sec θ ,cos ecθ andcot θ are reciprocals of cos θ ,sin θ and tanθ respectively.
1 c 1 c 1 a
secθ = = cos ec θ = = cot θ = =
This means cos θ a , sin θ b and tan θ b . There are also called
the inverse trigonometric functions.

9.2 SPECIAL ANGLES

π π π π
The angles 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90° ( in radians 0, 6 , 4 , 3 , 2 ) are known as special
angles. The sine, cosine and tangent of 30° and 60° are derived from an equilateral
triangle of unit length and the sine, cosine and tangent of 45° are derived from a right
angled isosceles triangle.

The table below shows the values of the sine, cosine and tangent of special angles.
55 | P a g e
 θ (degs) 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°
θ (rads) 0 π
6
π
4
π
3
π
2
√3
sinθ
1 1
0 2
1
√2 2
√3
cosθ
1 1
1 2
0
2 √2
tan θ 0 1
√3
1 √3 ∞

EXAMPLES
Find the exact value of each of the following:
0 0 0 2 0
(a) 3 tan 45 + 4 sin 60 (b) 7 sin 45 − 4 cos 60
Solutions
If the question asks you to find ‘the exact value’ leave your answer in surd form. Do not
use your calculator.

3 tan 450 + 4 sin 600 = 3 (1 ) + 4( √2 )

3
(a)
= 3 + 2 √3

7 sin 45 0 − 4 cos 2 600 = 7( √12 ) − 8( 12 )2

(b)
= √72 − 8 ( 14 )

= √72 − 2

If you want you can rationalize the denominator of the first term so that your final
7 7 √2
√2
− 2 = √2 × √ 2 − 2
answer becomes
7 √2 1
= 2
− 2 or 2
(7 √2 − 4 )
EXERCISE
Find the exact value of each of the following:
2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0
(a) 2 sin 60 + 5 tan 60 − cos ec 30 (b) 4 (1 − sin 45 cosec 45 ) − cot 60
1 + 2 tan30 0 + sec 600
(c) 6 √ 3 cos30 − 9 √ 2 sin 60 + ( √5 )
0 0 2 0 0
(d) 1 − 2 tan 30 + sec 60
− √ 3 cosec
π π π
10 sin 6 + 42 cos 3 3
(e)

EXPECTED ANSWERS

9√ 6
31 + 12 √ 3
25
− √13 14 −
(a) 2 (b) (c) 2 (d) 23 (e) 23
56 | P a g e
9.3 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

At this level the following trigonometric identities should be mastered. If you master

them you will have little or no difficulties at all when trying to answer questions that
will ask you to prove given identities.

PYTHAGOREAN IDENTITIES
2 2 2 2 2 2
(i) sin θ + cos θ = 1 (ii) sec θ = 1 + tan θ (iii) cos ec θ = 1 + cot θ
sin θ cos θ
tan θ = cot θ =
cos θ (v) sin θ
(iv)

EXAMPLES

(i) Prove that (sec x + sec x cosec x )(1 − sin x ) = cot x .

1 + cos θ 1 − cos θ
− = 4 cot θ cosec θ
(ii) Show that 1 − cosθ 1 + cosθ
SOLUTIONS

(i)LHS
= (sec x + sec x cos ec x )(1 − sin x) = (cos1 x + cos x1sin x ) (1 − sin x )
= (cos1 +xsinsinxx ) (1 − sin x )
(1 + sin x)(1 − sin x ) You are advised to be extra
= conscious with what you
cos x sin x
choose to do as you prove
1 − sin2 x identities. The following are
=
cos x sin x some possible steps which
cos2 x can be taken.
=
cos x sin x - Expanding
cos x - Factorising
=
sin x - Conjugating
= cot x - Redefining

(ii) LHS

57 | P a g e
 1 + cos θ 1 − cos θ (1 + cos θ)2 − (1 − cos θ)2
= − =
1 − cosθ 1 + cosθ (1 − cos θ)(1 + cos θ)
1 + 2cos θ + cos2 θ− (1 − 2cos θ + cos2 θ)
=
(1 − cos θ)(1 + cos θ)
1 + 2cos θ + cos2 θ− 1 + 2cos θ − cos2 θ
=
1 − cos2 θ
4cos θ
=
sin 2 θ
4cos θ 1
= ×
sin θ sin θ
= 4 cot θ cosec θ
EXERCISE
1 − sin θ
(sec θ − tan θ)2 =
(i) Prove that 1 + sin θ .
tan2 x − 1
2
= tan2 x
(ii) Prove the identity 1 − cot x .
cos ec A
= cos A
(iii) Show that cot A + tan A
1
cos 2 β − 2
= cot2 β cos2 β
(iv) Prove that sec − 1 .

9.4 COMPOUND ANGLES AND MULTIPLE ANGLES

(i) sin ( A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin A (ii) sin ( A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin A

(iii) cos ( A + B ) = cos A cosB − sin A cos A (iv) cos ( A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A cos A
2 tan A
tan 2 A =
(v) sin 2 A = 2sin A cos A (vi) 1 − tan2 A
2 2
(vii) cos 2 A = cos A − sin A
= 2cos 2 A − 1
= 1 − 2sin2 A
EXAMPLES
3 4
1. It is given that sin β = 5 and cos α = 5 , where α is acute and β is a third quadrant

angle. Find the exact value of each of the following.

sin α , tan β and tan α (ii) sin ( β + α ) (iii) tan ( β − α )
(i)

58 | P a g e
SOLUTIONS

(i) Draw two right angled triangles with the angles α and β as shown below. Use
Pythagoras theorem to find all the sides of the triangles.

3 3 3
From the triangles, sin α = 5 , tan β = 4 and tan α = 4 .

Alternatively:
sin2 α = 1 − cos 2 α cos 2 β = 1 − sin 2 β
sin2 α = 1 − 16
25
cos 2 β = 1 − 259
sin2 α = 9
25
cos 2 β = 16
25
∴ sin α = 35 ∴ cos β = − 45 (3rd Quadrant )

sin α 3 4 −sin β 3 4
tan α = = 5 ÷ 5 tan β = = −5 ÷ − 5
cos α −cos β
∴ tan α= 34 ∴ tan β= 3
4

(iii) sin ( β + α ) = sin β cosα + cos β sin α

= − 53 × 45 + − 45 × 35

24
= − 25

sin( β − α ) sin β cos α − cos β sin α

tan( β − α ) = =
(iii) cos(β − α ) cos β sin α + sin β sin α
− 35 × 45 − (− 45 )× 35
= 4 3 3 3
− 5 × 5 + (− 5 )× 5

=0
59 | P a g e
 EXERCISE
(a) Find the exact value of each of the following:
0 0 0
(i) sin 105 (ii) cos 75 (iii) tan15
2 2
(b) Show that cos 2θ = cos θ − sin θ .
2 tan θ
tan2 θ = .
(c) Prove that 1 − tan2 θ
3 3
(d) It is given that sin θ = − 5 and tan α = 4 , where α is acute andθ is a third
quadrant angle. Find the exact value of each of the following.

(i) sin α , cos θ and cos α (ii) sin (θ + α ) (iii) tan (θ − α )

9.5 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS

The Four Quadrants
The sign (+ve or− ve) of a trigonometric ratio depends on the size of the angle
The sign is thus determined by the quadrant where it is located.

The diagram above shows the quadrants in which sine, cosine and tangent is positive.
The principle angle α is the acute angle in the first quadrant, where all the
trigonometric ratios are positive. A trigonometric equation has an infinite number
of solutions. This is why a range of values of solutions is normally given. To find all
the solutions in a given range, the principle angle α should be determined.

If θ is in the 1stquadrant :θ =α
θ nd θ= 180 − α
If is in the 2 quadrant :
If θ is in the 3rdquadrant :θ = 180 + α
θ is in the 4thquadrant :θ = 360 − α
If
Examples

Solve the following equations for angles between 0° and 360°.

(a) √ 2sin θ = 1 ( b) 2 cos 2 x = − √ 3

Solutions
60 | P a g e
(a) √2 sin θ = 1
sin θ = √12
α = sin−1 ( √12 ) = 450

Sine is positive in the 1st and 2nd qudrants

1st quadrant: θ = α = 450 , and 1350 in the second quadrant.
(b) 2cos2 x = −√ 3
√3
cos2 x = − 2
α = cos−1 ( √2 ) = 300
3

Cosine is negative in the 2nd and 3rd quadrant.

2nd quadrant: 2 x = 1800 − α = 1800 − 30 0 = 1500 ∴ x = 75 0

The coefficient of x in 2x, that is 2, implies you can make another complete
turn (360°). This means add 360° to 150°.
2 x = 360 0 + 150 0 ⇒ x = 2550
3rd quadrant: 2 x = 1800 + α = 1800 + 300 = 210 0 ∴ x = 105 0
2 x = 360 0 + 210 0 ⇒ x = 2850

9.6 EQUATIONS OF THE FORM acos θ + bsin θ = c

(i) When c = 0, the equation can be simplified by converting it to one involving
tanθ only . .

EXAMPLE 1
5cosθ + 12sin θ = 0 ⇒ 12sinθ = −5cosθ
12 sin θ −5 cosθ
=
cosθ cosθ , dividing both sides by cos θ
−5
tanθ =
12
α = tan−1 ( 125 ) = 22. 60

2nd quadrant: θ = 180 0 − 22.6 = 157 .4 0

3rd quadrant: θ = 1800 + 22.6 = 202.6 0

61 | P a g e
 (ii) When c ≠ 0 , acos θ + bsin θ = c should then be written in the form
R cos(θ − α ) = √ a2 + b 2 cos(θ − α ) , where α is acute and R ˃ 0.

EXAMPLE 2
Solve the equation5cosθ + 12sin θ = 10 , for the range 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360°.
SOLUTION
5cosθ + 12sin θ = R cos(θ − α )
5cosθ + 12sin θ = R cosθ cosα + R sin θ sin α
Equating coefficients of cos θ andsin θ : R cos α = 5 --- (I) and R sin α = 12 --- (II)
R sin α 12 12 12
= ⇒ tan α = and ∴ α = tan−1 ( 5 ) = 67 . 4 0
Dividing (II) by (I) : R cosα 5 5
2 2 2 2 2 2
Squaring and adding: R cos α + R sin α = 5 + 12

R2 (cos2 α + sin2 α ) = 169

R = 13 , 2 2
sincecos α + sin α= 1
0
Hence 5 cosθ + 12sin θ = 13 cos(θ − 67 . 4 )
10 = 13 cos(θ − 67. 40 )
cos(θ − 67 . 4 0 ) = 10
13
θ − 67 . 4 0 = cos−1 ( 10
13
)
θ − 67.4 0 = 39.7 0 ( 1st quadrant)
θ = 107.10
0 0
andθ − 67 .4 = 360 −39 .7 ( 4th quadrant)
θ = 387 .7 0
0
Although θ = 387 .7 is a solution, it is inadmissible since it is outside the given range. Therefore
0
the only solution is θ = 107 .1 .

EXERCISE

(a) 4 cosθ + 3sinθ = 2 (b) √ 3cos2θ − sin 2θ = √2 (c)cosθ + 3sin θ = 2

(d) 2 √ 2sin θ − 12cosθ = 2

(e) (i) Express √ 2sinθ + √ 7cosθ in the form R sin( x + α ) , where α is acute and R ˃ 0.

(ii) Hence solve the equation √ 2sinθ + √ 7cosθ = 2 , for the domain 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360°.

62 | P a g e
 EXPECTED ANSWERS
(a) 36.8° (b) 7.5°, 142.5°, 187.5°, 322.5° (c) 20.8°, 122.3° (d) 61.3°, 157.7°
0
(e)(i) 3 sin(θ − 28 . 1 ) (ii) 69.9°, 166.3°

9.7 GRAPHS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

A.When sketching trigonometric graphs it is important to note the following important points

(a) Sin θ and Cos θ are both continuous functions of θ

(b) The range of both functions is the set [1, -1] ie – 1 ≤ sin θ ≤1 ,−1 ≤ cosθ ≤ 1 for all θ .

(c) Sinθ and Cos θ are both periodic with period of 3600, i.e
Sinθ ≡sin ( θ+ 360 ), Cos ≡ cos ⁡( θ +360). In simple terms these graphs repeat every
after 3600.
1
Y= Sin θ θ
-3600 -1800 0 1800 3600

-1

1
Y =cos θ
-3600 -1800 0 1800 3600 θ

-1

63 | P a g e
 - Notice that the graph of sine function is simply shifted 900 to the left
to form the cosine graph . Thus
(i) sin( 900 + θ ) ≡ Cos θ
(j) Cos (900 – θ ) ≡−sinθ

B. Graph of the Tangent function

(i) Unlike sine and cosine functions tangent function is not a continuous function.
sinθ
Since tan θ = , its graphs has asymptotes, wherever cosθ=0, thus when θ =
cosθ
+/-900, +/-2700, etc
(ii) The range of the tangent function is the whole of R. Thus tan θ can take any value
(iii) Tan θ is a periodic function with period of 1800. Thus tan ( θ+180 )=tan θ

-1800 0 1800

θ=¿900 θ=¿ 2700

θ=¿-2700 θ=¿-900

Note that the graphs discussed above are parent graphs or original graphs and should be
used to understand the fundamentals of trigonometric graphs. The following concepts are
critical to the solving of problems on trigonometry related to the sketching of graphs.

Syllabus specific outcome number 11.10.7.2 states

- Draw the graphs of sine, cosine and tangent curves

Simple as it may seem the outcome is more demanding than it actually states. This is
because most questions asked on this particular outcome involve graphs of transformed
functions especially on sine and cosine. The concept on “the number of solutions obtained’’
for solving a trig. Equation related to the graph frequently occurs. This implies that we
should not handle this specific outcome with kid’s cloves.

64 | P a g e
 i. Graphs of Transformed Trigonometric Functions
As a word of caution, it is always important that you spend a considerable time
understanding the parent graphs of the trigonometric functions before you attempt
this portion. Always refer to the original functions.
A. Sine and cosine Functions
(i) As stated the graphs of these functions are the same only that they have a
phase difference of 900
(ii) In general if
y = a Sin b θ + c , where a, b, and c are constants
- a is called the amplitude of the function which is range of the function.
For the original function a = +/- 1.
360
- The period is given by , for the original function period = 3600, since
b
b = 1.
- C is called the vertical shift of the graph from the original position. If c is
negative the graph is shifted downwards otherwise is shifted c units
upwards.

This is also true for the cosine function.

(iii) The usual rule of dealing with the modulus of graphs still holds. Thus to
find the modulus of these graphs simply reflect any portion below the x –
axis to the top, while the portion above is left un-tempered.
- It also advisable to sketch the graph of the original function on the same
graph but this is optional as this is done
- If asked to sketch both graphs on the same axes please do as instructed
and pay particular attention to the points of intersection for the two
graphs and if possible highlight them by plotting these points.
(iv) Problems related to finding the maximum and minimum of these functions
frequently occurs. Example number three will shade more light on this.
(v) If radians are used remember the conversion factor for radians to degrees
180
, work in degrees but remember to present your work on the graph
π
using radians as the question demands.
(vi) Before you sketch collect the necessary data on amplitude, vertical shift,
phase shift and Stick to the domain stated no more no less.

65 | P a g e
Example 1

Sketch on the same diagram, for 0≤ θ ≤2 π , the graph of y = 2cos θ – 1 and the graph of y =
sin2θ .Hence state the number of solutions in this interval of the equation 2cosθ – 1 =
sin2θ .

Solution

y = 2cos θ – 1 y = sin2θ

Amplitude = 2 a=1

Period = 3600....multiples 900 p = 3600/2 = 1800 multiples 450

Vertical shift = -1 y no shift

2

0 90 180 θ
270 360
−1
−2

Example 2

The function f is defined for 0≤ θ ≤2 π , by solutions

f(x) = 4 + 5sin2θ . (i) Amplitude = 5
state 2π
(i) The amplitude (ii) Period = =2
2
(ii) The period of f (iii) Maximum = 9 and minimum = -1
(iii) The maximum and minimum values of f This is calculated by letting sin2
(iv) Sketch the graph of y = f(x) θ=1∧sin 2 θ=−1 ,

66 | P a g e
 9
Note that
the graph is
shifted 4
units
4
upwards.

The original
axis is
θ
0 π 2π 3π 4π translated
−1 upwards to
y=4

EXAMPLE 3
x
Sketch on the same diagram, the graphs of y = 2sin x and y = for 0≤ x ≤ 2 π and hence state the
π
number of solutions of the equations 2 πsinx=x∧2 πsinx=x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 π .

SOLUTION

Note that this is a graph of the modulus function

x 1
With amplitude = 2, period= 2 π , while y = is a straight line with gradient
π π

To sketch the graph of y = 2sin x , first we need to sketch y = 2sin x and then reflect the negative
portion of the graph across the x – axis.

The number of solutions for

2 x 2 πsinx=x, are 4 since the

y=
π straight line and the curve
1 intersect at four points

For 2 πsinx=x,
π π 3π 2π
-1 2 2

67 | P a g e
 -2

EXERCISE

1. A function f is defined, for 00≤ θ ≤180 0, by

F(x) = A + 5 CosBx,
Where A and B are constants.
(i) Given that the maximum value of f is 3, state the value of A
(ii) State the amplitude of f
(iii) Given that period of f is 1200, state the value of B
(iv) Sketch the graph of f.
2. Sketch on the same diagram the graphs of y = 2cos x and 3y = x for the domain 0
≤ x ≤ 2 π . Hence state the number of solutions in this domain of the equation
6 Cos x = x.
3. Sketch the graphs of y = sin3x and 2 πy=x for 0≤ x ≤ 2 π . How many solutions do the
equations 2 π sin3x = x and 2 π sin3x = x have in this interval
4. The function f is defined, for 00≤ θ ≤360 0, by
f(x) = a Sin(bx) + c, where a, b and c are positive integers. Given that the amplitude
of f is 2 and the period of f is 1200.
(i) State the value of a and b

Given further that the minimum value of f is – 1, state

(ii) State the value of c

(iii) Sketch the graph of f.

68 | P a g e
.

10.0 VECTOR IN TWO DIMENSIONS

 Vectors are quantities which have both direction and magnitude.

 In a coordinate plane with two axes x and y, a vector is given as a column (ba), where a is the
number of steps to be taken from a given point parallel to the x-axis and b is the is the number of
steps parallel to the y-axis to follow the a steps.
 By directed line segment vector AB

⃗ 1
()
AB = and ⃗
2
BA =
−1 ⃗
−2 ( )
, AB is not the same as ⃗
BA .
Note: Always move parallel to the x-axis first then parallel to the y-axis.

10.1 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS

 Vectors are like translations. Addition and subtraction are commutative.

Given that ⃗
AB = (23) and ⃗
BC =( ) ,
−2
4
⃗
AB+¿ ⃗
BC = ⃗
BC + ⃗
AB

69 | P a g e
() ( ) ( )() ()
2
3
+
−2
4
=
−2 2
4
+
3
=
0
7
. In general
a1
b1
a
b2
a +a
+ 2 = 1 2.
() ()( )
b 1 + b2

( )
→
( ) ( ) (
→
To subtract vectors AB −¿ BC = AB +¿ −BC ,
→ →
) ()()(
a1
b1
a a −a
− 2 = 1 2 .
b2 b 1−b 2 )
If x = (21) , y = (15), x – y = (2−1
1−5) (−4 )
=
1
.

10.2 POSITION VECTORS

 A position vector is a vector that starts from the origin of the XOY – plane ( 0, 0 ). If the point P
has co-ordinates P ( x , y ) then ⃗
OP is called the position vector of P where O is the origin which
has co-ordinates (0,0).
→
( ) ()
x−0 x
OP = y −0 = y

 The position vector of any point A( a, b ) is ⃗

OA = (ba).
 If the co-ordinates of P and Q are given, computation of vector ⃗
PQ is done by subtracting the
position vector of P from the position vector of Q. In other words, it is done by subtracting co-
ordinates of P from the end coordinates of vector Q.

i.e. y- axis

O x- axis

q Q
⃗
PQ =⃗
PO + ⃗
OQ

= −¿ p + q

= q–p

Or ⃗
PQ =⃗
OQ−⃗
OP

70 | P a g e
 =q–p

If A = (7, 1) and B = ( 0, -6), find ⃗

AB

⃗
AB = ⃗
OB −⃗
OA = (−60 ) −¿ (71) = (−7
−5 )

10.3 LENGTH OF A VECTOR (MAGNITUDE OR MODULUS)

Suppose ⃗
AB = (ba), this is shown below
B

A a

AB denoted as |⃗
The length of ⃗ AB| is the length of the line AB. This can be calculated using pythagoras
theorem.

AB| = √ a2 +b 2
|⃗
BA| = √ (−a)2+¿ ¿
|⃗ = √ a2 +b 2
∴ |⃗
AB| = |⃗
BA|.
Principles to remember

1) If ma +¿ nb = pa +¿ qb then m = p and n = q
2) If P,Q and R are collinear, then ⃗
PQ = k⃗
QR ( and conversely) because ⃗
PQ and ⃗
QR are parallel
but meet at Q. Also⃗
PQ = K⃗
PR .
m n
3) If the vector ma +¿ nb and pa +¿ qb are parallel, then = .
p q
Example

1.If p = 2a – 3b and q = 2a +¿ 2b, find numbers x and y such that x p +¿ yq = a +¿ 12b.

x p + yq = x (2a – 3b) + y (a + 2b) [By substituting expressions of p and q ]

= 2 x a −¿ 3 xb + ya + 2yb

71 | P a g e
 = 2 x a + ya -3 x b + 2yb

= (2 x + y) a + (-3 x + 2y) b

= (2 x + y) a + (-3 x + 2y) b = a – 2b.

= 2 x + y = 1........... (1) and -3 x + 2y = -12........(2),

y = 1 −¿ 2 x ...........(3)

 Substituting eq. (3) into eq. (2), we have

-3 x + 2 (1 −¿ 2 x ) = −¿12

-3 x + 2 −¿4 x = −¿ 12

-3 x−¿ 4 x = −¿ 14

- 7 x = −¿ 14

x = 2

Y = 1 −¿ 2 x

Y = 1 – 2 (2)

Y=1–4

Y =- 3

 Checking this
[ 2 ( 2 ) +(−3)] a + [−3 ( 2 ) +2(−3)]b
= (4 −¿ 3)a + (−¿12)b

= a – 12b as required.

10.4 EQUAL VECTORS

 Two vectors are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude and direction.
 In the following figure ABCD, ⃗
AB and ⃗
DC are equal while ⃗
AD ∧⃗
BC are also equal.

72 | P a g e
 y-axis

C (7,6)

D (2,4)

B (6,3)

A (1,1)

O x- axis

i.e. ⃗
AB = (52) and ⃗
DC=( ) ,
5
2
⃗ 1
()
AD = and ⃗
3
1
BC = .
3 ()
10.5 PARALLEL VECTORS
Two vectors a and b are said to be parallel if one is a scalar multiple of the other.

i.e. a = kb . If k is positive then the vectors are parallel in the same direction. If k is negative, the
vectors are parallel in the opposite direction .i.e. they are unlike parallel vectors.

If ⃗
AB =
a
(b ) a
AB = k =
and has been enlarged by k, then ⃗
ka
. (b) ( kb)
If ( kakb) =(2030), find the scalar multiple of ⃗
AB .

((kakb)) (2030)
=

k (ba) = 10 (23)
∴ k = 10

10.6 COLLINEAR VECTORS

 Two vectors are collinear if they lie on the same straight line and that one is a scalar multiple of
the other.
 Consider the points A, B, C on a straight line below

73 | P a g e
 A B C

AB // BC , AB // AC and AC // BC.

Example

Show that the point A (1, - 2), B (2, -1) and C (4, 1) are collinear.

NOTE: We just need to check that one pair satisfies the parallel vectors property .i.e. One being a
multiple of the other.

 Considering
AB and AC
i.e.

⃗ ( ) ( ) ()
AB = b – a =
2
−1
−¿
1
−2
=
1
1

AC =c−a=( )−( )=( )=3 ( )

⃗ 4 1 3 1
1 −2 3 1
AC = 3⃗
∴⃗ AB , so ⃗
AB and ⃗
AC are parallel and because they share a common point A, the three
points are collinear.

10.6 UNIT VECTOR

 Any vector whose magnitude is 1 is called a unit vector.

 The unit vector (10) and (01) are called standard unit vectors or base vectors, we denotei=(10) and
j= ( 01).
√
= (1)2 +0 = 1 also

√(o)2+(1)2 = 1.
(0, 1) j

O (1,0)i

 Adding two vectors in column form

74 | P a g e
 i.e. (ba) + ( xy ) = (a + x)i + (b + y) j
If x = 2i + , y = i + 5 j , find

(a ) x + y

(2i + j) + (i + 5 j ) = (2ji) + (5i j )

= (63ij)
∴ = (3i + 6 j ¿

(b ) x – y

= (2i + j ¿ −¿ (i+5 j ¿

= i−4 j

ALGEBRA OF VECTORS EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF i AND j.

 (ba) + ( xy ) = (a + x ¿i + (b + y) j
∴ ui + v j + ri + s j v = (ui+r i) + (v j+ s j¿
= (u + r)i + (v + s)j
 mi + n j – (ai+b j ) = (m - a)i + (n - b)j

 k
b
a
() ( )
=
ka
kb
= kai + kb j

UNIT VECTOR IN THE DIRECTION OF A GIVEN VECTOR

¿⃗
 If ¿⃗ is the given vector, then the unit vector in the direction ¿⃗ = .
|⃗|
¿
a vector
Unit vector of a = , i.e. .
|a| magnitude of vector

10.7 SCALAR PRODUCT/ DOT PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS

We write the scalar product of a and b as a. b and defined as

a.b = |a|x |ab| cos θ = ab cos θ , where θ is the angle between two vectors.

75 | P a g e
Example

If |a|=2, |b|= =3 and the angle between a and b = 60° , then a.b = 2 x 3 x 0.5 = 3.

The scalar product is always a number

The scalar product is commutative a.b = |a| x |b| x cos θ = b.a = |b| x|a| x cos θ

∴ a . b=b . a

10.8 Parallel Vectors

If a and b are paraell but in the same direction, then θ = 0°

a.b = ab cos 0° = ab = |a| x |b|

If a and b are parallel but in the different direction, then θ = 180°

a.b = ab cos 180 ° = -ab

2 2
ii=i = 1 and j j= j = 1
2
(6i+8 j ¿ ( 6 i+8 j ) = [ 6 i+ 8 j ]

2
= ( √ 6 2 + 82 )

2
¿ ( √ 100 )

=100

If a and b are perpendicular then θ=90 ° ,cos 90 °= 0

∴ a . b cos 90 ° = a.b ( 0 ) = 0

Hence, i j= ji= 0.

76 | P a g e
Distributive Law

a ( b+ c) = a x(b+c), a(b +c) = ab + ac

Example 1

If a= 2i + 3 j and b = i - 2 j , find a.b

ab = (2i +3 j ¿ ( i−2 j )

= 2i (i -2 j ¿+3 j ( i−2 j )

=2 ii -2 j 2i +3 j i-2 j 3 j

=2 i 2- 4 ij+ 3 ji +6 j2

= 2(1) – 4 (0) + 3 (0) – 6(1)

= 2-6

= -4

Note:

Given (a1i+b1j) (a2i+b2j) =

( )( )
a1 a2

b1 b2
= a1a2 +b1b2

Example 2.

The position vectors of P and Q are 2i + j and -3i +2 j respectively find < POQ

p.q = pq cos θ

77 | P a g e
 p.q
cos θ = where pq = | p| x |q|
pq

( 2i+ j )(−3i+2 j)
cos θ=
|2 i+ j||−3 i+ 2 j|
cos θ=¿ ¿

−6+2
cos θ=
√5 √ 13
cos θ=−0.4961
−1
θ=cos (0,4961) = 60.26° , in the 2nd quadrant

θ=180° - 60.2577

θ=119.74 °
Example 3

The position vectors relative to origin o, of the three points P, Q and R are i +3j, 5i+11j and 9i+9j
respectively
→ → →
i. By finding the magnitude of vectors PR , QR and QP , show that the angle PQR =90°
→
ii. Find the unit vector parallel to RP
→
Given that ⃗
→
iii. OQ = mop + n ¿ , where m and n are constants, find the value of m and n.
Solutions

Given ⃗
OP =
1 ⃗
, OQ = (3 ) (115 ), and ¿⃗ = (99)
PR = ¿⃗ - ⃗
⃗ OP

= (99)- (13)
= (86)
|PR| = √ 8 +6
→
2 2
=√ 100 =10

→ → →
RQ = OQ - ¿

78 | P a g e
= (115 )- (99)
= (−42)
|RQ| = √(−4) +2 =√ 20
→ 2 2

→ → →
QP = OP - OQ

= (13)- (115 )
= (−4
−8 )

|QP| = √(−4) +(−8) =√ 80

→ 2 2

Using the pythagorours theorem

|PR|→ 2
= |RQ| + |QP|
→ 2 → 2

2 2
102= ( √ 20 ) +( √ 80 )
102= 20 + 80

100 =100.

 ¿ PQR = 90°
→
Unit vector parallel to PR .

→
PR = 8 i+6 j = 8 i+6 j
PR| √ 8 + 6
2 2
|⃗ 10

8i 6 j
= +
10 10

4i 3 j
= +
5 5

79 | P a g e
 → → →
OQ = M OP + N ¿

(115 ) = m (13) + n( 99)

(115 )=(3m+9
m+9 n )
n

¿ ¿ 11=3 m+ 9 n ….. ii ¿ ¿

Solving them simultaneously, we have

¿ ¿ 11=3 m+ 9 n ….. ii ¿ ¿ ¿
−2 m=−6
−2 m=−6
−2
m=3

Substituting the value of m into equation (i)

5 = 3 + 9n

5-3 = 9n

2 = 9n

2
n=
9
Example 4

Relative to an origin o, the position vectors of points A and B are (247 ) and (1020)respectivelty.
Find

i. The length ⃗
OA
ii. The length ⃗
AB
Given that ABC is a straight line and that the length of ⃗
OC is equal to the length of ⃗
OA , find the
position vector of C.

SOLUTIONS

i. ⃗
OA = ( )
7
24
OA ¿|⃗
Length of ⃗ √
OA| = (−7)2 +(24)2

80 | P a g e
 =√ 625

=25

ii. AB = ⃗
Length of ⃗ OB − ⃗
OA

= (1020)- (247 )
= (−43 )
⃗
AB = √ 32 +(−4)2 = √ 25 =5

Given that the length of ⃗

AC = length of⃗
OA .

⃗
AC = ⃗
OA = 25

Lying on a straight line

⃗
AC
= 5, or ⃗
AC = 5⃗
AB
⃗
AB

⃗
AC = ⃗
OC −⃗
OA = 5
3
−4 ( )
⃗
OC=5 (−43 )+¿ ⃗
OA .

⃗
OC=
15
( )( )
+
−20 24
7

⃗
OC=
22
4 ( )
ANS

EXERCISE (answers in brackets)

1.The point a and b are such that the unit vector in the direction of ⃗
AB IS 0.28i + pj, where p is a positive

constant. Find the value of p.(0.960)

2.The position vector A and B relative to the origin O, are qi – 7j and 12i + 17j respectively, Find the
value of q (5)

81 | P a g e
3.The vector ⃗
OP has a magnitude of 10 units and is parallel to the vector 3i- 4j. The vector ⃗
OQ has a
magnitude of 15 units and is parallel to the vector 4i + 3j. Express ⃗
OP and ⃗
OQ in terms of i and j

⃗
OP = 6i- 8j
⃗
OQ = 12i + 9j
4.Give that that a = 5i-12j and b= pi + j. find

(i) The unit vector a ( 135 i+ 1213 j )

(ii)The value of p and q such qa + b = 19i-23j (P=9, q=2)

5.The position vector of points A and b, relative to the origin O are 2i + 4j and 6i + 10j respectively. The

position vector of c relative to O is ki+ 25j, where k is a positive constant

(i)Find the value of k for which the length of ⃗

BC = 25 units (k = 26)

(ii)Find the value of k for which ABC is a straight line ( k=16)

6. Given ⃗
OA = (−17
25 ) OB = ( ) , find
∧⃗
4
5

(i)The unit vector parallel to ⃗

AB ( 2129 i− 2029 j)
(ii)The vector⃗ AC = 3⃗
OC , such that ⃗ AB (46i−¿35j)

82 | P a g e
11.0 ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS
11.1 SEQUENCES
Sequence is a set of numbers listed in a well defined order with a specific rule that can be used to
state the next numbers in that set.

1. Write the next three terms of each of the sequences below

(a) 1, 2,4,8,……….

Answers

16, 32,64

(b)-4,-1,2,5,8,11

Answers

83 | P a g e
 14,17,20
11.2 SERIES
A series is the sum of all the terms of a sequence e.g

1+2+4+8+16+,…….

11.3 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (AP)

1. . For the AP, 2+5+8+…, find the 10th term

Answers
a=2, first term
d=5-2
D=3
T10 = a+ (n-1)d
= 2+ (10-1)3
= 29

(i) The 51 st term

Answers

T51 = 2+ (51 - 1)3

- = 2+ 50 x 3
= 152

(ii) The nth term

Answers

Tn = a + (n - 1) d
= 2+ (n - 1)3
= 2 + 3n - 3
= 3n - 1

84 | P a g e
 2.Find the number of terms in the AP 3 + (-1) + (-5) +….+ (-53).

Answers

a = 3, d = -4, Tn = -53
Tn = a + (n - 1)d
-53 = 3 + (n - 1) -4
-53 = 3 - 4n + 4
4n = 53 + 7
1 1
×4 n=60×
4 4n = 15

3. The 10th term of an AP is 37 and the 16th term is 61, for this AP find:
(i) The common difference
Answers
Tn = a + (n - 1)d
T10 = a + 9d
37 = a + 9d……………eqn 1
and
T16 = a + (16 - 1)d
16 = a+15d…………..eqn 2 and solve the equations simultaneously.
a + 9d = 37
-(a+15d = 61)
6 −24
− =
4 4
d= 4
(ii) The first term

Answers

First term
a+ 9d = 37

a+ 9(4) = 37

a+ 36 = 37

a = 37 - 36

a=1

(iii) the 30th term

Answers

85 | P a g e
Tn = a + (n - 1)

T30 = 1 + (30 - 1)4

T30 = 117

4. The nth term (Tn) of an AP is given by Tn = 1/2(4n - 3).

State (i) the 5th term (ii) the 10th term (iii) the 6th term

Answers

T6 = 1/2(4 x 6 - 3)
th
The 5 term T10 = 1/2(4 x 10 - 30) T6 = 1/2(24 - 3)
T5 = 1/2(4n - 3) T10 = 1/2(40 - 3) T6 = 1/2(21)
T5 = 1/2(4 x 5n - 3 T10 = 18.5 T6 = 10.5
T5 = 1/2(17)
T5 = 8.5

(b) the common difference

Answers
d = T6 - T5
d = 10.5 - 8.5
d=2

Therefore, the common difference is 2.

5. If x + 1, 2x - 1 and x + 5 are three consecutive terms, find the value of x.

Answers

X+1 , 2x - 1 , x+5
T1 T2 T3

For an AP,

Common difference, d = T2 - T1 = T3 - T1
(2x - 1) - (x + 1) = (x + 5) - (2x - 1)
2x - 1 - x - 1 = x + 5 - 2x
2x - x - 1 - 1 = x - 2x + 5 + 1

86 | P a g e
 X - 2 = -x + 6
X+x=2+6
2x = 8
X=4
6. If the numbers 3,m,n and 8 are three consecutive terms of an AP, find the values of m and n.

Answers

m-3=n-m and n - m = 18 - n
m+m=n+3 n + n = 18 + m
2m = n + 3 2n = 18 + m
m= n +3 …………..eq1 m = 2n - 18…………….eq2
2
Equate m = m

n+ 3 = 2n - 18/1
2
n + 3 = 2(2n - 18)
n + 3 = 4n - 36
n-4n = -36 -3
-3n = -39
−3 n = −39
−3 −3
n = 13

for m
n+3
m=
2

m= 13+3
2
m= 16
2
m=8

Therefore, m = 8 and n = 13
(ii) The numbers m - 1, 4m + 1 and 5m - 1 are three consecutive terms of an AP,
find the numbers.

(iii)
Answer

m - 1, 4m + 1, 5m - 1 and 4m + 1 is an arithmetic mean between m - 1 and 5m - 1

87 | P a g e
 b= a +c
2

4m + 1 = m−1+5m−1
2
2(4m + 1)=m + 5m-1-1

8m+2=6m - 2

8m - 6m = -2 - 2

2m = -4

m= -2

Substitute for m = 1 in the series we get, -3, -7 and -11

7. Find the arithmetic mean of the first 6 terms of 3 + 8 +………

Answer

First term
a=3
Common difference d = 8-3
d=5

Therefore, the 6 terms are 3,8,13,18,23,28.

Arithmetic mean = 3 + 8 + 13 + 18 + 23 + 28
6
Arithmetic mean = 93
Arithmetic mean = 6 15.5
Or

Arithmetic mean = median

=
13+18
=
2 15.5

8. Find the arithmetic mean and the geometric mean of 4 and 64.

Answer

88 | P a g e
 Given 4 and 64

Arithmetic mean = 4+ 64
2
= 68
2

= 34

Geometric mean = square root of 4 and 64

=2x8
= 16

9. An arithmetic progression has a 1st term to be 2 and common difference of 2, show that the
sum of the first nth terms of the AP is given by Sn = n2 + n. hence find the sum of the 21st terms of
an AP.
Answer
a = 2, d=2
Sn = n
( 2 a+( n−1) d )
2
= n
( 2 x 2+( n−1) 2)
2
= n
( 4+ 2n −2)
2
n
= ( 2+ 2 n )
2

= n + n2

Sn = n2 + n is required

The sum of the first 21st terms

S21 = 212 + 21
S21 = 441+ 21
= 462

10. The sum Sn of the first n terms of an AP is given by Sn = n2 + n, find (i) the first term (ii)
common difference (iii) the formula for the sum of the first n - 1 terms

Answers

89 | P a g e
 (i) Sn = n2 + 2n
To find the first term we put n = 1 in the given sum
S1 = 12 + 2(1)
a=3
(ii) The common difference
d = S2 - 2S1
=8-6
=2
(iii) Sn = n2 + 2n
Sn-1 = (n - 1)2 + 2(n - 1)
= n2 - n - n + 1 + 2n - 2
= n2 - 2n + 2n + 1 - 2
= n2 – 1

11.4 GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (GP)

A geometric progression (GP) is a sequence in which each term is formed by multiplying the
previous term by a constant amount.
nth term of a Geometric Progression

The nth term of a GP with first term a and common ratio r is: Tn = arn - 1

1. For a GP, 2 + 6 + 18 + …………, find (i) the tenth term (ii) the 17th term
Solution

First term (a) = 2

Common ratio r = T2 6
=
T1 2
r =3
n = 10

T n =ar n−1
T 10=2×310 −1
T 10=39366 So the 10th term is 39 366

90 | P a g e
(ii) T17 = 2 X 317 - 1
= 2 x 316
= 86 093 442

2. The third term of a GP is 9 and the tenth term is 19 683, find;

(i) the common ratio
(ii) the 8th term

Solutions

(i) T3 = ar2
ar2 = 9………….eqn (i)

T10 = ar9
Ar9 = 19 683……..eqn (ii)

Dividing equation (i) by equation (ii) ar 9 19683

=
ar 2 9
√7 r 7=√7 2187
r =3
Therefore the common ratio is 3

(ii) ar2 = 9
A x (3)2 = 9

9a 9
=
9 9
a=1 The first term is 1

(iii) Tn = arn -1
T8 = 1 x 38 - 1
= 37
T8 = 2187 the 8th term is 2 187

3. Given that x +2, x + 3 and x + 6 are the first three terms of a GP, find

( )( )
x + 2 ¿ −3 3 − 3 2 3 1 3
(a) the value of x
(b) the 1st term of the GP.

Solutions x+3¿ −3 3 ¿= + ÷ + ¿= ÷ ¿= ×2¿r=3¿

(a) Common ratio (r) = T2
T1
T
= 3
T2 +2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2
91 | P a g e
x+3 x +6
=
x+ 2 x +3 =−3 2 ¿
+2 1
 (x + 3)(x + 3) =(x + 2)(x + 6)
X2 + 3x + 3x + 9 = X2 + 6x + 2x + 12
6x + 9 = 8x + 12
8x - 6x = 9 - 12
2 x −3
=
2 2
1
x=−1 3

(b) First term (a) = x + 2

−3
= +2
2
− 3 +4
=
2
1
a=
2

Common ratio (r)

T 5=ar n−1
1
¿ ×34
2
81
¿ or 40 . 5
2

The nth term (Tn) of a GP is given by Tn = 29 - n. Find

(i) the first term
(ii) the common ratio
(iii) the sum of the first 9 terms.

Solutions

(i) Tn = 29 - n
T1 = 29 - 1
T1 = 28
T1 = 256
a = 256

(ii) To find the common ratio, first calculate the second term (T2)

92 | P a g e
 T2 = 29-2
= 27
= 128
T2
Common ratio (r) =
T1
128
¿
256
1
¿
2

(iii) Sum
a(1−r n )
=
1−r
1
256 [1−( 2 )9 ]
¿
1−12
256(0 . 998046875 )
¿1
SUM OF A 2
GP
255 .5
¿
6. Calculate, 0.5 correct to three significant figures, the sum of the first 8
Sum=511
terms of 5 13 .......... the GP 12, 8,

Solutions
8
r=
12
First term a = 3 12
r = or 0. 75
4
a (1−r n )
S8 =
1−r
[
12 (1−( 34 )8
¿ 3
]
= 43.2 correct to 3 significant figures
1− 4
1 1 1
12(0 . 899837085) , , ,. . .. .. . .. ..
¿ 3 8 4 2
7. Work out 1− 4 the sum of the first 10 terms of
10 .79864502
¿
Solution 0 . 25
¿ 43 . 19458008
Common ratio (r ) =

93 | P a g e
GEOMETRIC MEAN
8. Find the geometric Mean of 4 and 64.

SOLUTION

= √ 4×64
= √ 4×√64
=2×8
=16

10. Write down the number of terms in the following GPs

2 + 4 + 8 + …………..+512

Solution

First term a = 2, r =2
Last term = 512

L=ar n−1
512 2×2n−1
=
2 2
256=2n−1

Factorising 256 28 = 2n - 1
8=n-1
2 128 n=8+1
n=9
2 64
94 | P a g e
 The GP has 9 terms
2 32

2 16

2 8

2 4

2 2

2 1

SUM TO INFINITY
9. The sum of infinity of a certain GP is 28. if the first term is 37, find r

a
S ∞= =28
1−r
a=37
a
=28
1−r
37
=28
1−r
28(1−r)=37
28−28 r=37
−28 r=37−28
28 r 9
= or−032
28 −28

95 | P a g e
 12.0 CALCULUS
The discovery of Calculus is often attributed to two men, Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried
Leibniz, who independently developed its foundations. Sir Isaac Newton(1642-1727) is often
referred to as the “Father of Calculus” because of his great contributions to both Physics and
Mathematics.

BRANCHES OF CALCULUS
Calculus has two branches namely
 Differentiation

 Integration
12.1 DIFFERENTIATION

12.1.1 THE FIRST PRINCIPLE

dy
If y is the function of x the the derivative of y with respect to x is or
dx
f ( x+ h )−f (x) ¿ means ‘ take the limiting value when h → 0 ’.This formula
f ' ( x )=lim where lim
h →0 h h→ 0

is called the first principle in differentiation..

96 | P a g e
 EXAMPLES:

1. If , from first principle.

SOLUTION

data:

[Plug in these functions in the formula above]

2. Find from first principle for the function .

SOLUTION

data.

[plug in these in the formula above]

97 | P a g e
 EXERCISE

1. Find for each of the following functions by first principle.

EXPECTED ANSWERS

12.1.1 FINDING THE DERIVATIVE OF A POLYNOMIAL

Even though the syllabus does not mention of differentiating from first principles the
student should have profound knowledge in this concept and the concept of limits as
outlined above. This revision kit will simply focus on differentiating by rule.
Notation:
In general given a y = f(x)

98 | P a g e
 dy
y’ = f’(x) =
dx
1. If y=a x n where a and n are real numbers f’(x) = f ' ( x )=an x n−1

Examples
Find the derivatives of the following functions
(a) y=¿3 x 3−4 x 2+5 x +3
(b) y=¿ = √ x+ 3 x 3
Solutions
dy
(a) = 9 x2 – 8 x + 5
dx
dy
(b) = ½ x ½ - 1 + 9 x2.
dx
1
= + 9 x2
2 √x
2. Chain – rule Composite functions
Let y = u where u is function of x
dy dy du
It can be shown that y’ = = x
dx du dx
Example
Differentiate each of the following with respect to x
3
(a) Y =
√2 x +5
(b) Y = (3x4 + 4x2 – 10)7

SOLUTIONS
3
(a) Y =
√2 x +5
Y = 3(2x + 5)- ½
Let u = 2x + 5
Thus y = 3u- ½
dy
=3 .( - ½ U- 2/3 )
du
du
=2
dx

BY CHAIN RULE
(a)
dy
=2 .3. ¿- ½ U- 2/3)
dx

99 | P a g e
 −3
¿
√(2 x+5)2
3

(b) Y = (3x4 + 4x2 – 10)7

Let u = 3x4 + 4x2 – 10
Thus y = U7
U’ = 12x3 + 8x
Y’ = 7U6
By chain rule we have
dy ' '
=U . y
dx
¿ ¿x3 + 8x) . 7U6
¿7((3x4 + 4x2 – 10)6.(12x3 + 8x)

3. PRODUCT RULE
Given u and v which are both functions of x such that
Y = uv
Y’ = u’v + v’u…………………………………………………….product rule
Example
3 x −4
Given that Y = 2 , find the derivative of y with respect to x
1+ x
Solution
Y = (3x – 4) (1 + x2)-1
Let u = 3x – 4 and v = (1 + x2)-1
U’ = 3 v’ = - 2x (1 +x2)-2
By product rule we have y’ = u’v + v’u
= 3(1 + x2)-1 + [- 2x (1 +x2)-2]. (3x – 4)
3 2 x (3 x−4)
= 2 -
1+ x ( 1+ x2 )❑2

4. QUOTIENT RULE
Given u and v both functions of x such that
u
Y=
v
'
v u −v ' u
Y’ = 2
v
Example

100 | P a g e
 x−2
Given that y = , where x ≠ - 1.5 , find derivative of y wrt x
2 x +3
Solution
Let u = x – 2 and v = 2x + 3
U’ = 1 v’ = 2
By quotient rule we have
( 2 x +3 ) .1+2(x−2)
Y’ = 2 +
(2 x+3)
2 x +3+2 x−4 4 x−1
= 2 = 2
(2 x+ 3) (2 x+ 3)
3.2.2 Tangents, Normals and Stationary Points

2.1 Tangents and Normals

- In general the syllabus is concerned with finding the equations of the
tangents and the normals at a particular point.
- These concepts are highly related to coordinated geometry so it here by
advised that the teacher should emphasize the need to apply the straight
line equation in solving these problems.
- The Normal to a curve at one point is the line which passes through the
point and is perpendicular to the tangent at that point.
- The equation of the normal at P0(x0, y0) is given by
−1

( )
y – y0 = dy ( x – x0)
dx
Example
Find the equation of the tangent and the normal to y = x3 – 2x2 + 4 at (2,4)
Solutions
Y’ = 3x2 – 4x; the slope of the tangent at x =2 is y’ (2) = 4
The equation of the tangent is y – 4 = 4 (x – 2)
Y = 4x – 4
The equation of the normal is y – 4 = - ¼ (x – 2)
x + 4y = 18
Example 2
2 x−3
Given that y = , x ≠ 2, calculate
x −2
dy k
(a) The value of k for which =
dx ( x−2)2
(b) The equation of the normal to the curve at the point where x = 1
Solutions
(a) Apply quotient rule to get the derivative of y wrt x

101 | P a g e
 ( x−2 ) .2−( 2 x −3 ) .1
Y’ = 2
(x −2)
2 x−4−2 x +3
= 2
(x−2)
−1 k
= 2 = 2 , as given
( x−2) ( x−2)
Therefore k = - 1
(b) To find the equation of the normal we need to find the gradient of
the curve at x = 1 by substituting this value in the expression for
dy
dx
dy
=−¿1, y0 = 1
dx
Equation of normal is given by
−1

( )
y – y0 = dy ( x – x0)
dx
y – 1 = 1 ( x – 1)
y=x–1+1
y=x
Example
Two variables, x and y are related by the equation
k
Y = x2 + , where k is a constant.
x
dy
(i) obtain an expression for
dx
(ii) Find the value of k for which the line y - 4x = 3 is a tangent to the curve
where x=3.
(iii) Find the equation of the normal to the curve at the point where x = 3.
Solutions
dy k
(i) = 2x - 2 …………………………………………….by rule
dx x
(ii) If y – 4x = 3 is tangent to the curve then it gradient is equal to the
gradient of the curve at x =3
y = 4x + 3 implying that the gradient of the line is 4
dy
Thus =4
dx
Substituting this value in (i) we have
k
4 = 2(3) - 2 …………………………..since x = 3
3

102 | P a g e
 Solving for k we have
K = 18………………………………………..verify
(iii) To find the equation of the normal we need to the gradient of the
dy
curve at x = 3, which has already been given since =4
dx
Thus gradient of the normal is m = – ¼ and the point is (3, 15)

y – 3 = – ¼( x – 15)
4y – 12 = - x + 15
x + 4y = 15 + 12
x + 4y = 27 is the equation of the Normal at x = 3

3.2.3 Calculate maxima and minima

Example
8 x
2
(a) Given that y = 2 + , find the stationary value of y and determine whether it
x 6
is maximum or minimum.
(b) A cuboid has a total surface area of 150cm2 and is such that its base s a square
of side x cm.
2
75−x
(i) Show that the height h, of the cuboid is h = .
2x
(ii) Express the volume, v, of cuboid in terms of x.
(iii) Given that that x can varies, find the value of x for which v has a
stationary value. Find this value of v and determine whether it is a
maximum or minimum.

Solutions
3
x
(a) Y = 8x-2 + ,
6
2
3x
Y’ = -16x-3 + ,
6
−16 x2
= 3 + ,
x 2
dy
The stationary value is found at =0
dx
−16 x2
3 + =0
x 2

103 | P a g e
 -32 + x5 = 0
X5 = 32
X =2
Therefore the stationary value is found by substituting the value of x when
dy
=0, into the original function , x= 2
dx
3
x
Y = 8x-2 + ,
6
3
2
= 8 (2-2) + ,
6
= 2 + 8/6
1
= 3 is the stationary value
3
To determine whether it is maximum or minimum we use the second
derivative test

If < 0 maximum value

If > 0 minimum value

2
3x
Since y’ = -16x-3 + ,
6
y’’ = -48x-4 + x
At x = 2
y’’(2) = -48(2)-4 + 4
= -3 + 4 = 1 > 0
Therefore the stationary value is minimum.
(b) Try to work out this one.

3.2.3 Differentiating of Exponential functions

Exponential functions occur in various forms. Y = ax where a is a real number and x is a
variable is one such example. However, if y = ex where e is a natural number is one such
a function that the syllabus focuses on.
In general
dy
If y = eu where u is a function of x then =u ' e u ……………………………chain rule
dx
Example
Differentiate the following wrt x
(a) Y = e2x
(b) Y = 4e5x + 7
(c) Y = (3x2 + 4x +2)e3x

SOLUTION
Apply the chain rule stated above

104 | P a g e
3.2.4 Differentiate trigonometric functions
In general if x is angle in radians it is possible to find the derivative of the basic six
trigonometric functions. In general if u is function of x
1. y = Sin u …………………………………y’ = u Cos u
2. y = Cos u………………………………….y’ = -u Sin u
3. y = tan u ………………………………....y’’ = u Sec2 u……….try to derive this using
quotient rule

EXAMPLE
Differentiate wrt x each of the following
(a) y = Sin3x2
(b) y = Cos√ 2 x +5
(c) y = tan e5x

INTEGRATION

Integration is the reverse of differentiation.

Since integration is the reverse process of differentiation, the standard integrals listed in table
1 may be deduced and readily checked by differentiation.

Table 1. STANDARD INTEGRALS

n+1
ax
(i) ∫ a x n dx= +c except wheren=−1
n+1

1
(ii) ∫ cosax dx= sin ax + c
a

−1
(iii) ∫ sinax dx= cos ax +c
a

1
(iv) ∫ se c ax dx=¿ tan ax +c ¿
2
a

−1
(v) ∫ cose c ax dx=
2
cot ax +c
a

105 | P a g e
 1 ax
(vi)∫ e dx= e +c
ax
a

1
(vii) ∫ dx=¿ x +c
x

QUESTIONS

1. Determine (a) ∫ 5 x dx (b) ∫ 2 t dx

2 3

SOLUTIONS
2+1 3+1
5x 2t
(a) ∫ 5 x dx=
2
+c (b) ∫ 2 t dx =
3
+c
2+1 3+ 1
3 4
5x 2t
= +c ans. ¿ +c ans .
3 4

3
2. Determine ( a )∫ 2
dx ( b )∫ 3 √ x dx
x

SOLUTIONS
1
1 +1
3 3x
−2 +1 3 x2
(a) ∫ 2 dx=∫ 3 x dx= (b) ∫ √ ∫ 2
−2
+c 3 x dx= 3 x dx= +c
x −2+1 1
+1
2
3
3x2
−1
¿−3 x +c= +c
3
2
3
−3 +c
¿ + c ans .=2 x 2
x
¿ 2 √ x 3 +c

3. Determine (a) ∫ 4 cos 3 x dx (b) ∫ 5 sin 2 θdθ

SOLUTIONS

106 | P a g e
(a) ∫ 4 cos 3 x dx=( 4 ) ( 13 ) sin 3 x+ c (b) ∫ 5 sin 2 θdθ = 5 ( −12 ) cos 2 θ+ c
4 −5
¿ sin 3 x+ c= cos 2 θ+c
3 2

4. Determine (a) ∫ 7 se c 4 t dt ∫ 3 cose c 2 2 x dx

2
(b)

SOLUTIONS

(a) ∫ 7 se c 4 t dt=( 7 )
2
( 14 ) tan 4 t+ c (b) ∫ 3 cose c 2 x dx=( 3 )
2
( −12 ) cot 2 x+ c
7 −3
¿ tan 4 t+ c= cot 2 x+ c
4 2

2
5. Determine (a) ∫ 5 e dx (b) ∫
3x
4t
dt
3e

SOLUTIONS

(a) ∫ 5 e dx =5
3x
( 13 ) e 3x
+c (b) ∫
2
3e
4t
2
dt=∫ e−4 t dt=
3 3 4 ( )( )
2 −1 −4 t
e +c

5 3x −1 − 4 t
¿ e +c= e +c
3 6

1
¿− 4t
+c
6e

3
6. Determine ∫ 5 x dx
SOLUTION

∫ 53x dx=∫ ( 35 )( 1x )dx

3
= Inx +c ans.
5

107 | P a g e
APPLICATION OF INTEGRATION

dy
7. Find y given that =2 x −3∧that y=−4 when x=1.
dx

SOLUTION

dy
=2 x−3 ,then y=∫ ( 2 x−3 ) dx=x −3 x+ c
2
If
dx
when x=1 , y=1−3+ c=−4 so c=−2
2
Hence y=x −3 x−2

8. The gradient of the tangent at a point on a curve is given by x 2+ x−2. Find the equation of the
curve if it passes through (2, 1).

SOLUTION
dy 2
Gradient ¿ =x + x−2
dx
3 2
x x
Then y=∫ (¿ x 2+ x −2)dx= + −2 x +c ¿
3 2
8 4
when x=2 , y= + −4+ c=1
3 2
1
Hence c= .
3
3 2
x x 1 3 2
The equation of the curve is y = + −2 x + ∨6 y=2 x +3 x −12+ 2.
3 2 3

108 | P a g e
13. STATISTICS
13.1 Definition of Statistics
o This is the branch of Mathematics which deals with the collection, tabulation, analysis
and presentation of data.
13.2 Measures of Central Tendency
A measure of central tendency is a representative measure for a set of data. The general term for
this measure is the average. There are three types of averages, namely; mean, mode and
median.

UNGROUPED DATA

Mean: To find the mean of a set of ungrouped data, we add up all the data and divide by the total
number of units.

Mode: This is the measure with the highest frequency.

109 | P a g e
Median: This is the middle measure in an ordered set of data. It is found by arranging the data in
either descending or ascending order.

Examples

1. Find the mean, mode and median of the following scores; 8, 8, 9, 10, 7, 6, 1

Solution
8+8+ 9+10+7+6+ 1 49
Mean = = =7
7 7

Mode = 8, because it is the most frequent number

Median
Arranging the data in ascending order, we have 1, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9, 10
8 is in the middle of the ordered data
Therefore, Median = 8

2. Find the mode of the following figures;

4657426
3165342
7745387
6364737
3727782
Solution

Due to large amount of data, use the frequency table to find the mode.

Thus:

Mark 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Frequency 1 4 6 5 3 5 9 2

Therefore, mode = 7; since 7 has the highest frequency

3. Find the median of the following numbers;

(a) 4, 5, 7, 4, 3, 2, 6
Arranging the data in ascending order, we have 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7
4 is in the middle of the ordered data

110 | P a g e
 Therefore, Median = 4

(b) 2, 5, 1, 3, 6, 6, 5, 4
The data arranged in ascending order, is
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 6
middle
The median is the mean of 4 and 5.
4+ 5
Hence, Median = = 4.5
2

GROUP DATA

This is the data which is grouped in class intervals because it is widely spread.
Examples

1. Use grouped data, in class intervals of 3 to find; (a) the mean (b) the modal class (c) the
median class from the following marks obtained by 30 pupils in a mathematics test.
34, 23, 34, 28, 25, 28
11, 40, 22, 40, 46, 25
25, 23, 15, 28, 21, 40
28, 32, 15, 46, 40, 15
28, 32, 12, 32, 28, 12

Marks (Score) Mid-point (x) Frequency (f) fx

11 – 13 12 3 36
14 – 16 15 3 45
17 – 19 18 0 0
20 – 22 21 2 42
23 – 25 24 5 120
26 – 28 27 6 162
29 – 31 30 0 0
32 – 34 33 5 165
35 – 37 34 0 0
38 – 40 39 4 156
41 – 43 42 0 0
111 | P a g e
 44 – 46 45 2 90
∑ f = 30 ∑ fx = 852

(a) Mean =
∑ fx = 852 = 28.4
∑ f 30
(b) Modal Class = 26 – 28

(c) Median Class =

∑f =
30
= 15. So add the frequency from the top and bottom to give
2 2
you a 15. Therefore where both give you 15 from either side is where the median class
lies. In this case, Median class = 26 – 28

2. The heights, in centimetres, of iron bars in a factory are given in the frequency table
below:
Height 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59
Frequency 1 5 4 4 6 9 10 6

Find
(a) The Mean height of iron bars
(b) The Modal class
(c) The Median class

Solution

Height Frequency (f) Mid-value (x) fx

20 – 24 1 22 22
25 – 29 5 27 135
30 – 34 4 32 128
35 – 39 4 37 148
40 – 44 6 42 252
45 – 49 9 47 423
50 – 54 10 52 520
55 – 59 6 57 342
∑ f = 45 ∑ fx = 1970

112 | P a g e
 (a) Mean =
∑ fx = 1970 = 43.8
∑ f 45
(b) Modal class = 50 – 54

(c) The Median class =

∑f =
45
= 22.5; So the Median class is 45 – 49
2 2

The Range

o The range is the difference between the highest and the lowest measure.
Example

1. Find the range for the heights of the Grade 12 pupils given below;
153.2cm, 155.6cm, 162.5cm, 170cm, 147.9cm, 156cm, 160cm.
Solution; Range = highest measure – lowest measure
= (170 – 147.9) cm = 22.1cm

The Median and Quartiles

o The median is half-way up the distribution (Q₂)

o Quartiles divide measures into 4 equal parts
1
(i) Lower quartile ¿ ¿) = (of the distribution)
4
1
(ii) Second quartile or Median (Q₂) = (of the distribution)
2
3
(iii) Upper quartile ¿ ¿) = (of the distribution)
4
Q
(iv)Inter-quartile range = ¿ ¿ 1)
(Q ¿ ¿ 3−Q1)
(v) Semi-Interquartile range = ¿
2
Example

1. Find the lower quartile, the median, the upper quartile and the semi-interquartile range in
each of the following sets of data.
153.2cm, 155.6cm, 162.5cm, 170cm, 147.9cm, 156cm, 160cm
Solution
Arrange the data in ascending order;
147.9, 153.2, 155.6, 156, 160, 162.5, 170

113 | P a g e
 ¿ ¿) (Q₂) ¿ ¿)

Therefore Q1 = 153.2, Q₂ =156, Q3 =162.5

(Q ¿ ¿ 3−Q1) 9.3
Semi-interquartile range = ¿= = 4.65
2 2

EXERCISE

1. Find the range for each of the following sets of data;

0.66, 0.98, 0.54, 0.32, 0.12

2. Find the lower quartile, the median, the upper quartile and the semi-interquartile range in
each of the following sets of data.
5.2, 6.8, 15.3, 24.5, 10.8, 3.1, 5.3, 2.2, 18.9

The Relative Cumulative Frequency Table

The Table below shows a frequency table of the marks obtained by 120 pupils in a Mathematics
Test.

Marks 0 -4 5–9 10 – 14 15 – 19 20 – 24 25 – 29 30 – 34 35 – 39 40 – 44 45 – 49
Frequency 0 4 6 10 14 24 28 19 9 6

i. Construct the relative cumulative frequency curve for the above mentioned data.
ii. From the curve, estimate the 74th percentile.

Classinterval cumulative frequency

a) Relative cumulative frequency =
Total frequency

Mark Frequency Cumulative Relative Cumulative

Frequency Frequency
0–4 0 0 0
=0
120

5–9 4 4 4
=0.03
120

114 | P a g e
 10 – 14 6 10 10
=0.08
120

15 – 19 10 20 20
=0.17
120

20 – 24 14 34 34
=0.28
120

25 – 29 24 58 58
=0.48
120

30 – 34 28 86 86
=0.72
120

35 – 39 19 105 105
=0.88
120
40 – 44 9 114 114
=0.95
120
45 – 49 6 120 120
=1.00
120

1.00

0.9
Frequency

0.8
74th Percent
0.7

0.6

0.5
115 | P a g e
0.4

0.3
The Cumulative Frequency Curve
A cumulative frequency curve, also called the Orgive curve can be used to find the mean,
quartiles (lower, upper, interquartile, semi-interquartile) of a given distribution. To find the
cumulative frequency, find the accumulated totals and plot them against the data or score values.
The cumulative frequency is formed by joining the points with a smooth curve.

Example
Answer the whole of this question on a sheet of graph paper.
The waiting time for 55 passengers at the power tools bus station in Kitwe for them to board a
Lusaka bound bus on a particular day were as follows:-

Waiting time
1≤ x ≤ 3 4 ≤ x ≤6 7≤ x ≤ 9 10≤ x ≤ 12 13 ≤ x ≤ 15
(in minutes)
Number of
6 11 20 13 5
Passengers

a) Calculate the estimate of the mean waiting time.

b) Copy and complete the cumulative frequency table below.

116 | P a g e
Waiting time
≤3 ≤6 ≤9 ≤ 12 ≤ 15
(in minutes)
Number of
6 17 55
Passengers

c) Using a horizontal scale of 2cm to represent 2 minutes for times from 0 to 15 minutes and a
vertical scale of 2cm to represent 10 passengers.
Draw a smooth cumulative frequency curve.

d) Showing your method clearly, use your graph to estimate the

i. Median
ii. Lower quartile
iii. Upper quartile
iv. Interquartile range
v. Semi-interquartile range
vi. 60th percentile

e) Find the number of passengers who waited for more than 6 minutes.
(i) If a passenger was chosen at random, find the probability that he waited for less than
9 minutes.
(ii) If two passengers were chosen at random. Find the probability that they both waited
for more than 12 minutes.

Solution

(a) Mean = x =
∑ fx = ( 2× 6 ) +( 5 ×11 )+ ( 8 ×20 ) +( 11× 12 )+(14 × 5) = 12+ 55+160+132+70
∑f 55 55
429
= = 7.8
55
(b)

Waiting time (mm) ≤3 ≤6 ≤9 ≤ 12 ≤ 15

Frequency 16 17 37 50 55
(c) Curve ( See g )

(d)
1
(i) Median(Q2) = (of distribution)
2
1
Q2 = × 55 = 27.5
2
Q2 = 7.8 Minutes

1
(ii) Lower Quartile(Q1) = (of distribution)
4

117 | P a g e
 1
Q1 = × 55 =13.75
4
Q1 = 5.2 Minutes

3
(iii) Upper Quartile(Q3) = (of distribution)
4
3
Q3 = × 55 = 41.55
4
Q3 = 9.7 Minutes

(iv) Inter-quartile Range

= (Q3 −¿ Q1) = 9.7 – 5.2 = 4.5 Minutes

(v) Semi-interquartile Range

(Q ¿ ¿ 3−Q1) 4.5
= ¿= = 2.25 Minutes
2 2

(vi) 60th percentile

60
= ×55 = 33
100
= 8.45 Minutes

(e) 55 – 17 = 38pupils
38
P (≥ 6 Minutes) =
55

(f)
37
(i) P (¿ 9 Minutes) =
55

(ii) P (¿ 12Minutes and ¿ 12 Minutes)

5 4 2
= × =
55 55 297

(g) Number of Passengers

118 | P a g e
60

50
Variance and Standard deviation

o The variance and standard deviation are the most commonly used measures of dispersion.
Ungrouped Data

The formulas used to calculate the variance and standard deviation are as follows;
The Variance

o Variance measures the distance or spread of data about the mean.

Variance = ∑ ¿¿ ¿
Example:

119 | P a g e
 1. Find the variance of the following data; 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Solution

Mean = x =
∑ x = 2+ 3+4 +5+6 = 20 = 4
N 5 5

( 2−4 ) ²+ ( 3−4 ) ²+ ( 4−4 ) ²+ (5−4 ) ²+(6−4)² 10

Variance = = =2
5 5
Standard Deviation

o The square root of the variance is called the standard deviation.

Standard deviation = √ variance
Example:

1. The following set of scores were recorded; 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 and 100. Find

(a) The Mean

Mean = x =
∑ x = 520 = 65
N 8

(b) The Variance

Solution

Deviation from the Mean

Score (x) (x−x ) ¿
30 −¿35 1225
40 −¿25 625
50 −¿15 225
60 −¿5 25
70 5 25
80 15 225
90 25 625

120 | P a g e
 100 35 1225
∑ x = 520 ∑ x = 4200

4200
Variance = ∑ ¿¿ ¿ = = 525
8

(c) Standard deviation =√ variance = √∑ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ = √ 525 = 22.91

EXERCISE

1. Calculate the standard deviation for the following data; 10, 5, 25, 32, 8

Grouped Data

o The formula used to calculate the mean, variance and standard deviation of grouped data
is ;

Mean = x =
∑ xf
∑f
Variance = ∑ f ¿ ¿ ¿

Standard deviation = √ variance =√ ∑ f ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿, where N = ∑ f and x =

∑ xf
∑f

Example

1. The table below shows marks obtained by pupils in a Mathematics examination.

Marks Frequency
10 – 20 3
21 – 30 7
31 – 40 15
41 – 50 9
51 – 60 5
61 – 70 4
71 – 80 3

121 | P a g e
 81 – 90 2

From the table (above) of marks obtained by pupils in a Mathematics examination,

calculate;

(a) The Mean

(b) The Variance

(c) The standard deviation

Solution

Construct the table as shown below;

Mid-point
(x) f xf (x−x ) ¿ f¿
15 3 45 −¿29.27 856.73 2570.19
26 7 182 −¿18.27 333.79 2336.53
36 15 540 −¿8.27 68.39 1025.85
46 9 414 1.73 2.99 26.91
56 5 280 11.73 139.59 687.95
66 4 264 21.73 472.19 1888.76
76 3 228 31.73 1006.79 3020.37
86 2 172 41.73 1741.39 3482.78
∑ f =4 ∑ xf =212 ∑ f ¿ ¿=15039.34
8 5

(a) Mean = x =
∑ xf =
2125
= 44.27
∑f 48

15039.34
(b) Variance = ∑ f ¿ ¿ ¿ = = 313.32
48

(c) Standard deviation = √ variance =√ ∑ f ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ = √ 313.32 = 17.70

EXERCISE

1. The following data shows the number of packets of washing powder purchased by 100
housewives during one month.
Number of Packets Number of housewives
Purchased
1–3 35
4–6 24
122 | P a g e
 7–9 10
10 – 12 13
13 – 15 8
16 – 18 6
19 – 21 3
22 – 24 1
Find;
(a) The Mean
(b) The Variance
(c) The Standard deviation
2. (a) The number of people living in six houses is 3, 8, 4, x, y and z, if
The median is 7.5.
The mode is 8.
The mean is 7.
Find the value of x, y and z.
(b) Calculate the standard deviation

(c) The grouped frequency table below shows the amount (KA) spent on travel by a
number of students.

(i) Write down an estimate for the total amount in terms of m and n.
(ii) The calculated estimate of the mean amount is K13 exactly. Write down an equation
containing m and n, and show that it simplifies to 2m + 17n = 120.

(iii) A student drew a histogram to represent this data. The area of the rectangle
representing the 0< A ≤ 10 group was equal to the sum of the areas of the other two
rectangles. Write an equations in m and n for this relationship

(iv) Find the values of m and n by solving the simultaneous equations

2m + 17n = 120,
m + n = 15.
123 | P a g e
4. Answer the whole of this question on a sheet of graph paper.
In a survey, 200 shoppers were asked how much they had just spent in a supermarket. The
results are shown in the table.

(a) (i) Write down the modal class.

(ii) Calculate an estimate of the mean amount, giving your answer correct to 2 decimal
places.
(b) (i) Make a cumulative frequency table for these 200 shoppers.
(ii) Using a scale of 2 cm to represent K20 on the horizontal axis and 2 cm to
represent 20 shoppers on the vertical axis, draw a cumulative frequency diagram
for this data.
(c) Use your cumulative frequency diagram to find
(i) The median amount,
(ii) The upper quartile,
(iii) the inter-quartile range,
(iv) How many shoppers spent at least K75?

4. A group of children were asked how much money they had saved. The histogram and table
show the results.

124 | P a g e
 Use the histogram to calculate the values of p, q and r.
5. Answer the whole of this question on a sheet of graph paper.
120 passengers on an aircraft had their baggage weighed. The results are shown in the
table.

(a) (i) Write down the modal class.

(ii) Calculate an estimate of the mean mass of baggage for the 120 passengers.
Show all your working.
(iii) Sophia draws a pie chart to show the data. What angle should she have in the
0< M ≤ 10 sector?
(b) Calculate the Standard deviation for the data in the table above.

ANSWERS FOR SELECTED QUESTIONS

2. (a) For median to be 7.5, the numbers must be arranged such as 3 , 4 , x , 8 , y ∧z

x+ 8
∴ 7.5=
2

125 | P a g e
 x=15−8

x=7

If the mode is 8, y can be 8 as well

The mean is given as 7

⟹ 3+4 +7+ 8+8+ z=6 × 7

z=42−30

x=7 , y=8 and z=12

(b) SD =
√ ∑ x 2 −x 2
n

Where ∑ x 2=3 2+ 4 2+7 2+ 82+ 82 +122

¿ 9+16 +49+64 +64+ 144

∑ x 2=346

SD=
√ 346
6
−49

SD=2.94

(i) 15 ( 5 ) +15 m+30 n

KA =75+15 m+ 30 n
75+15 m+ 30 n
(ii) =13
15+ m+ n
2 m+ 17 n=120 QED
(iii) m+n=15
3. (a)

(i) Modal Class is 60< x ≤ 80

126 | P a g e
 10 ( 10 ) +32 ( 30 ) +48 ( 50 ) +54 (70 )+ 36 ( 90 ) +20 ( 120 )
(ii) mean=
200

12880
x= =K 64.80
200

(b) (i)

Amount (KA) ≤ 20 ≤ 40 ≤ 60 ≤ 80 ≤ 100 ≤ 140

Number of shoppers 10 42 90 144 180 200

(c) (i) Median K 63−K 64

(ii) Q3=K 82 – K 84
(iii) Q3−Q1 =K 38−K 41
(iv) Using $ 75 reading on Cum . Freq. Graph – 67∨68∨69∨70
¿ 71∨72

THE END

127 | P a g e