Photosynthesis: The Process of Converting Light into Energy

1. Introduction
1.1 Definition of Photosynthesis
1.2 Importance of Photosynthesis
1.3 Overview of Photosynthesis Process

2. Light Absorption
2.1 Pigments Involved in Photosynthesis
2.2 Role of Chlorophyll in Light Absorption
2.3 Other Light-Absorbing Pigments

3. Light-Dependent Reactions
3.1 Photolysis of Water
3.2 Electron Transport Chain
3.3 Production of ATP and NADPH

4. Calvin Cycle (Light-Independent

Reactions)
4.1 Carbon Fixation
4.2 Reduction and Regeneration
4.3 Role of RuBisCO Enzyme
5. Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
5.1 Light Intensity
5.2 Temperature
5.3 Carbon Dioxide Concentration

6. Adaptations for Photosynthesis

6.1 C4 and CAM Pathways
6.2 Leaf Structure and Stomata
6.3 Water Conservation Mechanisms

7. Photosynthesis in Different Organisms

7.1 Photosynthetic Bacteria
7.2 Algae
7.3 Higher Plants

8. Photosynthesis and the Environment

8.1 Role in Carbon Cycle
8.2 Impact of Deforestation
8.3 Photosynthesis and Climate Change

9. Applications of Photosynthesis
9.1 Agriculture and Crop Yield
9.2 Biofuels and Renewable Energy
9.3 Medicinal and Industrial Uses

10. Conclusion
Photosynthesis: The Process of Converting Light into Energy

1. Introduction
Photosynthesis refers to the process by which plants convert energy from the sunlight into energy
they can use for their metabolic processes. In the process, the basic structure of plant cells is
created. This process is what regulates the oxygen content in the air. It is also the source of all
the energy that we consume, either by consuming plants or by consuming animals that have
consumed plants. Kang (2009) stated that the energy from the sunlight is usually preserved into
chemical energy in the process. He says that light is absorbed and the resultant energy used to
convert carbon dioxide into complex carbohydrates. Also, as Jahn (2012) stated, the process is
what generates oxygen, which is a by-product. He says that energy from the sun is transformed
into variegated forms and stored in the bonds of the chemical substances. Both of these
researchers and other numerous researchers seem to agree on the importance of photosynthesis.
Kang, H. (2009). Primary processes of photosynthesis part 1: principles and apparatus. Asian
Journal of Physics, 18(2), 247-267. Jahn, T. (2012). Photosynthesis: Plastid biology, energy
conversion and carbon assimilation. Nature Education Knowledge, 3(10), 1.

1.1 Definition of Photosynthesis

In combination, light and water produce oxygen and food referred to as glucose. Light is
absorbed by the green chemical chlorophyll. Photosynthesis is the process which green plants
and many other organisms use to produce glucose. This contains stored energy. The cells in the
spongy layer do not contain chloroplasts. Therefore, gas is able to leave the leaf easily. The
oxygen that is formed by the plant during the process diffuses out through the stomata of the leaf.
However, the glucose produced is converted into starch. This is insoluble and does not cause
water to move into the cells by osmosis. If the glucose was not turned into starch straight away, it
would affect the water movement out of the cell. Also, it is a way of getting a store of energy
which can be turned back into glucose when the plant needs it. However, like all chemical
reactions, the above equation works only in certain conditions. Temperature, the intensity of the
light, and the availability of water can all affect the rate of photosynthesis. This is because they
control the rate of the two reactions that make up photosynthesis. For example, light which is
low or of poor intensity will slow down the first reaction. The second reaction cannot happen
until the first has finished. So the rate of the whole process is slowed down. Also, because the
second reaction requires the right temperature and as it produces a product (glucose), if the cell
has too much it will stop the second reaction taking place. The term given to this is called the
limiting factor. This is anything that stops the rate of photosynthesis from being any faster.
1.2 Importance of Photosynthesis
Given the enormous number of ecosystems that rely on photosynthesis as a source of food and
energy, it could easily be argued that without photosynthesis and without the almighty plants, life
simply would not exist. Since the beginning of the planet, photosynthesis is responsible for
removing carbon dioxide from the planet's atmosphere and replacing it with life-sustaining
oxygen. By knowing the importance of photosynthesis, besides understanding how it helps the
environment, one knows most of the food sustaining life in some way, shape, or form relies on
this process. Just as humans need a consistent intake of food, the majority of animals need
continuous sustenance and once again, photosynthesis is vital to promoting a healthy planet. An
obvious yet vitally important byproduct of photosynthesis is oxygen, the very molecule which
allows many creatures to function. Without the light-dependent stage in particular, the release of
oxygen would not be possible, meaning many living organisms would soon cease to function and
die in a world without oxygen being produced from the sun's rays. These are just a few reasons
behind the statement; and there are many experiments and observations that help to reinforce this
view. We can always look for another journal which will be great. However, experiments give
empirical evidence to show cause and effect in this case, how the removal of light can severely
limit the productivity of photosynthesis and therefore the amount of chlorophyll in plant and leaf.

1.3 Overview of Photosynthesis Process

The process of photosynthesis occurs in two steps. In the first step, the energy trapper part of the
plant cell, which are chloroplasts, take in the sunlight and absorb the carbon dioxide (CO2).
These chloroplasts are mainly found in the upper and also in the lower part of the leaf. The
sunlight is being absorbed by the green pigment in the chloroplasts, which are called chlorophyll.
The chlorophyll in the chloroplasts uses the sun's energy to split the water molecule (H2O) into
hydrogen and oxygen. Plants get water from the soil through their root hairs and it is being
transported all the way to the chloroplasts. On the other hand, the oxygen, which is the byproduct
from this step of photosynthesis, is released into the air. The energy made a compound call
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) whereas the hydrogen from the water molecule makes an energy
carrier as Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (NADPH) which combine with ATP to
make the glucose in the next or second step of this process. Second stage of photosynthesis is a
dark reaction. In this stage, the main function is to make glucose, which is a sugar, using the
carbon dioxide. First of all, this process will take place in the stroma, which is the fluid inside
chloroplast and also the calvin cycle will occur when the ATP and NADPH uses the energy from
the sunlight to help make the glucose. Every single step of the calvin cycle need five carbon
sugar to have the energy from ATP and NADPH. Therefore, using the carbon dioxide, the plants
will make the energy and store the energy in the glucose. After that, the glucose provides the
energy to keep the plant alive, to make cellulose that used for the cell wall and also to make
starch which is a food for animals. More importantly, plants also release the oxygen into the air
so that humans can use as well.

Photosynthesis and Light Reactions

1. Light Absorption
Light energy is harnessed in the form of high-energy electrons. These can only be promoted to
levels of higher energy when they absorb light, and the particular wavelength of light absorbed is
a key factor in determining the amount of energy harnessed. In chlorophyll, the porphyrin ring in
the chlorophyll molecule contains a system of alternating single and double carbon-carbon
bonds, surrounded by the hydrocarbon chain. The absorption of a single photon of light by
chlorophyll can promote an electron to a higher energy level, but this creates an extremely
unstable, high-energy electron, so the electron is instead transferred to an electron carrier to
begin the process of energy transfer. Excited electrons are very good at what they do - gaining
energy by absorbing light in high-energy shells and then releasing it in a series of redox
reactions. Once the electron is promoted to a high-energy state through the absorption of one
photon, the light-independent stage of photosynthesis can't use that electron. This is why it's
essential for this electron to be transferred away from the chlorophyll and towards the proteins in
the electron transfer chain, which form part of the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis. Only
once the electron has been transferred can the chlorophyll molecule absorb further photons of
light. However, this process of photon absorption and electron transfer is vital in creating the
chemical intermediates that lead to the production of reduced NADP and ATP, which are then
used in the Calvin cycle stage of photosynthesis.

1.1 Pigments Involved

Light energy is initially absorbed by electrons in the pigment molecules. These are special
organic molecules. The pigment molecules are grouped into photosystems. They include
chlorophylls 'a' and 'b'. These are the main photosynthetic pigments. But carotenes and
xanthophylls, which are termed as accessory pigments, are also involved. The structure of a
chlorophyll molecule is shown below. The chlorophyll molecule contains a porphyrin ring (a
flat, square-shaped molecule) with a magnesium ion (Mg2+) in its centre. This is why
chlorophyll is sometimes referred to as a magnesium complex. Surrounding this is a long phytol
chain which is a type of isoprenoid. This makes the molecule fat-soluble and helps it dissolve in
the lipid part of a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane. Light of various colours is made up of
photons. If a photon of light strikes a molecule of any pigment a number of things can happen.
The energy of the photon can be emitted as light of a different colour, the energy can be
dissipated as heat, or the energy can be transferred to an electron in the pigment molecule. The
energy needed to start photosynthesis can be thought of as being made up of packets. These
packets are equivalent to the energy created by photons of light of different wavelengths. The
most useful is red-orange light (600-700nm) which has the maximum energy level useful for
photosynthesis. This is why many plants have leaves that are green, as this wavelength of light is
absorbed least by pigments.

1.2 Role of Chlorophyll

So, chlorophyll plays a critical role in photosynthesis. It serves several important purposes:
absorbing light energy in the red and blue regions of the visible spectrum, to be used in the
photosystems to drive the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis; initiating the chemical
process of photosynthesis by absorbing red and blue light. The light energy absorbed by
chlorophyll is actually transferred to electrons, raising the energy levels of the electrons so that
the process of making energy molecules can start; and producing oxygen as a waste product of
these light-dependent reactions. Chlorophyll accomplishes this task by using light energy to take
electrons from water. Water is split into oxygen and hydrogen ions, but the free electrons from
this process are unstable - what is known as a reducing agent. That is why they absorb the energy
from more light and become stabilized, and this allows them to be used in the production of
energy molecule, ATP. The release of oxygen provides the acclaimed by-product of
photosynthesis. These light-dependent reactions are what fuel the light-independent reactions in
the Calvin Cycle, providing the energy necessary to produce the three-carbon sugar, G3P, which
stores the energy in glucose for later use in the plant.

1.3 Other Light-Absorbing Pigments

A particularly important pigment in the light-absorption processes is carotenoids. Also found in
chloroplasts, carotenoids are able to absorb blue and green light. However, they are not able to
transfer this energy to the light-dependent reaction as they do not form part of the electron
transport chain. Instead, the energy is transferred to chlorophyll, where light absorption begins
the process of exciting electrons. This is also the reason why, during the summer growing season
when the rate of photosynthesis is at its highest level, the large majority of light energy is
absorbed and transferred using chlorophyll and very little is absorbed using the other pigments.
An interesting consequence of this is that, during these periods, the leaves of most plants appear
to be primarily green. However, as the light-dependent reaction uses a broad range of light
wavelengths, it is not surprising to find other pigments that are able to absorb various light
wavelengths and transfer this energy into the reaction in a different way. In fact, there are two
other main types of pigment that can be found in chloroplasts and can absorb light energy: 1. The
blue-violet and red light absorbing 'phycobilins', which are mainly found in the cells of plants
that thrive in shallow water; and 2. The pale green 'chlorophyll b', which is an accessory pigment
that can absorb light energy at the wavelengths that chlorophyll itself cannot. However, in
comparison to chlorophyll a, it absorbs most effectively in the blue light range and least
effectively in the red light range. As described above, the operation of these pigments can
increase the range of light wavelengths that can be absorbed. However, the specific ways in
which the other pigments transfer the energy from light into chemical energy in the form of ATP
and NADPH are not particularly well researched. This is certainly an area for further
understanding of how photosynthesis works.

1. Light-Dependent Reactions
Cover the test tube with a piece of foil that has been penetrated by a small pinhole. Place the test
tube in boiling water for 1-2 minutes. Leaked electrons fall into the reaction center of
photosystem I. These low-energy electrons are then excited again by light energy and return to a
higher energy level. They are then transferred to another acceptor molecule; this time NADP
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate). The previous test, using the plant, is used to find
the percentage absorption of sunlight. The article has introduced how ATP and NADPH are
formed in the light-dependent reactions. Light energy excites electrons in both photosystems, and
these high-energy electrons are then passed down a series of electron acceptor molecules. These
molecules are found within areas of the chloroplast called thylakoids. A membrane pump takes
the low-energy electrons that were replaced back to water, and the plant then produces oxygen as
a by-product of photosynthesis. The now high-energy electrons are passed through the electron
transport chain in a series of redox reactions. Every redox reaction causes the release of energy,
some of which is used to pump protons across the thylakoid membrane and into the space within
the thylakoids. Combined together, these factors increase the yield of oxygen production. The
title of the article is misleading as the light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle, or the
light-independent reactions, are obviously separate stages of photosynthesis. However, it may
have been called a summary of how it works because the article does simply explain a certain
aspect of the light-dependent reactions.

1.1 Photolysis of Water

The light-dependent reactions begin in photosystem II. After it is excited by light, an electron
from the chlorophyll is ejected and caught by the primary electron acceptor. The chlorophyll
then extracts an electron from a water molecule, which is split in the process. A water molecule
splits into two hydrogen ions (H+) and an oxygen molecule, O2. This process is called
photolysis, and it is what releases the free oxygen. The electrons are then passed by the primary
acceptor down the electron transport chain. After the electron is extracted, the chlorophyll will
accept a replacement from another water molecule, and the process repeats each time the
chlorophyll is excited by a photon. This splitting of water takes place in the thylakoid membrane.
Three things are produced from this process that are essential for the cell to continue to function:
oxygen, reduced NADP, and ATP. The oxygen diffuses out of the plant as a by-product of
photosynthesis, allowing it to be used for respiration in other living organisms. The NADP is
what combines with a hydrogen ion in order to transport it to the light-independent reaction, so it
is going to become NADPH. The ATP is produced from the movement of the electrons down the
electron transport chain. As they pass down these proteins, they release energy. This energy is
used to add a phosphate group to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), recharging it to make ATP. The
oxygen molecule that is produced is either used by the plant in respiration or is released as a
waste product into the environment. This oxygen is the same oxygen that we need in order to
survive, demonstrating the importance of photosynthesis.

1.2 Electron Transport Chain

After the two substances are formed, then the series of reactions that follows is referred to as
Calvin's cycle. This is the cycle that finally makes organic compounds in the photosynthesis
process. In the process of making ATP and NADPH, it is essential to know that light-dependent
reactions begin when photons are absorbed by pigments in the photosystem. When a pigment
absorbs light, it enters an excited state, meaning that one of its electrons moves to a higher
energy level. However, the excited electrons from the P700 chlorophyll (reaction center)
molecule can never go to the primary acceptor unless they are replaced. This is where an enzyme
known as NADP reductase comes in; it facilitates the transfer of electrons to reduce NADP into
NADPH. After the primary electron donor (P680 chlorophyll) of photosystem II donates
electrons to the primary acceptor, it must be replaced. This is achieved through photolysis, a
process that breaks down water molecules to replace the electrons lost by P680 chlorophyll. The
overall effect of the whole process is that ATP is made as the excited electrons pass along the
transport chain in photosystem II and I. Also, the reducing power of light is responsible for the
transformation of NADP to NADPH. This can be shown as follows: ADP + Pi + energy -> ATP
(adenosine diphosphate) (inorganic phosphate) On the other hand, photosynthesis has a direct
impact on the environment. Stores of many products such as rubber, fiber, and cellulose are
obtained from photosynthesis. Also, the process contributes to the creation and maintenance of
habitats. Oxygen and food form the basis of life for animals, and the making of organic
molecules ensures that energy is trapped in a suitable form. This helps to sustain life without
energy shortages that could lead to exhaustion. However, the impact of photosynthesis on the
environment depends on a number of factors. For example, failing to eliminate a limiting factor
may prevent regular yield increments in agriculture. Also, evidence of global warming has been
linked to a reduction in the number of organisms capable of photosynthesis. This is because
carbon dioxide is a reactant in the process and its increasing concentration will lead to the
generation of more organic compounds. This would result in activities such as transpiration and
gaseous exchange being facilitated, potentially combating increased temperature. Also, the
maintenance of the delicate balance of the number of species in a habitat depends not only on the
availability of photosynthetic organisms but on the length of time within which they can
photosynthesize.

1.3 Production of ATP and NADPH

Both the ATP and the NADPH needed by the following stage of photosynthesis are produced
during the light-dependent reactions. There are two main products of the light-dependent
reaction - ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADPH (reduced nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate). These are produced from the initial energy, which is light. As with the
rest of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, the whole process takes place in the
chloroplasts. Light energy is absorbed by the chlorophyll and this energy is transferred to the
electrons. In turn, the high-energy electrons are transferred from the chlorophyll to the reaction
centre. The electrons are then passed on to a series of proteins in the thylakoid membrane, which
make up the electron transport chain. This transfers the energy of the electrons to other
molecules in the chain, which helps to produce ATP. First the energy causes the electrons to
move to a higher energy level and they move to the end of the chain, where they are transferred
to NADP. NADP is a coenzyme. It picks up the H+ ions that have been produced during the
reaction to produce the energy carrier molecule, NADPH. This final transfer of electrons from
the chain onto NADP reduces it (adds extra electrons) and so it is called NADP+. This whole
process releases the energy that is needed to join an inorganic phosphate molecule with a
molecule of ADP to produce ATP. This is catalysed by the enzyme ATP synthase. Most of the
ATP that is produced then moves out of the chloroplasts and goes towards providing energy for
the many other pathways that exist in the plant cell.
1.2 Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle)
Light-independent reactions of photosynthesis can be simply referred to as the "Calvin Cycle".
This particular stage of photosynthesis is not dependent on light and it occurs when the light-
dependent reaction is over. The Calvin Cycle can be divided into three main stages. These are:
carbon fixation, reduction stage, and the regeneration of ribulose biphosphate. In the first stage
of the Calvin Cycle, the enzyme ribulose biphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco) combines carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere, which then forms a very unstable six-carbon compound. This unstable
compound immediately breaks into two molecules of glycerate 3-phosphate, which is a three-
carbon compound. After this, the compound is converted into another three-carbon compound
called triose phosphate by using ATP, a type of energy replenishing molecule, and hydrogen
carried by NADPH from the light-dependent reactions. For every six molecules of carbon
dioxide that are converted in the Calvin Cycle, the result is twelve molecules of triose phosphate.
Thanks to the enzyme called ribulose biphosphate carboxylase, the synthesis for one glucose
molecule is completed. Every turn of the Calvin Cycle produces two molecules of triose
phosphate. Yet, in a clever design, one molecule of triose phosphate is used to regenerate
ribulose biphosphate in the third stage of the Calvin Cycle and the remaining molecules are used
to generate useful organic compounds like glucose. For all the information, refer to the reaction
paper resources.

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis and Adaptations in Different Organisms

1. Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Carbon dioxide is another reactant in the leaf, which is required for the chemical reaction of
photosynthesis. If there is not enough carbon dioxide, the plant is not able to photosynthesize. At
any one time, it is the factor in the shortest supply that determines the rate of photosynthesis. At
a particular time, one factor may be the main limiting factor, but as this becomes less limiting,
something else, such as carbon dioxide concentration, may take over as the factor limiting the
overall rate.

A temperature increase will lead to a corresponding increase in the rate of photosynthesis as this
affects the enzymes, as they have more kinetic energy. So do the substrates, and this increases
the probability of a successful collision. As the temperature increases, so does the rate of reaction
until an optimum temperature is reached. The rate of photosynthesis will be at its maximum. Any
further rise in temperature will lead to the destruction of the enzymes involved in photosynthesis,
and therefore the rate of photosynthesis will decrease considerably.

When light is a limiting factor, light intensity speeds up photosynthesis. However, it cannot
speed up the photosynthetic reactions. At any moment in time, with an increase in light intensity,
the rate of photosynthesis will increase until some other factor becomes the limiting factor.
Eventually, a further increase in light intensity will no longer speed up the rate of photosynthesis,
since some other factor will be in short supply. At very high light intensities, the rate of
photosynthesis will be so fast that all the limiting factors are in optimum supply.

1.1 Light Intensity

It is important for every organism to have a specific level of light intensity that they are exposed
to in a day. This is because light intensity is a factor that is limiting the rate of photosynthesis.
Light intensity can be defined as the level of light received on a unit area. As one moves from the
equator towards the poles, light intensity decreases. There are signs that might show low sunlight
intensity. For example, if the level of carbon dioxide is low and the rate of photosynthesis also
goes down, then it is an indication that the factor that is limiting the rate of photosynthesis is
light. Also, if a green plant that normally makes its own food when exposed to sunlight is taken
into a dark room, then after a few hours it is found that the leaves of the plant fail to produce the
blue-black color when tested for starch. Rather, if the plant is then exposed to sunlight for
sometimes and the test on the leaves is repeated again, then the blue-black coloration is achieved.
It means that the plant needs a certain intensity of light for photosynthesis to take place. Other
direct factors that might show low sunlight intensities include the bending of the stalk just below
the flower, reduction in the size and number of stomatal pores and the plant is pale green in
color. Also, according to the research that was conducted by scientists, it was found that at
different intensities of light, the number of bubbles produced in a water plant is different. It was
discovered that at higher light intensities, a lot of oxygen, that is, more little bubbles were
produced as compared to lower light intensities. This is an indication that as light intensity
increases, the rate of photosynthesis goes up. However, this only happens up to a certain point
whereby the rate of photosynthesis becomes constant. Organisms that are adapted to low light
intensities have special features that enable them to maximize on the low light. For example,
plants like mosses that are found in shadier areas and at a place where there is low light intensity
do not have a cuticle layer. This layer is normally found on the surface of the leaves of a green
plant. It is made up of a waxy substance. Its main function is to reduce the rate of transpiration
and to waterproof the leaf. However, it also forms a barrier to gases and so in effect, it reduces
the rate of diffusion of carbon dioxide into the leaf. By not having this layer, mosses can receive
carbon dioxide at a faster rate and hence they are more capable of photosynthesizing in low light
intensities.

1.2 Temperature
Temperature affects the catalytic property of the active site of an enzyme. When the temperature
is low, the enzyme will have less kinetic energy, so the particles move more slowly. The rate of
photosynthesis at this point may be low. If the temperature continues to increase from the most
efficient point, it will become too high, and the enzyme will denature. Denaturing of the enzyme
means that the substrate can no longer occupy the active site of the enzyme and form an enzyme-
substrate complex. Instead, the enzyme is distorted. It is very difficult to predict at what
temperature denaturing will start. Different species have different enzymes which work most
efficiently at different temperatures, and this is the reason why plants and other species such as
human beings have a temperature range in which their enzymes work the most efficiently. The
graph of temperature against the rate of photosynthesis shows that as the temperature increases
from 0 °C up to 20 °C, the rate also increases gradually at the point where it will be the highest
(20 °C). This is the optimum temperature that a plant like Elodea can make the most of its rate of
photosynthesis.

1.3 Carbon Dioxide Concentration

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is used by plants to produce glucose and is one of the main factors that
can affect the rate of photosynthesis. As the concentration of carbon dioxide increases, so does
the rate of photosynthesis, provided that temperature and light levels are not limiting factors.
However, it has been found that the level comes to a point where it doesn't make any difference
to the rate. This is because another factor will then be the limiting factor. In some places, CO2 is
released from areas such as cities. It has been suggested that if the level of CO2 continues to rise,
plant growth in these areas will also increase. However, it is unlikely that this will affect crop
growth in other areas due to the other limiting factors of photosynthesis. It is generally found in
many experiments that the rate of photosynthesis will increase with an increase in carbon dioxide
concentration. This is what I expect to see in the experiment because the more carbon dioxide
there is, the more chance there is of the CO2 molecules being in between the five-carbon
molecules, increasing the rate of carbon fixation. Also, under normal conditions, a plant uses up
about 0.05% of the carbon dioxide during a 24-hour period.

Photosynthesis: Processes, Organisms, Environmental Impact, and Applications

1. Adaptations for Photosynthesis

The high rate of photosynthesis in sugarcane and other C4 plants is achieved by an efficient,
cyclic process, a C4 photosynthesis, and minimizing photorespiration. The C4 pathway is a
photosynthetic mechanism that helps plants living in hot and dry environments to conserve
valuable water. This cycle minimizes the energy and resources needed to fix carbon dioxide from
the air into simple sugars, a crucial stage in photosynthesis. C4 is used by a small number of
plant species, predominantly tropical grasses such as sugarcane and maize, and C4 plants have
become common in hot, tropical environments, where they are highly competitive compared
with normal C3 plants. In a typical plant, the exchange of gases occurs through specialized
structures in the leaves, known as stomata, through which carbon dioxide and oxygen move in
and out of the leaf. High concentrations of carbon dioxide favor the Calvin cycle of
photosynthesis. However, if the Calvin cycle utilizes all the available carbon dioxide in the leaf,
even under light-saturated conditions, photorespiration may occur, and this process actually
removes the products of the Calvin cycle. To minimize this, the leaf is designed to concentrate
carbon dioxide in the regions of the chloroplasts where the Calvin cycle occurs. Such adaptations
prevent the loss of carbon dioxide from the plant and increase the likelihood of the carbon-fixing
reactions of photosynthesis. C3, C4, and CAM plants differ in both their structure and the way
that the light-dependent and light-independent spectrums of photosynthesis occur in chloroplasts.
These adaptations show that different systems and strategies have evolved in different types of
plants in order to maximize their own rates of photosynthesis and illustrate the interdependence
and complexity of the living world. CAM plants use a water treatment strategy that is entirely
different from those in C3 and C4 plants for several reasons: the stomata can close during hot,
dry daylight hours.

1.1 C4 and CAM Pathways

These C4 plants will undergo a preliminary carbon fixation in the mesophyll cells where PEP
carboxylase, an enzyme with a high affinity for carbon dioxide, fixes the carbon dioxide in order
to create a four-carbon compound; this is in contrast to the three-carbon compound that is first
made in the Calvin cycle. The high carbon dioxide concentrations in the bundle sheath cells,
where the Calvin cycle occurs, means that the enzyme RuBisCO can easily fix carbon dioxide to
RuBP without the problem of it also fixing oxygen.

On the other hand, C4 plants have developed a way to reduce the problems of photorespiration
by increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the bundle sheath cells. They are common in
very hot environments where the rate of photorespiration is high due to carbon dioxide levels
reaching a minimum as the enzyme responsible for attaching the carbon dioxide to RuBP instead
begins to fix oxygen.

CAM plants do not undergo the normal light-independent stage of photosynthesis as they are
instead required to produce and store large quantities of malic acid during the night. The malic
acid, created from the breakdown of pyruvate, is then used to release carbon dioxide during the
day in order to continue the Calvin cycle.

CAM plants, with their ability to close their stomata and decrease water loss during the day,
thrive in very dry environments. In the desert where water is scarce, opening their stomata at
night and keeping them closed during the day helps these plants conserve as much water as
possible while still allowing for photosynthesis. However, because they only open their stomata
at night, the uptake of carbon dioxide is significantly slowed and it is much less efficient than the
C4 pathway.

C4 plants are mostly found in high temperature areas, whereas CAM plants are often found in
dry environments. Understanding the differences between the two can help farmers decide which
type of plant they may want to grow to get the most out of their circumstances.

1.2 Leaf Structure and Stomata

The leaves of a plant are the primary location for photosynthesis. Leaf structure is a very
important aspect of photosynthesis. The structure of a leaf is adapted for efficient photosynthesis.
The main model for this is the palisade cell on the tips of the leaves. These cells are packed with
green chlorophyll, which absorbs the light energy. Palisade cells are packed closely together.
This in turn leads to the following advantages, which increase the rate of photosynthesis. More
light can be absorbed because the cells project outwards and so light that hits the underneath of
the leaf can easily be absorbed by the chlorophyll. There is a large surface area for absorption at
any one point. Stomata are tiny holes in the leaf that are opened and closed by guard cells. They
allow carbon dioxide into the leaf and allow oxygen and excess water to escape. Water is needed
for photosynthesis. When water is in short supply, guard cells lose water and become flaccid,
closing the stomata. This reduces and helps prevent water loss. Water loss is also reduced by the
waxy cuticle, which is a waterproof layer of cells over the leaf. All of these features combine to
provide the optimum conditions for photosynthesis in the leaf. This is where stomata and
mesophyll cells are found. Mesophyll cells are what the gaseous exchange by the stomata is
serving. These cells contain a large number of chloroplasts, which are the site of photosynthesis.
The gas that is used in the process and the gas that is produced is exchanged through the stomata.
This is important so that the cells can get and expel the gases they need to in order for
photosynthesis to occur. Oh wow, that is a lot of detail about the processes inside a leaf! Well, it
is quite intricate and this is only a summary!

1.3 Water Conservation Mechanisms

Water can evaporate from the leaf surface into the air spaces within the leaf and then out through
the stomatal pores. Stomatal pores are necessary for the exchange of gases during
photosynthesis, but each pore is an open route for water to escape. The water inside the leaf
transpires, and water is drawn in to replace it, but this creates the transpiration stream which
moves up from the roots, through the stem, and into the leaf. Both xerophytes and mesophytes
show adaptations to reduce water loss from the leaves and conserve water. Some plants have the
ability to close their stomatal pores in very dry conditions, and then photosynthesis occurring in
the spongy and palisade mesophyll will stop. The gas carbon dioxide cannot then enter the leaf,
and oxygen produced during photosynthesis cannot leave, but this is a better solution than
wilting. Wilting is when the plant cannot take in enough water to support the cells, and the cells
lose water and become plasmolysed, which is where the volume of the vacuole and cell contents
decrease, but the cell wall remains turgid. If the plant loses too much water, it will be unable to
recover when water becomes available again, and it will die. Wilting happens in extreme cases of
water shortage, and it is a terrible waste of the plant's resources if it cannot survive the drought.
The stomatal pores are found on the lower surface of the leaf in many xerophytes, which helps to
reduce water loss by evaporation. The water vapor in the air spaces between the spongy
mesophyll could then become more saturated more quickly and reduce the concentration gradient
before diffusion and evaporation out of the stomatal pores could start.

Photosynthesis: Processes, Impact, and Applications

1. Introduction
Photosynthesis refers to the process by which green plants and other specific organisms use
sunlight to synthesize foods with the aid of water and carbon dioxide. The process involves
complex coordination of different pigments such as chlorophyll, chemical pathways, and
organelles such as chloroplasts. Since its discovery, research on photosynthesis has been vital not
only in understanding the survival and development of life on Earth but also in addressing some
of the numerous challenges faced by both animals and plants. Knowledge about photosynthesis
and its importance has led to the development of various applications in different interrelated
fields such as medicine, renewable energy, nanotechnology, robotics, genetic engineering, space
exploration, and food technology. For centuries, scientists have conducted many research studies
on photosynthesis and have produced volumes of literature in books, journals, and other
publications on the subject. Thanks to such a wealth of information, various modern and
historical applications of the knowledge of photosynthesis are being discovered. In general, the
knowledge about photosynthesis goes beyond plant biology. It touches on many fields of
scientific and technological importance. I believe "Photosynthesis: Processes, Impact, and
Applications" captured the emerging significance of the knowledge on photosynthesis since
research and authors are coming up with new findings and writing on different applications of
this knowledge. It is not only a scholarly book but also a resourceful material for those wishing
to gain advanced and current knowledge on photosynthesis and related subjects.

1.1 Definition and Importance of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria convert radiant
energy from the sun into chemical energy in the form of glucose. Glucose is a simple sugar that
is used by plants and organisms as a critical source of fuel and as a primary building block for
larger molecules. A by-product of photosynthesis is oxygen, which is used by a majority of
living organisms for their metabolic processes. Thus, photosynthesis is the primary source of
energy that drives the metabolic processes in the cells of green plants, where it occurs, and is
also the main source of the oxygen that all the aerobically respiring organisms depend on. Given
the significance, impact, and insights that the research about photosynthesis has generated, there
is little doubt that photosynthesis is one of the well understood and one of the most researched
topics in life sciences. The understanding of photosynthesis has also led to a rise in new
knowledge about the functioning of the cells, the relationships of plant and animal cells, the uses
of different types of cells in various organisms, and the way cells sustain life. This has led to
increased research about the treatment of different diseases among both plants and animals and
more especially a focus on understanding the relationship of photosynthesis and various kinds of
cancers. Owing to the significance of understanding photosynthesis, this work seeks to delineate
various aspects of photosynthesis, its impacts, and future research direction.

1.2 Overview of Photosynthetic Organisms

The term "photosynthesis," which means "putting together with light," refers to the process by
which green plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria convert carbon dioxide and water to
carbohydrates and oxygen in the presence of sunlight. The word equation for photosynthesis is:
Carbon dioxide + water → Glucose + oxygen. However, not all photosynthetic organisms
produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis. These organisms are referred to as oxygenic.
For instance, in higher plants, chloroplasts contain chlorophyll; they are the cells responsible for
photosynthesis in higher plants. There are other photosynthetic organisms known as anoxygenic
organisms which do not produce oxygen during photosynthesis. Such type of organisms include
green and purple sulfur bacteria and non-sulfur purple bacteria. All organisms used for the
production of food either directly or indirectly depend on photosynthesis for their energy
requirements. For example, green plants and algae use light energy to make carbohydrates from
carbon dioxide and water during photosynthesis. This is the primary way in which energy is
added to the biological organisms on the earth. Also, fuel deposits like coal and oil are from the
original remains of ancient organisms that depend on photosynthesis. These energy resources
also power the earth as they are currently being burned to produce electricity, heat, and power.
Excessive burning of these resources releases the stored carbon into the atmosphere as carbon
dioxide, thus contributing to the "global warming" phenomenon. On the other hand, oxygenic
organisms release molecular oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. This oxygen is
utilized by the organisms for respiration. For example, green plants and other photosynthetic
organisms produce this oxygen, which is essential for the survival of life on earth. It is
interesting to note that in aquatic environments like lakes, rivers, and oceans, the oxygenic
photosynthesis is responsible for most of the primary productivity. Also, when the currents in the
water distribute the oxygen produced by algae and aquatic plants, the water becomes
oxygenated, and this favors the survival of the aquatic life.

1. Photosynthesis and the Environment

This section describes the photosynthetic process, elaborating on how the sugars are later broken
down and the oxygen is provided to organisms. All of the planet's oxygen production is
described in this section as well. Plants take in carbon dioxide and produce sugar and oxygen.
During the sugar production, energy is also released along with oxygen. Various products of the
sugar breakdown are mentioned in the passage. Plants release oxygen that is usable by other
organisms and is related to the latest lesson where students learned about the needs of living
things: the need for water, air, and food. The students were amazed to realize that a large tree
produces enough oxygen in a day to meet their daily needs for ¾ of a year! These were the words
of my mentor, explaining the significance of photosynthesis and how God has made sure that all
of his creations on earth are provided for. This molecule from "Teacher's Parents Know Stories
for Children" gives a very detailed description of a leaf cross-section at each step of the
photosynthesis process. It describes each part, allowing the molecule to move through each
section as the sugar is made and the oxygen is released. The illustrations are simple and help to
illustrate how the process is a cycle, with one product being used by an adjacent part right away.
A lot of science vocabulary is maintained in the story, hopefully providing reinforcement of
such, which is important for comprehension and laboratory work in this area of study. This text
could also be included in a lesson that integrates literacy and science - certainly more interesting
to students than just reading a textbook!

1.1 Role in Carbon Cycle

With every inhale we take, we breathe in oxygen - something we need to live. One thing we
exhale with every breath is carbon dioxide - a gas that needs to be removed from the atmosphere.
This is where the carbon cycle comes in, because every carbon atom is constantly being cycled
from producers to consumers, and even back to the environment. Plants and other producers take
in carbon dioxide, found in the atmosphere or dissolved in water, and through the process of
photosynthesis they produce glucose and oxygen. Glucose molecule produced can be used to
produce other compounds, like cellulose and starch, used as an energy store in photosynthesis,
used as a fuel in respiration, to provide energy for growth, and to make other chemicals needed
by the organisms. Also, carbon dioxide is also produced during respiration to be released as a
waste product, and in all of these ways carbon can become incorporated into the cells of the
organisms in each of the trophic levels. Features that develop stability include recycling of
carbon through the processes and within communities. That is to say, the carbon in the cells of
herbivores and the products of photosynthesis in the producer cells must be returned to the
environment at some point in the cycles. This happens when organisms respire, when they
excrete waste products, when dead organisms are decayed by microorganisms or when the
organisms die and are themselves gradually broken down. The sequence of processes and the
constant reuse of carbon are adequately described as the carbon cycle.

1.2 Impact of Deforestation

The destruction of large areas of forest has a profound impact on the environment and the
process of photosynthesis. The tropical rainforest, for example, is a region that contains a large
proportion of the world's species including the plants that function as the lungs of the planet.
When these forests are cleared and the wood burnt, the rate of photosynthesis in the surrounding
areas is directly affected. Furthermore, the removal of large trees, especially hardwoods that take
many years to grow, means that less carbon dioxide is being converted into organic compounds
by photosynthesis. This results in an increased level of atmospheric carbon dioxide, the carbon
cycle is disrupted and local climates can change. Local climate can change as the air in
deforested areas becomes drier and the land struggles to retain moisture. This is because the
process of transpiration, the loss of water from the leaves and stems of plants, helps to increase
moisture levels in the air, forcing convectional rainfall. However, as the number of trees
decreases and the rate of photosynthesis drops, the amount of water vapor released also lessens
and the cooler air causes rainfall to diminish.

1.3 Photosynthesis and Climate Change

Global climate change is anticipated to raise temperatures worldwide through the so-called
greenhouse effect. When the Earth is heated, heat energy is re-radiated from the Earth as longer
wavelength radiation, which does not easily pass through the Earth's atmosphere. This heat
energy is absorbed by the gases in the atmosphere, including carbon dioxide, which leads to an
increase in temperature. Given that the enzyme-controlled chemical reactions of the Calvin
cycle, the series of reactions in photosynthesis that add carbon to the carbon chains, are
inactivated at high temperatures, the overall rate of photosynthesis will decrease. Extreme high
temperatures can lead to the denaturation, or the breakdown of the chemical structure, of key
plant enzymes involved in the photosynthesis process, which severely diminishes the rate of
photosynthesis. Therefore, the expectation that higher atmospheric carbon dioxide levels will
lead to increased rates of photosynthesis may not have long-term benefits due to the inhibiting
effect of heat on the metabolic reactions of the cycle.

To a certain extent, the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide can benefit plant growth. With
greater concentrations of carbon dioxide, scientists have observed increased rates in
photosynthesis over many types of vegetation. Studies in controlled environments have shown
that elevated levels of carbon dioxide can create a fertilization effect by increasing the rate of
photosynthesis and decreasing the rate of photorespiration in many plants. The fertilization effect
of increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere has the potential to significantly impact all
types of plant communities, including those that demonstrate water limitations or nutrient
tensions. However, rising temperatures can cancel out the potential benefits of the increased
concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Agriculture and Crop Yield

Presently, crop yields are being much improved through improved methods and technology in
agriculture. However, some of the most important processes that encourage the successful
growth of plants, including photosynthesis, are still used today. The process of photosynthesis
and its many impacts on agriculture are evident as productivity of both crops and animals is
being maximized almost each day. When farmers embark on the use of the natural processes like
photosynthesis in crop growth, they realize that such crops depend much on the use of other local
environmental factors like water and lighting. The LED grow lighting in agriculture is proving to
be the most efficient way of ensuring that the crops realize greater productivity as this lighting
source plays a very significant role in the realization of successful photosynthesis. On the other
hand, researchers have already identified the most suitable irrigation methods that can work
perfectly with the natural growth processes of the crops. For instance, the drip irrigation method
allows water to be gradually supplied to the roots of the crops so that the average humidity and
moisture levels are maintained at the required optimum levels. This method goes a long way in
ensuring that the benefits of successful photosynthesis like nutrient production are maintained
throughout the lifespan of the crops. Also, precision agriculture methods like the use of drones
and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are also being used to ensure that the farm produce is
enhanced based on a proper understanding of the effect of light, CO2, and water in
photosynthesis. By focusing on improving the local environmental factors that support the
photosynthesis processes in special places like the chloroplasts, farmers can now better realize
successful productivity of their crops. However, several factors must be put into consideration
when trying to understand and appreciate how photosynthesis and productivity can be
synchronized in agricultural activities. For example, the lighting levels, carbon dioxide levels,
and water supply are the most important local environmental factors that work in line with the
natural processes of photosynthesis. By understanding such basic concepts in photosynthesis,
farmers can now rely on its impacts for better productivity in the field.