BIOLOGY

3RD QUARTER – SCIENCE

M AL E REPRODUCT IVE SY ST EM
o An essential function of all living things is reproduction, the
process by which life continues from one generation to the next.
o From 300 million to 400 million sperm in each ejaculation, only
one can fertilize an ovum.
o The reproductive system is a system of organs involved in
producing offspring.
F UNCT IONS OF T HE M AL E REPRODUCT IVE SYST EM
1. Production and storage of sperm
2. Transfer of sperm to the female’s body during sexual intercourse
o Testosterone : initiates physical changes that signal maturity,
including broadening of the shoulders, development of muscles
and facial and other body hair, and deepening of the voice
- the male sex hormone
M AL E REPRODUCT IVE ORGANS – EXT ER NAL
Testes -
stores the semen before ejaculation
-
two small glands that produce sperm
Penis -
releases semen F EM AL E REPRODUCT IVE SY ST EM
-
a tube-shaped organ that extends from the trunk
of the body just above the testes o The female reproductive system matures at puberty and enables
women to reproduce.
Scrotum - protects sperm by keeping the testes slightly
o The organs of the female reproductive system enable pregnancy
below the normal body temperature
to occur with the first monthly ovulation.
- an external skin sac that extends outside the
o The female reproductive system has several functions, including
body and contains the testes
producing female sex hormones and storing the eggs.
o Spermatogenesis : the production of sperm
o A female at birth has more than 400,000 immature ova in her
o Sperm : the male reproductive cells; a thick fluid containing
ovaries.
sperm and other secretions from the male reproductive system
F EM AL E REPRODUCT IVE ORGANS
M AL E REPRODUCT IVE ORGANS – INT ERNAL
Vas Deferens Ovaries - the female sex glands that store the
ova, or eggs, and produce female sex
Urethra hormones
Seminal Vesicles - located on each side of the uterus
- contain ova and produce hormones
Prostate Gland Uterus - hollow, muscular, pear-shaped organ
that nourishes and protects a fertilized
Cowper’s Glands ovum until birth
- protects and nourishes a developing
fetus
SEXUAL L Y T RANSM IT T ED DISEASE S
Fallopian Tubes - pair of tubes with fingerlike projections
Chlamydia and - bacterial infections that cause discharge that draw in the ovum
Gonorrhea from the penis and burning upon Cervix - the opening of the uterus
urination Vagina - passageway from the uterus to the
- both conditions can damage outside of the body
reproductive health - muscular, elastic passageway that
Syphilis - another bacterial infection that if left extends from the uterus to the outside of
untreated, syphilis can spread and the body
damage internal organs Endometrium - the tissue that lines the uterus
Genital Herpes - a virus that causes periodically o Ovulation : process of releasing a mature ovum into the fallopian
occurring blister-like sores in the genital tube each month
area - controlled by the release of luteinizing hormone by the pituitary
gland
C ON D IT ION S R EQU IR IN G PR OFESSION A L H EA LT H SER VIC ES o Zygote : result of fertilization of an egg by a sperm
o Menstruation : shedding of the uterine lining
Inguinal Hernia - a separation of tissue that allows part
of the intestine to push into the
abdominal wall near the top of the
scrotum
- symptoms may include a lump in the
groin near the thigh, pain in the groin,
or in severe cases, partial or complete
blockage of the intestine
Sterility - can result from too few sperm—fewer
than 20 million per milliliter of seminal
fluid—or sperm of poor quality
- causes of sterility include
Environmental Hazards, Hormonal
Imbalance, certain medications and
use of drugs, some diseases–
including STDs
- the inability to reproduce
Testicular Cancer - can affect males of any age but
occurs most often in males between
the ages of 14 and 40
- with early detection most testicular
cancer is treatable through surgery, F EM AL E REPRODUCT IVE SY ST EM PROBL EM S
radiation therapy, or chemotherapy
Menstrual - cramps that occur at the beginning of a
Prostate Problems - can affect males of any age but
Cramps menstrual period
occurs most often in males between
the ages of 14 and 40 Premenstrual - disorder caused by hormonal changes
- with early detection most testicular Syndrome
cancer is treatable through surgery, Toxic Shock - rare but serious bacterial infection that
radiation therapy, or chemotherapy Syndrome affects the immune system and the liver
 Prolactin - hormone that tells the body to make
INF ERT IL IT Y AND OT HER DISORDERS breast milk when a person is pregnant
or breast-feeding
Endometriosis - uterine tissue grows outside the uterus Progesterone - helps to regulate your cycle
STDs - diseases spread through sexual contact - its main job is to get your uterus ready
Vaginitis - infection that causes discharge, odor, for pregnancy
pain, itching, or burning Follicle- - helps women release their eggs and
Ovarian Cysts - fluid-filled sacs on the ovary stimulating men to make sperm
Cancer - cancer of the cervix, uterus, or ovaries Hormone (FSH) - both men and women make this
hormone
T HE F EM AL E REPRODUCT IVE SY ST EM – F UNCT IONS - not having enough of FSH can make it
1. Produce sex hormones harder to get pregnant
2. Estrogen, Progesterone Oxytocin - sometimes known as the "cuddle
3. Produce egg (ova) hormone" or the "love hormone"
4. Support & protect developing embryo - released when people snuggle up or
5. Give birth to new baby bond socially also acts on organs in the
T HE F EM AL E REPRODUCT IVE SY ST EM – ST RUCT URE body (including the breast and uterus)
- a chemical messenger in the brain,
controlling key aspects of the
reproductive system, including childbirth
and lactation, and aspects of human
behavior

PAT H OF AN EGG IN T HE OVARIAN CYCL E

Ovaries release the eggs cylically from the graafian follicle → The
fertilized egg is transported to the uterus where it develops into an
embryo → At the end of gestation, the infant is born through the
vagina or surgically through the abdomen in a Cesarean delivery

DIAGNOST IC, PROCEDURAL , AND L ABORAT ORY T ERM S

o Gynecologists : physicians who diagnose and treat disorders of
the female reproductive system
o Obstetrician : diagnoses and treats both normal and abnormal
pregnancies and childbirth
EXAM INAT ION OF T HE VAGINA AND CERVIX
F EM AL E REPRODUCT IVE ORGANS
Papanicolau Smear - gathers cells from the cervix to
Female Breast - also called mammary glands detect cervical and vaginal cancer
- an accessory organ of the female - speculum is used
reproductive system Colposcopy - a lighted instrument used to examine
- provides milk to nurse the infant the cervix and vagina
(lactation) after birth Hysteroscopy - use of a lighted instrument to examine
- consists of mammary glands and the interior of the uterus
ducts
Culdoscopy - use of an endoscope to examine the
- Areola : the dark-pigmented area
contents of the pelvic cavity
surrounding the nipple
Ovaries - two small solid oval structures o Mammography : X-ray of the breast, used to screen for breast
- located in the pelvic cavity cancer
- produce ova and secrete female - recommended age differs based on family history, physical
hormones condition and the recommending body (AMA, ACS, and NIH)
- most female ovaries contain between o Pregnancy Test : a blood or urine test to detect human chorionic
200,000 to 400,000 immature ova gonadotropin (HCG)
(oocytes) in each ovary at birth - can be detected by palpation of the uterus during an internal
Uterus - about 3 inches long examination by the gynecologist or obstetrician
- pear-shaped muscular organ in the o Fertility Test (Hysterosalpingography) : an examination of the
female reproductive tract uterus and uterine tubes following the injection of a contrast
- expands considerably during the medium
reproductive process M ENST RUAL ABNORM AL IT IES
- grows to from 10 to 20 times its normal
Amenorrhea absence of menstruation
size during pregnancy
- 3 parts – Fundus (upper), Body Menorrhagia excessive menstrual bleeding
(middle), Cervix (lower) Menometrorrhagia irregular and excessive bleeding during or
- 3 layers – Perimetrium (outer), between periods
Myometrium (middle), Endometrium Metrorrhagia bleeding between periods
(inner) Oligomenorrhea scanty menstrual flow
o Ovum : fertilized or not, will end up in the uterus Dysmenorrhea painful cramping during menstruation
o Fundus : upper portion of the uterus where pregnancy o Menarche : occurrence of first menstruation
occurs o Climacteric : period leading up to menopause
o Cervix : lower portion of the uterus that connects with the o Menopause : signals the end of child-bearing years
vagina and serves as a sphincter to keep the uterus closed T HE NERVOUS S YST EM
during pregnancy until it is time to deliver a baby
o Nervous System : the highly complex part of an animal that
Fallopian Tubes - stretch from the uterus to the ovaries coordinates its actions and sensory information by transmitting
and measures about 8 to 13 cm in signals to and from different parts of its body
length - consists of two divisions – Central Nervous System, containing
- the ends of the fallopian tubes lying next the brain and the spinal cord, and the Peripheral Nervous
to the ovaries feather into ends called System, which is a network of nerves and neural tissues
fimbria branching out throughout the body
- millions of tiny hair-like cilia line the
fimbria and interior of the fallopian tubes T YPES OF NEURONS
o Fertilization : typically occurs in the fallopian tube o Neurons : the nerve cells, the structural and functional units of
- happens when the sperm and egg unite the nervous system
HORM ONES - conduct impulses that enable the body to interact with its internal
and external environments
Estrogen - important for sexual and reproductive o Neuroglia : tissues that support the nerve cells
development, mainly in women • Motor Neurons - usually have one axon and
- also referred to as female sex hormones several dendrites
Human Chorionic - a hormone produced by the placenta - cause muscle contractions and
Gonadotropin after implantation control secretions from glands
(HCG)
 and organs, controlling body - controls hormonal secretion of the
functions pituitary gland
- Axon : covered with an insulating Brainstem - consists of 3 structures – Gray Matter,
fatty layer called Myelin Sheath, White Matter, and Medulla Oblongata
and transmits signals a long o Gray Matter : control visual reflexes
distance from the neuron to the and sense of hearing
area to be activated o White Matter : plays a role in
• Sensory Neurons - do not have true dendrites regulating visceral (internal organ)
- attached to sensory receptors and control
transmit impulses to the central o Medulla Oblongata : connects the
nervous system, which then rest of the brain to the spinal cord
stimulate the interneurons, and - regulates breathing, swallowing,
then motor neurons coughing, sneezing, vomiting,
• Interneurons - located entirely within the central heartbeat, and blood pressure
nervous system Spinal Cord - has 31 segments – Cervical,
- intercept the impulses from the Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral, Coccygeal
sensory neurons and transmit the o Cervical : C1-C8
signals to the motor neurons o Thoracic : T1-T12
o Lumbar : L1-L5
NERVE F IBERS o Sacral : S1-S5
Schwann Cells - only found on peripheral nerves which can o Coccygeal : 1 segment
regenerate - The 44 cm long spinal cord is shorter
than the spinal column, so segments
Myelin Sheath - a fatty layer of insulation on some nerve
fibers do not perfectly correspond to the
vertebrae.
Axon - transmit the message
- At each segment of the spinal cord,
Afferent Nerve - conduct impulses to the central nervous
left and right pairs of sensory and
system
motor nerves branch out and connect
Efferent Nerve - conduct impulses to the muscles, organs, to the peripheral nervous system.
and glands
Cerebrospinal - colorless fluid is produced in the
o Synapses : transmits nerve impulses Fluid ventricles of the brain
- hooks dendrites from one neuron to another - surrounds the brain and spinal cord
- number of synapses influences transmission - cushions the brain and cord from
shocks that could cause injury
GRAY AND WHIT E M AT T ER – CNS - maintained at a level around 1/2 - 2/3
o The brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system receive cup
impulses, process the information, and respond with the
appropriate action. 4 L OBES OF T HE CEREBRUM
o Gray matter of the brain and spinal cord consists of Frontal Lobe - specializes in motor activity, personality,
unsheathed nerve fibers (cannot be regenerated if damaged) in and speech
the cortex or surface layer. Parietal Lobe - where language, temperature, pressure,
o The white matter makes up the internal structure, and consists touch are interpreted
of myelinated nerve fibers. Temporal Lobe - contains centers for hearing, smell, and
M ENINGES language input
Occipital Lobe - specializes in vision
o The brain and spinal cord are enclosed by 3 membranes,
collectively known as the meninges. PERIPHE RAL NERVOUS SYST EM
Dura Mater - outside membrane
Arachnoid - middle membrane o Peripheral Nervous System : network of nerves branching out
Pia Mater - inner membrane throughout the body from the brain and spinal cord
12 PAIRS OF CRANIAL NERVES
Olfactory Nerve - carries sensory input for smell
Optic Nerve - carries sensory input for vision
Oculomotor Nerve - controls muscles of the eye and eyelid
Trochlear Nerve - controls the eyeball
Trigeminal Nerve - controls the face, nose, mouth,
forehead, top of head, and jaw
Abducens Nerve - also controls the eyeball
Facial Nerve - controls muscles of the face and
scalp, and part of the tongue for
sense of taste
PART S OF T HE BRAIN Auditory/Cochlear - provides sensory input for hearing and
Nerve equilibrium
Cerebrum - takes up 7/8 of the brain’s weight
- governs all sensory and motor activity Glossopharyngeal - controls saliva, swallowing, and taste.
- includes sensory perception, Nerve
emotions, consciousness memory, Vagus Nerve - the longest cranial nerve, extending to
and voluntary movements and controlling the heart, lungs,
- divided into left and right hemispheres stomach, and intestines
- Gyrus : folds of the surface or cortex Accessory Nerve - permits movement of the head and
- Sulcus : furrows of the surface or shoulders
cortex Hypoglassal Nerve - controls the muscles of the tongue
Cerebellum - second largest part of the brain
- contains nerve fibers that connect it to AUT ONOM IC NERVOUS SYST EM
every part of the central nervous o Sympathetic Nervous System : responsible for the ‘flight or
system fight’ response
- coordinates voluntary and involuntary - increased alertness, metabolic rate, respiration, blood pressure,
- patterns of movements heart rate, and sweating and a decrease in digestive and urinary
- also adjusts muscles to automatically function
maintain posture o Parasympathetic Nervous System : counteracts the responses
Diencephalon - refers to the Thalamus and of the sympathetic system restoring homeostasis
Hypothalamus DISORDERS OF T HE NERVOU S SY ST EM
o Thalamus : the relay center for all
Meningitis - inflammation/swelling of the protective
sensory impulses except olfactory
membranes covering the brain & spinal
(sense of smell) and motor areas of
the cortex cord
- bacterial or viral infection of the fluid
o Hypothalamus : regulates behavior
surrounding the brain and spinal cord
and emotional expression, body
usually causes the swelling
temperature and many metabolic
activities
 - injuries, cancer, certain drugs, and other o Hypersecretion of T3 and T4 –
types of infections can cause meningitis Grave’s disease, goiter, Basedow’s
Hydrocephalus - a condition in which an accumulation of disease
cerebrospinal fluid occurs within the brain
- causes increased pressure in the skull SECRET IONS – PARAT HYROID GL AND
- the two pairs of parathyroid glands are located on the dorsal or
T HE ENDOCRINE SY ST EM back side of the thyroid gland
o Endocrine System : made up of glands and the hormones they - they secrete Parathyroid (PTH) which plays a role in the
secrete metabolism of phosphorus
- primary hormone producers - too little results in cramping
o Function : the production and regulation of chemical substances - too much results in osteoporosis or kidney stones
called hormones ISL ET S OF L ANGERHANS
HORM ONES
o Islets of Langerhans : small clusters of cells located in the
o Hormone : a chemical transmitter released in small amounts pancreas
from glands, and is transported in the bloodstream to target
organs or other cells
- chemical messengers, transferring information and instructions
from one set of cells to another
- regulate growth, development, mood, tissue function,
metabolism, and sexual function
o Hypothalamus : a collection of specialized cells located in the
brain, and is the primary link between the two systems
- produces chemicals that either stimulate or suppress hormone
secretions of the pituitary gland
SECRET IONS – ANT ERIOR PIT UIT ARY GL AND
Growth Hormone - essential for the growth and
development of bones, muscles, and
other organs SECRET IONS – ISL ET S OF L ANGERHANS
- enhances protein synthesis, Alpha Cells - facilitate the breakdown of glycogen to
decreases the use of glucose, and glucose
promotes fat destruction - elevates the blood sugar
Adrenocorticotropin - essential for the growth of the Beta Cells - secrete the hormone insulin, which is
adrenal cortex essential for the maintenance of normal blood
- helps regulate metabolism and helps sugar levels
your body respond to stress - inadequate levels result in diabetes mellitus
Thyroid-Stimulating - essential for the growth and Delta Cells - suppress the release of glucagon and insulin
Hormone development of the thyroid gland
Follicle-Stimulating - a gonadotropic hormone ADRENAL GL ANDS
Hormone - stimulates the growth ovarian follicles o Adrenal Glands : triangular-shaped which is located on the top
in the female and the production of of each kidney
sperm in the male - Medulla – inside, Cortex – outside
Luteneizing - a gonadotropic hormone stimulating
Hormone the development of corpus luteum in SECRET IONS – ADREN AL CORT EX
the female ovarian follicles and the Cortisol - regulates carbohydrate, protein, and fat
production of testosterone in the metabolism
male - has an anti-inflammatory effect
Prolactin - stimulates the development and - helps the body cope during times of stress
growth of the mammary glands and Corticosterone - like cortisol, it is a steroid
milk production during pregnancy - influences potassium and sodium
metabolism
Melanocyte- - regulates skin pigmentation and
Stimulating promotes the deposit of melanine in Aldosterone - essential in regulating electrolyte and water
Hormone the skin after exposure to sunlight balance by promoting sodium and chloride
retention and potassium excretion
Androgens - includes several hormones including
SECRET IONS – POST ERIOR PIT UIT ARY GL AND testosterone
Antidiuretic - stimulates the reabsorption of water by the - promote the development of secondary sex
Hormone renal tubules characteristics in the male
- hyposecretion can result to diabetes insipidus
Oxytocin - stimulates the uterus to contract during labor, SECRET IONS – ADREN AL M EDUL L A
delivery, and parturition Dopamine - used to treat shock
o Pitocin : synthetic version of this hormone - dilates the arteries, elevates systolic blood
which also stimulates the mammary glands to pressure, increases cardiac output, and
release milk increases urinary output
Epinephrine - also called adrenaline
SECRET IONS – PINEAL GL AND - elevates systolic blood pressure,
Melatonin - communicates information about environmental increases heart rate and cardiac output,
speeds up the release of glucose from the
lighting to various parts of the body
liver–giving a spurt of energy, dilates the
Serotonin - a neurotransmitter that regulates intestinal
bronchial tubes and relaxes airways, and
movements and affects appetite, mood, sleep,
dilates the pupils to see more clearly
anger, and metabolism
- often used to counteract an allergic
SECRET IONS – T HYROID GL AND reaction
Norepinephrine - released when the body is under stress
- plays a vital role in metabolism and regulates the body’s - creates the underlying influence in the
metabolic processes fight or flight response
Calcitonin - influences bone and calcium - triggers a drop in heart rate when used as
metabolism a drug
- maintains a homeostasis of calcium
in the blood plasma SECRET IONS – REP RODUCT IVE ORGAN
Thyroxine (T4) and - essential to BMR – basal metabolic
Ovaries – Estrogen - produce several estrogen hormones
Triodothyronine (T3) rate (the rate at which a person’s
and Progesterone and progesterone
body burns calories while at rest)
- prepare the uterus for pregnancy,
- influences physical/mental
promote the development of
development and growth
mammary glands, play a role in sex
o Hyposecretion of T3 and T4 –
drive, and develop secondary sex
cretinism, myxedema, Hashimoto’s
characteristics in the female
disease
 o Estrogen : essential for the growth, - a change in the frequency of a gene or allele in a population over
development, and maintenance of time
female sex organs CHARL ES DARWIN
Testes – - essential for normal growth and
o Charles Darwin : father of evolution
Testosterone development of the male sex organs
- proposed a mechanism for evolution–natural selection
- responsible for the erection of the
- Darwin went on a 5-year trip around the world on the ship,
penis
the HMS Beagle
- he made observations of organisms in South America and the
Galapagos Islands
Placenta – - the placenta serves as an endocrine
Chorionic gland
Gonadotropic DARWIN’S T HEORY OF NAT URAL SEL ECT ION
Hormone (CGH), o Natural Selection : organisms that are best adapted to an
Estrogen, environment survive and reproduce more than others
Progesterone 4 STEPS – THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION
Overproduction - each species produces more offspring
SECRET IONS – GAST ROINT EST INAL M UCOSA that can survive
Gastrin - secreted from the pyloric area of the stomach Variation - each individual has a unique combination
- stimulates the production of gastric acid for of inherited traits
digestion o Adaptation : an inherited trait that
Secretin - secreted from the mucosa of the duodenum and increases an organism’s chances of
jejenum survival
- stimulates pancreatic juice, bile, and intestinal Competition - individuals compete for resources
secretion - occurs through “Survival of the Fittest”
o Thymosin : secreted by the Thymus - the ability to survive long enough to
- necessary for the Thymus’ normal production of T cells for the reproduce
immune system Selection - individuals with the best traits /
NUCL EIC ACIDS adaptations will survive and have the
opportunity to pass on its traits to
o Nucleic Acids : biomolecules which are essential to all known offspring
forms of life, and only come in two - Natural selection acts on the phenotype
- composed of monomers called nucleotides (physical appearance), not the genotype
NUCL EOT IDES – COM PONENT S (genetic makeup)
o Ribose : an organic compound classified as a monosaccharide, o Descent with Modification : each living species has descended,
or simple sugar with changes, from other species over time
- the five carbons that form the majority of the structure give the o Common Descent : all living organisms are related to one
molecule a pentagon shape another
- In 1859, Charles Darwin changed the ancestral view when he
DEOXYRIBONUCL EIC ACID
published the Origin of the Species. He challenged the whole
o DNA : made up of chains of nucleotides organism theory, organisms were created just as you find them
- described as a double helix strand today, offered by Aristotle and offered a new one. Organisms my
- each nucleotide consists of a five-carbon sugar called be quite different than their ancestors due to Natural Selection.
deoxyribose and a sugar-phosphate backbone group, which
EVIDENC E F OR EVOL UT ION
make up the nitrogenous bases of DNA
o 4 Nitrogenous Bases : Adenine–Thymine, Cytosine–Guanine Fossil Record - a record of the history of life on Earth
o Archaeopteryx : missing link between
CAT EGORIES AND IM PORT ANCE OF DNA
reptiles and birds
Y-line DNA - only found in men as only men possess y-
Homologous - similar anatomy in different types of
chromosomes
Body Structures animals because of common ancestor
- used to test the y-chromosome present in a
group of men Vestigial Organs - “leftover” traces of evolution that serve
no purpose
Mitochondrial - passed from mothers to both gender of her
DNA children but only passed on by females Embryology - embryos of all vertebrates are very
- defines deep ancestry similar early on
Autosomal - the rest of the DNA provided by both Biochemical - DNA with more similar sequences
DNA parents on the 23 chromosomes, not just Evidence suggest species are more closely
two direct lines related
- provides a list of cousins from all your lines
PEOPL E WHO CONT RIBUT ED F OR T HE T HEORY
RIBONUCL EIC ACID Thomas Malthus - He predicted that the population
o RNA : has a complete oxygen and hydrogen atom attached in of humans will grow faster than
each carbon atom the amount of space and food that
- described as single strand they need to survive.
o 4 Nitrogenous Bases : Adenine–Uracil, Cytosine–Guanine - It was written in his essay on the
principle of population.
CAT EGORIES AND IM PORT ANCE OF RNA Jean-Baptiste Lamarck - He is known for his theory of the
Messenger - made up of nucleotides found in that inheritance of acquired traits.
RNA (mRNA) nucleus that come together to make a - He was the first to give an
complementary sequence to the DNA explanation on how organisms
blueprint change over time.
- as the main role in transcription, or the first Charles Darwin - Because of his voyages, he was
step in making a protein from a DNA able to provide pieces of evidence
Transfer RNA - highly folded structure that holds an amino to his theory of evolution, writing
(tRNA) acid on one end and has what is called an them in his book On The Origin of
anticodon on the other end Species by Means of Natural
- the tRNA anticodon is a complementary Selection (1859)
sequence of the mRNA codon Alfred Wallace - He proposed his own theory of
- has the important job of making sure the common descent based on
correct amino acids are put into the
Darwin's theory of evolution.
polypeptide chain in the correct order during
Georges Cuvier - He proposed the theory of
the process of translation
extinction based on fossils. He
Ribosomal - named for the organelle it makes up
also came up with the theory of
RNA (rRNA) - holds the single stranded mRNA in place so
catastrophism, which provides an
the tRNA can match up its anticodon with
explanation on the mass
the mRNA codon that codes for a specific
extinction of organisms in the
amino acid
past.
T HEORY OF EVOL UT ION Richard Owen - He coined the term homology,
defining it as "different animals
o Evolution : the process of change over time having the same organs but with
different forms and functions."