Organisation of the organism

P-1
Cell structure and organisation
 Cell Discovery

• First discovered by Robert Hook in 1665

• Observed cork
• Cork is obtained from bark of tree

Honeycomb
Compartments
cork
Cork under microscope
 Cell Theory
• The credit for cell theory goes to two scientists, a German Botanist M.J.Schleiden (1838) and a British Zoologist T.
Schwann (1839).
• They gave the concept "all living organisms are composed of cells" and products of cells.
• Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory but this theory did not explain how new cells were formed.
• Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained that cells divide and new cells are formed from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e
cellula) He modified the hypothesis of Schleiden and Schwann to give the cell theory a final shape.
Cell theory states that-
1. All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
2. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
3. All cells have similar fundamental structure and metabolic reactions. Genetic information is stored as DNA in the
chromosomes present in the nucleus.

Exception to cell theory: Viruses, viroids and prions

 Cell Structure and Function

Organelles
• Functionally and structurally distinct part of a cell
• Surrounded by membranes
• For compartmentalization
• So that reactions do not interfere with each other
• Each has separate, specific function

Ultrastructure of cells
• Not necessarily surrounded by membranes
• Detailed structures of a cell
• Only can be seen under an electron microscope
Two types of cells: Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes on the
Tree of Life

tes Lets talk about this

r yo type of cell first
oka
Pr Eu
ka
ryo
tes
 Cell and its Components

c
c

A typical Animal cell A typical Plant cell

• Main features of all animals: • Main features of all plants:

• they are multicellular • they are multicellular
• their cells contain a nucleus but no cell walls or • their cells contain a nucleus, chloroplasts and
chloroplasts cellulose cell walls
• they feed on organic substances made by other living • they all feed by photosynthesis
things
 List of Eukaryotic Cell Structures
Plant + Animal Cells included!
You need to:
1. Name it 2. Recognise it 3. Know its function

1.Cell surface membrane 9. Chloroplast

2. Nucleus, nuclear envelope and nucleolus 10. Cell wall

3. Ribosomes 11. Vacuole and tonoplast

4. RER 12. Cytoskeleton

5. SER
6. Golgi body
7. Lysosomes
8.Mitochondria
 1. Cell Surface Membrane
• Plasma membrane
~7 nm thick
• Partially permeable
• Made of phospholipid bilayer

Function:
• Controls movement of substances into and
out of the cell
 2 Nucleus- Components
1. Nuclear envelope
• Attached to ER
• 2 membranes
• Have nuclear pores
Function: Controls movement of substances between
Components of Nucleus
nucleus and cytoplasm

2 Nucleolus
• Densest region
Function: Site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis
→ Site ribosome assembly

3. Chromatin
• DNA and its associated proteins
 3. Ribosomes
• Smallest organelle!
• Not bound by a membrane
• Made of rRNA, that is synthesized in nucleolus + some protein
• Has 2 subunit

Function:
• Site of protein synthesis
 4. Rough Endoplasmic
• Extensive, connected system of membranes
• Made of cisternae (flattened membrane sacs)
• Continuous with the nuclear envelope
• 80S ribosomes are attached

Functions:
• Site of protein synthesis,
• Protein modification
e.g. protein folding
e.g. glycosylation = addition of carbohydrate chains to protein
• Protein transport to Golgi
 5. Smooth Endoplasmic

• Reticulum ER without ribosomes

Function:
• Site of lipid and steroid synthesis
• e.g. cholesterol, steroid hormones
 6. Golgi body

• Golgi apparatus/ complex

• Made of cisternae
• No connection between members
• Not continuous with nuclear envelope
• Swellings at end of sacs for vesicle formation
 6. Golgi body
Functions
• Modification of proteins and lipid
• Packaging molecules into vesicles for transport
• Formation of secretory vesicles for release of protein out of the cell
• Formation of lysosomes
Production and secretion of proteins
 Production and secretion of proteins
List of cell structure involved in sequence

Transport Secretory Cell Surface

RIBOSOME RER Golgi body
vesicle Vesicle Membrane

Steps:
1. Synthesis of protein at ribosome / RER
2. Transport vesicle buds off RER and fuses with Golgi body
3. Modification of protein at Golgi body
4. Separation of a secretory vesicle from the Golgi body
5. Fusion of the vesicle with the cell surface membrane
6. Contents released / secretion of protein by exocytosis

Process also works to embed protein at the cell membrane

 7. Lysosomes

• Very, very small

• Spherical, small sacs

Function
Contains hydrolytic enzymes / lysozymes
Breakdown unwanted structures via hydrolysis in an
acidic environment
→ Worn out organelles or dead cells
 8. Mitochondria

• Typically rod-shaped
• 0.5-1.0 μm in diameter
• Double membrane
• No. of mitochondria in a cell, no. of cristae and length of
crista in mitochondrion - depends on cell
 Mitochondria
Function

• Synthesis ATP- Adenosine Tri phosphate

Adenosine triphosphate
• It is a phosphorylated nucleotide
 9. Chloroplast
• Relatively large organelle
• Oval shaped
• Two membranes
• Contain chlorophyll

• Contains 70S ribosomes, small circular DNA and starch grains

• Divide by binary fission
• → Have prokaryotic origin
 Chloroplast
Function
• Site of photosynthesis
Two main processes in photosynthesis:
1. Light-dependent reaction (aka "light reaction“)

2. Light-independent reaction (aka "dark reaction")

• .
Chloroplast animation
 10. Cell Wall
• Thick, rigid layer
• Made of cellulose
• Permeable
• Because there are spaces / gaps between fibres
• Narrow threads of cytoplasm (surrounded by a cell membrane)
called plasmodesmata connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring plant cells

Functions:
• Provide structural support
• Prevent bursting
• Limit cell size
 11. Plasmodesmata

• Strands of cytoplasm passing through channels

Functions:
• Allows substances to pass
• From cell to cell
• Without passing through cell walls
• E.g. water, sucrose, amino acids, minerals ions, ATP
• Allows more rapid transport of substances
 12. Vacuoles & Tonoplast

• Commonly found in plant cells

• Large, permanent, central
• Surrounded by a partially permeable membrane called
tonoplast

Functions:
• Store of cell sap (contains water, ions, minerals, salts, pigments,
sugars)
• Stores waste products
• Pushes chloroplasts to edge of cell
• Gives turgidity to the cell
 Protoplast & Protoplasm

• Protoplasts are isolated cells produced by removing the

surrounding cell wall either by mechanical means or by the
use of cell wall degrading enzymes.
• Removal of the cell wall leaves the protoplast surrounded
by the plasmalemma membrane.

• Protoplasm is the living part of a cell that is surrounded by a

plasma membrane.
 12 Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton of a cell is made up of
a. Microtubules,
b. Actin filaments, and
c. Intermediate filaments.
These structures give the cell its shape and help organize the
cell's parts. In addition, they provide a basis for movement and
cell division.
 Centrifugation
Q: What happens if we rupture cells and spin them at
highspeed?
The larger structures will sediment first.
Cell organelle – Size
 Types of Microscope

Electromagnetic radiation
(light / electrons)
→ Image of specimen

1. Light microscope
2. Electron microscope
a. Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM)
b. Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM)
Light Microscope
Electron Microscope

Image Image
 Magnification and Resolution

1) Magnification
• Number of times an image is enlarged,
compared with the actual size of the object
• "x" sign placed in front of number

2) Resolution
• Ability to distinguish between two points clearly as separate
• Units in nm

Increase in magnification = increase in resolution

Magnification
 Resolution

Low Resolving Power High Resolving Power

 Light Microscope

• Source of electromagnetic radiation: Visible light

• Wavelength = approx. 400-700nm
• Lower energy and longer wavelength than electrons
• Focused using mirrors and glass lenses
• Highest magnification: x1,500
• Max resolution : 200nm (low)

Advantage:
• Live specimens can be viewed, image can be coloured
• Used for viewing structures that can be measured in µm
Light Microscope- Parts
 Magnification Calculations

Magnification is how many times bigger the image of a specimen observed is

in comparison to the actual (real-life) size of the specimen
• The magnification (M) of an object can be calculated if both the size of the
image (I), and the actual size of the specimen (A), is known

M= I/A

A=I/M

I=MXA

An equation triangle for calculating magnification

Worked example
An image of an animal cell is 30 mm in size and it has
been magnified by a factor of X 3000.
What is the actual size of the cell?

To find the actual size of the cell

 Resolution
Resolution is the ability to distinguish between two separate points
• If two separate points cannot be resolved, they will be observed as one point
• The resolution of a light microscope is limited by the wavelength of light
• As light passes through the specimen, it will be diffracted
• The longer the wavelength of light, the more it is diffracted and the more that this diffraction will overlap as the points get
closer together
Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution and magnification than a light microscope as electrons have a much
smaller wavelength than visible light
• This means that they can be much closer before the diffracted beams overlap
• The concept of resolution is why the phospholipid bilayer structure of the cell membrane cannot be observed under a
light microscope
• The width of the phospholipid bilayer is about 10nm
• The maximum resolution of a light microscope is 200nm (half the smallest wavelength of visible light, 400nm)
• Any points that are separated by a distance less than 200nm (such as the 10nm phospholipid bilayer) cannot be resolved
by a light microscope and therefore will not be distinguishable as “separate”
The resolving power of an electron microscope is much greater than that of the light microscope, as structures much
smaller than the wavelength of light will interfere with a beam of electrons
 Magnification Calculations

Magnification is how many times bigger the image of a specimen observed is

in comparison to the actual (real-life) size of the specimen
• The magnification (M) of an object can be calculated if both the size of the
image (I), and the actual size of the specimen (A), is known

M= I/A

A=I/M

I=MXA

An equation triangle for calculating magnification

Worked example
An image of an animal cell is 30 mm in size and it has
been magnified by a factor of X 3000.
What is the actual size of the cell?

To find the actual size of the cell

•The size of cells is typically measured using the micrometre (μm) scale, with cellular structures
measured in either micrometers (μm) or nanometers (nm)
•When doing calculations all measurements must be in the same units. It is best to use the smallest
unit of measurement shown in the question
•To convert units, multiply or divide depending if the units are increasing or decreasing
•Magnification does not have units

Converting units of measurement

•There are 1000 nanometers (nm) in a micrometre (µm)
•There are 1000 micrometres (µm) in a millimetre (mm)
•There are 1000 millimetres (mm) in a metre (m)
 Units
SI unit for length → metre (m)
Suitable units for...
Note-
• Light microscope = micrometre (μm)
• Always measure image length in mm
• Electron microscope = nanometre (nm)
• Present the actual diameter of structure in nm

X1000

X100 X10 X1000 X1000

m cm mm µm nm

÷100 ÷10 ÷1000 ÷1000

÷1000
Worked example

Step 1: Check that units in magnification questions are the same

Remember that 1mm = 1000µm
2000 / 1000 = 2, so the actual thickness of the leaf is 2 mm and the
drawing thickness is 50 mm
Step 2: Calculate Magnification
Magnification = image size / actual size = 50 / 2 = 25
So the magnification is x 25
Calculating Magnification
 Calculating Actual Length
A light microscope has two types of lens:
• An eyepiece lens, which often has a magnification of x10
• A series of (usually 3) objective lenses, each with a different magnification
•To calculate the total magnification the magnification of the eyepiece lens and the objective lens
are multiplied together:
eyepiece lens magnification x objective lens magnification =total magnification
 Worked example:
Calculating the actual size of a specimen
A scientist looks at a sample of red blood cells under a light microscope.
The eyepiece lens of the microscope has a magnification of x10 and an objective lens of x40
was used to view the blood cells. The scientist takes a photomicrograph of the blood cells, in
which the average size of each cell is 3 mm.
What is the average size of the red blood cells in the sample? Give your answer in
micrometres.
Known values:
•Eyepiece lens magnification: x10
•Objective lens magnification: x40
•Image size: 3 mm
Step 1: Calculate the total magnification of the specimen
eyepiece lens magnification x objective lens magnification
= total magnification
x10 x x40 = x400
Step 2: Calculate the image size in the units asked for (micrometers)
1 mm = 1000 μm
3 mm = 3000 μm
Step 3: Calculate the actual size of the red blood cells
Therefore, the average size of a red blood cell in this sample is 7.5 micrometres
 Two types of cells: Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes on the
Tree of Life
Lets talk about this
tes
type of cell first
r yo
oka
Pr Eu
ka
ryo
tes
 Prokaryotes V/S Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes
• pro = before
• karyon = nucleus
• Includes all bacteria and archaea
• 0.1-10um

Eukaryotes
• eu = true
• karyon = nucleus
• Includes plants, animals, fungi
and other microbes
• 10-100um
 Prokaryotes
• Unicellular
• Relatively smaller (1-5μm)
• Simpler in structure
• Divides by binary fission

What all bacteria do not have:

• No membrane-bound organelles
• No nucleus
• DNA lies free in cytoplasm in the nucleoid region
 A typical Bacterial cell

What all bacteria have:

• Plasma membrane
• Cytoplasm
• Peptidoglycan cell wall
• → made of chains crossed linked by amino acids
• 70S ribosomes
• Circular DNA
• DNA is naked
• → not associated with proteins
 A typical Bacterial cell
What is only present in some bacteria:
1) Plasmids
• Small, circular DNA Codes for non-essential proteins
• Several may be present
2) Pili
• Sexual reproduction
• For attachment to other cells/surfaces
3) Flagellum
• Locomotion
4) Capsule
Outer coat, additional protection
• Attach to surfaces
5) Infoldings of plasma membrane(mesosomes)
• For photosynthesis/nitrogen fixation
Prokaryotes V/S Eukaryotes
 Prokaryotes
ProducingV/S
NewEukaryotes
Cells
• The cells in your body need to be able to divide to help your
body grow and repair itself
• Cells grow and divide over and over again
• New cells are produced by the division of existing cells
 Specialised cells in animals
• Specialised cells are those which have developed Specialised Cells in Animals Table
certain characteristics in order to perform
particular functions. These differences are
controlled by genes in the nucleus
• Cells specialise by undergoing differentiation:
this is a process by which cells develop the
structure and characteristics needed to be able
to carry out their functions
 Specialised cells in animals

Ciliated cell

Nerve cell
 Specialised cells in animals

Red blood cells

Sperm cell
 Specialised cells in animals

Egg cell
Specialised cells in Plants
 Specialised cells in Plants

Root hair cell

Xylem structure
Levels of Organisation in an Organism

Levels of organisation
Levels of Organisation in an Organism
• Your syllabus states that you should be able to identify the
different levels of organisation in drawings, diagrams and
images of familiar material
• An example of this is shown in the exam question below:

Typical levels of organisation question

 Past Year Questions(PYQs)
2022/march/0610_m22_qp_22.
 Past Year Questions(PYQs)
2022/march/0610_m22_qp_42.
 Past Year Questions(PYQs)
2022/summer/0610_s22_qp_21 2022/summer/0610_s22_qp_23
 Past Year Questions(PYQs)
2022/summer/0610_s22_qp_42