AD/AmOOG 400

CIVIL ENGINEERING CORROSION CONTROL

VOLUME 14114 CATNODIC PROTECTION DESIGN

AIR FORCE CIVIL ENGINEERING CENTER

FEBRUARY 1975

MO W
 Unclnssi 104

-
,* :d.... ' 2. h d CA AV4L--
AFCEC-TR-74-6 Voluze II 0, 0/jOO4
& 1/0
IL WL6 (a" A" Tva or K t. -MOD cavc
Civil Enginoering Corrosion Control, Final Report - May 1972
Volu~e III - Cathodic Protection Design to Nov 1974
6. PEPWSNG CROR7
O MWIR
_____________________________ AFCEC-TR-74-6 Vojy~e
Co.
LeNksH. test,P.E. The linchan
Thomas F. Lowicki, P.E.
The Air Force Civil Engineering Center
0,I"OIQD~NZ'O NAM~E AND A"W9W3 i

SI. CONTrO
CL OFF3cE "AMR AND ADORESS 12. RZPORT DATE
Air Force Civil Engineering Center (AFCEC) FM. 197S
Tyndall AFB FL 32401 ,3. Hi"oR of PAGES
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11h7PILCUNNTAR NOTES
s report is published in three volumes, Vol I - Corrosion
Control - General, Vol II - Cathodic Protection Testing Methods
and Instruments, Vol III- Cathodic Protection Design.

Ii. n~e aw~

gEy WON'Zi (Cepihiu on mvw. aW o OW0"I I*Wtf or W"* -- WSWe)
Civil Engineering, Corrosioai, Corrosion Control, Cathodic
Protection, Impressed Current Systemb, Galvanic Anode Systems.

RIACY an rovw"
;C,~WWM eWde
11 a wflfyby *h A
8;;;4i -
tL report is specifically written for Air
personnel but can be useful to all Agencies Force
of the Civil Enginevrinj
Federal Govern-
ment. It covers mainly Real Property and Real Property Installex
Equipment. It deals with corrosion and corrosion control of
buried and submerged metal structures. Causes an1 theory of
corrosion, material selection, protective coatings, and cathodic
protection application are included. The information contained
heroin will be usefull for solving all corrosion problems en-
countered on real ro rty and roal ropert installd aulEmont.
0 13 wesnIIToN OF i ov 0313 O9SOLEIucZf~E
is 39GCUNITY CLAWIPICATI0N OW TiAIS PAQ9 (*A" )df* CA0
 Best
Available
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PORTIONS O)F THIS REPORT ARE NOT-LEGIBLEs
HOWEVER, IT IS THE BEST REPRODUCTION
AVAILABLE FROM THE COPY SENT TO NTIS.
AP=3-TR-74-6, Val III sbmd be oorrected as folloms 2
a. Shoet 183A# attached, imwert after pope 103.
b. Page 129 - Label anode strings alonag the tank wall as-
*TAM AUMD SUIMGS
c. Page 140 * paragraph 3. - Change Opruposee. to tpurpose'O
d. Umprt Documtation Page,, block 13, Change 0290 to
 ACfC-7-74-0, 'VolU.de III

CIVIL, E.WI .,;:ERI:ul . CORROSION CONtROL

v VOI.JrIL III - CATiODIC PROTECTION DESIGN

Lcwis 'J. v:est, P.E.

The linchm:n Company
Tonas 1. Lewichi, P.L.
The Air Force Civil Enginecring Center

Approved for Public Relense, Distribution Unliriited

I
mI I N II II 1E]
Ini IIIpIIl I __n___m___n_._, , , nmu u m n n~um m= mpms ,., .,.._

AFCEC-TR-74-6

FOREWORD

This report sumarizes work done between May 1972 and Nov 1974.
Thomas F. Leicki was Project Officer. The major portion of
the information in this report was compiled by the Hinchuan
Company under Investigation Engineering Project IE 16-72-1,
control number F33615-72-C-0400 from sources listed in the
acknowledgemmts section of this report. The authors contrib-
uted the remainder of the information for this report.

This report is published in three volumes, Volume I - Corrosion

Control - General, Volume II - Cathodic Protection Testing
Methods and Instruments, and Volume III - Cathodic Protection
Design.
Approved for public release: distribution unlimited.
This report has been reviewed by the Information Office (01)
and is releasable to the National Technical Information Service
(NTIS). At NTIS, it will be available to the general public,
including foreign nations.
This technical report has been reviewed and is approved for
publication.

THOKAS F. LEWICKI, P.E.

Project Officer

BERT Z S-15 WILLI E. RAINS, Colonel, USAF

* Technical Director Commnander
 PPXflFAaf

Th i Ir flrcc'.; riaijor guijec to corrosion contral of real

~&it:i~e..in Air IZtr6; 'lanaisal U~-9, Chapter 4 w~iWas
,iubIishetd August 1'12. Thc corrosion control fid has been
pro, res.-s jg ti.;WUui~~ethods, risterials and equipment
consit~.;tly Icia,. introducec!. Since the Air Force's corrosion

docivetcdin an' dofmti ndo the infmtors,atias !,en

orrosion
eqimnCo contro
r l. Itowascidd
anat thirokes

cntt3Cic Pro~i
e-cflilon Testinit Methods and Instruments
and CatioE 7roe-ton Desiyn.
 I'arula.raph Page

Introduction----------------- I1
Criteria for Protection ------------------
Precautions for Cathodic Protection Pesijj.I

I;.prcssed Current Systcus-----------41

Galvanic Anode Systems ----------------------- S
Examples of Cathodic Protect ion Systems -- 6 75
Catliouic Protection Design ----------------- 77

Examples of Cathodic Protectioni 1esigii-

Corrosion Coordinating Committee
Participation----------------9 168
Installation and Construction Practices - 10 168
43 in Lcnance----------------------------------11 1.99
Recf crence i----------------------------------------201
Bibliography ------------------------------------ 203

Appendices
* Appendix A Glossary- --------- 205
Appendix B~ Department of Transportation
Regualations --------- 209
Appendix C ilcectromio Live Series 223
Appendix D Galvanic Series 224
Appendix E Typical Goverinmen t ~ u i
for Selection of P1ijpe ---- 227
L ILten~ I tndcrtroaid Ltorrosiut. .ourvivy
Ch ec1a Iis t --------------------- 231

Index ------------------------------------ -238

L 1
 - ILLUSTRATIONS

1 asic Cathodic Protection Systems 2

Cathodic Protection and Interference 9

3 ,tjuipotential Lines 10 .

4 Equipotential lines: Deep Awde 12

SAnode Location - Intersecting Pipes 13

S Anode Locations - Paralles Pipes 14

7 Interference Bond Probolem Solutim 16

.. Typical Rectifier Wiring Diagrm 21 I

Single Phase Rcctificr Circuits 24

10 TZsieo- Phase- Rcctifier Circuits 25

11 Constant Current P,eci ie 7

I1
135
Automtic Potential Control 11"ctifier
Simplilicd IDin.ram for ,ulti-Cireuit Constant
27
28

Recti fier Installation

14 Efficiency vs. Operating Voltage for Full Wave 33

Selenium Rectifier'
15 Efficiency vs. Operating Voltave for Full lave Silicon 34
Rect ifiers
16 Typical Graphite Anode Lead Connection 7

17 USr.Cl Type "'" rressed Current Anode 43

Typical Duct Anode 44

19 "utton T)y'c .1modC 45

20 .Nnode-to-Cabe Connection Teflon Seal 46

1 io.le-to-Calu Conect ion-Epoxy Encapsul-ntion 47

Titaniun Anodes
23 T;,pical Silver - Silver Chloride Probe Reference Electrode 51
A ser ,ly ror use withi Plantinized Titanium Probe Anode
v
 FIGIRE PAGE
24, Typical Platiaized Titanitm Probc Anode Assembly 52
25 Cable Connection to Structure 54
26 Cable-to-Structure Connection where Thermit Wfeld 5
Prohibited
27 Connection to Lead Sheath Cable 56
28 Typical Rectifier Resistor Circuit 57
29 ttagnesiure Anodes. 62
30 Crrent Efficiency of Magnesiun Anodes 65
31 ':inc Ribbon Anode for Protection of Pipe Inside Casing 74
32 Typical Buildiig Underground tleat and Waterlines 76
33 Impressed Current Point Type Cathodic Protection for 77
Aircraft Hydrant Refueling System
34 Galvanic Anode Type Cathodic Protection for Coated Under- 73
ground Sewage Lift Station
35 Zinc Anode on Reitforced Concrete ?lock 79
36 Radiant Heat or Snow-Helting Piping 80
37 Cathodic Protection of foundation Piles 81
4 38
3 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection for Existing '12
On-Grade Storage Tank
- I ~Impressed Current Cathodic Protection with 'iorizontal $3
Anode for On-Grade Storage Tank-New Installatioa *

40 On-Grade- Fresh lfattr Tank Using Suspended Aniodes 34

41 Open Water Box Cooler 35
42 Horizontal Hlot-Water Tank- fagnesiuit Anode Installation 36
1 43 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection SYsten. for Sheet 67
Piling for Vharf Construction
44 Suspended Anode Cathodic Protection for .l-Piling in Sea 88
Water
45 Cathodic Protection for l-Piling in Sea Water
46 Cellular Earth Fill Pier Supports 93

47 Etlevated Fresh 'ater Tank Using Suspended Anodes

 FIGURE PAGE
48 :athodic Protection of Tanks Using Rigid Floor Mounted 92
Anodes
49 Cathodic Protection of Hydraulic Elevator Cylinders 93
50 'lydraulic Hoist Cylinder 94
51 Typical Cathodic Protection of Underground Tank Farm 95
52 'asoline Service Station System 96
53 Equivalent Diameter Factor for Anodes in a Circle in 110
Water Tank
* 54 Fringe Factor for Stub Anodes 112
55 Segmented Elevated Tank for Area Calculations 124
56 Anode Spacing for ,3levated Steel Water Tank 127
57 Anode Suspension Arrangement for Elevated Steel Water 129
Tank
58 Elevated Steel Water Tank Showing Rectifier and Anode 139
Arrangement
59 Hand Hole and Anode Suspension Detail for Elevated ater 141
Tank
60 Riser Anode Suspension Detail for Elevated Water Tank 142
61 Dimensions: Elevated Steel Water Tank 143
Cathodic Protection for Tanks Using Rigid-Mounted Button 143
Type Anodes
63 Galvanic Anode Cathodic Protection for Hydrant Refueling 140
System
64 Cathodic Protection System for Gas Main 151

65 Irpressed Current Cathodic Protection of Heating Conduit 156

' Syste

66 Layout of Gas Piping in Residential District 160

67 Crthodic Protection for Black ixon. Hot Water Storage Tank 164
68 Galvanic Anode Cathodic Protection if Undergrcwnd Steel 167
Storage Tank
69 Vurtical Magnesium Anode Installation 176

vii

t
L
 r@izoiat 14 ,11 at~~ii i.~r
Obstrtictircts 3n:mcutog
orfionta3 :!a a.si1
Anode Tis tal-ttio&.17

7 horr.,It lu J, !'oId 1
-J 179
7.2. T)'pic3l Vec-tic:1l tflstallation - ItTSCRC! Anode s
74 Typical VerticalI histallatioa for Tmprc.,;s Current17

Typical U'1A-zontal Installation %aC~C

.otYl is
~ i'~cp hio.4 1nlrLSScd Current Syston, 1
W7 Jury :Oil - *\nodi "Otails 191
7 'olc - kiatd Iectiftr au Fuc2se." c~is

'7Typic~al Pole o-. :al

~.1 ountot! IRcctiLLLr 196
Floor - A.owitctl Rectifior 197
Si1 Rectifier Conicrete Pact 1W6
 I1 co-mrilcal A.C. Supply Vol tageb.'0
2~ 1 ~~1C'o;:posit ion of 1 -n~-S ilicon Chiro;iiuni P-Caring 39)
ron Aaodes
.1 .ochadsical an ?yial. Properties of 1SCC1noc 40
.1 S'taudard Aaio-'., -iSCDCI1 41
.;pccial Anotins - JS1CI 42
C 3"vicail cizc-; or Pllatitizc Titanium Probe Anmdes 49
7 Coke U11v : ckfIi -for -T"-ressed :Cune~it ~
Chemical AfiilisS of :ncsiutm Anodos (Sa~ A- lloy) 61-
'~Itemicn1al ayi of :Inacslumz Anodes (IihPotential) 63
1- Iaguesiu (StandtirdI Alloy) Anodes, Standart! Size for tiso 6
in Soil
11 Maeas iumi (Standare Alloy) Anodes, Star.lar21 S.&-zc for Use 6

12 :apsiu!-. (Stajiard Alto-.) Anodes, Sta:idazr:2, Sized for Use 0

in Condc~nscr ani Mont It.,c4,mn-ers
:,z:~isi(S t . ~Al loyj JoagateO .67

t1s Aloy 1 ur~i bt Soi 6c'

1.) M I Qi i u;,. (tiK' I *llo,,,) .1trude1I A

'od. An odws for '.se In111
16 (:. icl Amilys 1: cC :Zinc .Thotls foi- Soll antd Presh 11hater usc 7"0
17 ~2ei i1 nlysi~s of Zinc AnIodes for M4arine Use 70
14 Standtird Sizes of ic Anodes for use in Fresh Laiter or 72

~ IU
20
11 Special Sizes or _inc Anodes roi- Iie in Frcsh 14ater or'
lnderground
Stan'iartl SiZes o^2ii!c Aniodes for Use in .Sea Water 7

271 Special Sizes oC Zinc Anodes for UJse in Sca Water

22 Pipe SuzraceArc'nAi
ix
 TABLE PAGE
~- . -Approximate Anode iOeterioration Rates 102
24 -The'Shape Function (K) (ISCHCI or Grapt -Anodes- 106

2S Pairalloling* Factor, P 107

H 6 Adjusting Factors for Parallel Anodes .108
2' -Galvanic Ano~1e Size Factor, F - Standard Anodes .111,
2 Sitrueture Potenitial1 Factor, Y 'Ill
29 14tiliying- Tactor fot Magncsiwa Anode Groups 112
_50 Concentric- Staa ftA&A r Single Conductors Direct 1.17
I uiald -Service, Sitably Insulated12
-1 14 Factors10
__2 Technical la t a Comouny Used iiSCBCT Anodes

XC
Sections o th''., r't ,ort :ia'e been prepareJ from oz- teiaI foila(.
!i %...- C.. * "Corroion Control" (1 August 1:62) :ai,
,e ,i' IIpres;ed Current Cathodic Protection S'stems w.ta
Durco Anodes, edited by i.illiaMi T. Bryan, The Duriron Coampaniy,
Inc., :)ayton, Ohio, 1970. In addition, the. following sources
"mvc provided data- found ii ta'lfes and figures, sometimes
revi.el or updated:
Figure Source
29 AF.I S-9, Ch. 4 (1 August 1J62)

6)J, 70, 71 Department of tie Army,

Corps of Engineers

S10, 11, 12, 14, IS Goodall Electric, Inc.

22, 23, 24 ingelhard Industries, Inc.

30 Kaiser ,.agnes ium

31 Americati ,ueiting Refining

Company, Inc.
54 Corrcsion, Cop),rilht sNational
sisoci"t-on of Corrosion
IEngineers
I ab le

1 Goodall Electric, Inc.

,' 3, 4, 3 , 32 Te Duriron Com.pany, Inc.

* fEngelhard Industries, Inc.

lA, i, 12, 13, 14, is Kaiscr Hianesiium

10, 17, iS, 19, UpJ, 21 Ancrican Sme1ltiing ,j ,efi.-An':

Company,. Inc.

xi
 CATHODIC PROTECTION.DESIGN
1 INTRODUCTION. Cathodic protection is a common and
effective means of mitigating or preventing corrosion. It
is generally used together with coatings, test stations
bonds, and insulation. It is certainly not a "cure-all
Its economics and feasibility mus' always be carefully
studied.. An in-depth discussion of cathodic protection is
presented here, including design and related corrosion con-
trol of buried or submerged structures.

1.1 General Description of Cathodic Protection. Cath-

odic protection, as the name signifies, is the process by
which an entire surface is transformed into a cathode. In
other words, direct electric current is forced onto that sur-
face from an "artificial" anode so that potential differences
between anodic and cathodic areas are changed, and the entire
surface receives current. Since corrosion occurs where cur-
rent leaves the metal surfaces to enter an electrolyte, those
surfaces receiving current do not corrode. Thus, where cur-
rent flows onto corroding metal surfaces, a cathode is pro-
duced. Corrosion is transferred to the "artificial" anode
and cathodic protection is achieved.

Cathodic protection is feasible wherever a continuous elec-

trolyte is in contact with a metal surface. It is commonly
used to protect pipelines, cables, tanks, locks, foundation
piling, ship hulls, chemical process equipment, and almost
. any other metal structure in a moist environment. Cathodic
protection is usually most economical when properly coordina-
ted with insulation, coatings, and bonding. Its effect
(interference) on adjacent structures must always be consid-
ered.

1.2 Comparison of Galvanic vs. Impressed Current Systems.

There are-two methods of applying cathodic protection (Figure
1): galvanic and impressed current. To be effective, both
must have:
1. A power source.
2. Anodes which emit current into the electrolyte.
3. A continuous electrolyte to conduct current
from anode to protected structure.
4. An external metallic connection between strun-
ture and anodes.
5.. Electrical continuity in the protected struc-
ture between the metallic connection mentioned in (4) and
protected surfaces.
2.1 Galvanio System. Galvanic cathodic prote-3tion
is basically a controlled galvanic cell (Figure !a). The
structure to be protected is metallically coupled (usually
be means of insulated wire) to a metal of naturally higrher
 x ~~A 2i a ?L a
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(3-0

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(more negative) potential. A galvanic cell (the power
sour,") is thpreby established in which the protected struc-
ture is the cathode and the less noble metal, the galvanic
anode. Current produced by the galvanic potential between
the two metals flows through the electrolyte from anode to
cathode. The system is designed so that sufficient current
will flow from the anode to suppress all local action cur-
rent on the surface of the protected structure. Galvanic
anodes corrode at a rate proportional to their emitted cur-
rent.
Galvanic anodes are usually either magnesium or zinc. Poten-
tial between such anodes and protected structitre will never
exceed one volt.
1.2.2 Impressed Current Svstems. Impressed current
cathodic protection uses external D.C. power to develop a
potential between anode and protected structure to force
current from the anode into the electrolyte (Figure ib).
The anodes, consisting of conducting material which dis-.
charge current (usually at a low rate), are connected through
insulated wires and external power source to the structure to
be protected. Impressed current flows out of the anode into
the electrolyte (the anode corrodes). It passes through the
electrolyte and is received by the surface of the protected
structure which Is now cathodic. An impressed current sys-
tem does the same job as the galvanic system. However, the
impressed current system is not limited by a low natural
voltage (approximately one volt) between anode and protected
structure.
Impressed 6urrent anodes are commonly high-silicon cast Iron
or graphite. The external power source may be any conven-
iently available provided it is continuous. Rectifiers aoe
most often used for this purpose, However, motor-generator
sets, gasoline engine generators, batteries, thermoelectric
cel: , solar cells, fluid turbines, and wind-d'iven genera-
tors have been used.
2 CRITERIA FOR PROTECTION. Different methods and cr1-
teria are available to determine effectiveness of cathodic
protectita. Proper criteria are both valid and practical
to use for the gIven structure. Electrica] criteria are In
most g~neral use for submerged and underground structures,
because they are generally most practical to evaluate for
installed structures.
2.1 Visual Criteria. For readily-accessIble str1U~r.t3,
visual inspection may be used. If the structure' shows visl-
ble signs of' corrosion - corrosion products, pitting, crack-
ing, thinning or other deterioration - then ad(quat-, prot,'c-
tion has not been achieved. This method is obvious but ;,n-
erally very impractical and, ror that reason, is not in in-
eral use.
k variation of structure inspection is the use of "coupons"
if structure metal electrically connected to the structure
at various points. These coupons are usually installed in
the electrolyte at extreme or critical locations where cor-
rosion is most likely (areas of low resistivity, where con-
centrations of corrosives exist, etc.) The coupon is
weighed and stamped with the weight prior to installation.
After a given period (a year or more), the coupon is re-
moved, weighed and visually analyzed -r effects of corros-
ion. From the condition of the coupons, the structure's
state is approximated. While this method is more feasible
than removing an entire structure for examination, coupons
are still relatively impractical for general application.

2.2 Non-Destructive Testing. Non-destructive testing

if
used to determine
of -tructural surfaces is sometImes
.1orsion is occurring. Pit depths and wall thicknesses are
among the most common tests. Where chan--es in these values
occur, adequate protection is not achieved.

One in-place method of detecting internal and external or-

rosion pitting on pipelines uses an electronic nig-type de-
vice with self-containeO recording and evaluation system.
Fluid movement or gas pressure propels the instrument
through the pipe under test. Location and severity of pit-
tin- are recorded for playback to a strip chart, for visual
-xamin:O ton.

Non-destructive testing, like visual examination, is often

too inconvenient, time-consuming, and expensive. Only read-
ily accessible structures can be tested without requiring
excavation or special equipment. This method may be effec-
tive for analyzing many above-ground structures, especially
those (such as tanks or chemical equipment) containln cor-
rosives.

2.3 Failure-Rate Analysis.

Corrosion failures increase logarithmically with time.
When cathodic protection is applied to and effectively
protects a corroding structure (such as a pipeline),*the
failure rate is greatly reduced. This loes not occur immed-
iately, however, because of metal already lost. Mechanical
failures still occur but, with adequate cathodic protection,
corrosion failures should cease after a year or so of oper-
Ation.

an auuue u;ULU 01 r-T.41 Cumulative failures is kept and

plotted with time, the effectiveness of cathodic protection can
be determined from the resulting graph. A record of failures
which exhibits a rate less than logarmithic indicates a degree
of corrosinn mitigation.
 2.4 Electrical Criteria (RP.O1-69). For undergromd

and submergea strActures, the simplest and most often wued

method of determining adequate cathodic protection ic by
electrical measurements. These criteria are Wrules-of-
thumb", determined from experimental and laboratory' tests,
based on visual and non-destructive analysis of corrodln,,
samples.
The National Asaoeiation of Corrosion Enguler "Ii ,.I-11
Standard RP-Ol-69, "Recommended Practice Por ront.ol ol." Ex-
ternal Corrosion on Underground or Submerred Meta-l.Jc Plpl1i',
Systems", lists accepted criteria for this method. 'Thernr
criteria are based on electrical structure-to-electro1jto
potentials with respect to a copper-copper sulfate referene
electrode and are quoted here from NACE Standard RP-Ol-69.
2,A.1 Introduction to RP-Ol-69. "The objective of
using cathodic protection is to control the corrosion of
metallic surfaces in contact with electrolytes.

"The selection of a particular criterion for achieving this.

objective depends, in part, upon past experience with simi-
lar structures and environments wherein the criterion has
been used successfully.
The following criteria "have been developed through labora-
tory experiment or empirically determined by evaluating data
obtained from successfully operated cathodic protection sys-
tems. It is not intended that the Corrosion Engineer be
limited to these criteria if it can be demonstrated by other
means that the control of corrosion has been achieved.

"Voltage measurements on pipelines are to be mad, with th!

reference electrode located on the electrolyte surface as
close as practicable to the pipeline. Such measurements on V
all other structures are to be made with the reference r!le,-o
trode positioned as close as feasible to the structure sur-
face being investigated. The Corrosion Engineer shall con-
sider voltage (IR) drops other than those acrosa the struc-
ture-electrolyte boundary, the presence of dissimilar meta s,
and the influence of other structures for valid interpreta-
tion of his voltage measurements.
"No one criterion for evaluating the effectiveness oP CaLh-
odic protection hat proven to be satisfactory for all con-
ditions. Often a combination of criteria is needod for a
single structure."

L - . 4~j Steeland,__Cast _Tron,_Struatitw.-

a. "A negatlVe catRoalcj voltaie 7ofat .,-st 0.81i
volt as measured between the structure surfacr- and a satur-
ated copperacopper sulfate reference electrode contactin;
the electrolyte. Determination of this voltalC.- is to bo
I~i S
made with the protective currert applied.
.b. "A minimum negative- cathodic) voltage shift of
300 millivolts, produced by the application of protective
current. The voltage shift is measured between the st'cuc-
ture surface and a saturated copper-copper sulfate reference
electrode contacting the electrolyte. This criterion of
vo-tag4- it a piRes to strictures not in contact with dis-
similar metals.
C "A minimum negative (cathodic) polarization volt,-
age shift or 100 millivolts measured bet~efh the structure
surface and a saturated copper-copper sulfate reference elec-
trode contacting the electrolyte. This polarizat.on voltage
shirt is to be determined by interrupting the proiective
current and measuring the polarization decay. When the cur--
M'ent is inl,, Lally interrupted, an immediate voltage shift
will occur. The voltage reading after the imediate shift
shall b, used as the base reading from which to measure
pclarization decay.
d. "A structure-to-electrolyte voltage at least as
negative (cathodic) as that originally established at the.,
beginning of the Tafel segment of the N-log-I curve. This
structurie-to-electeiolyte voltage shall be measured'between
the structure surface and a saturated copper-copper sulfate
reference electrode contacting the electrolyte at the same
location where voltage measurements were taken to obtain the
E-log-I curve.
e. "A net protective current from the electrolyte in-
to the structure surface as measured by an earth curr'ent
tehnique applied at predetermined current discharge (anodic)
points of the structure.
2 .I. "Aluminum Structures.
a. A minim negative (cathodie) voltage 3hift of
150 millivolts, produced by the application of protective
curzent. The voltage shift is measured between the struc-
ture surface and a saturated copper-copper sulfate reference
electrode contacting the electrolyte., See precautionary
notes in paragraph- 2.'.3.c.
b. "A minimum negative (cathodic) polarization voltage
shift of 100 millivolts mwasured between the structure sur-
face and a saturated copper-copper sulfate reference elec-
trod- contacting the electrolyte. This polarization voltage
shift is to be determined by interruptin, the protective
current and measuring polarization decay. When the current
is Initially interrupted, an immediate voltage shift will
occur. The voltage reading, after the immediate shift, shall
tion decay. See precautlohary notes in paragraph 2.4.3.c.
c. Precautions.
(1) Hi,.h Potential. "Notwithstandin; the alre.na-
tive minimum c-ibqe-ia in pararaph. 2.n.3.a ani .
aluminum, if coathodi-ally prot(!ctc.d at vltA-. 1.,, :"
1.20 vltz j ktr-ed between th. structuvc surface anl A
saturated copper-copper sulfate refeirence electrode contact-
ing the electrolyte and compensated for the voltage (IR)
drops other than tho3e across the st"icture-electrolytc
boundary, may suffer corrosion resulting from the build-up
of alkali on the metal surface. A voltage in excess of 1.20
volts should not be used unless previous test results indi-
cate no appreciable corrosion will occur in the particular
environment.
(2) Alkaline Soil. "Sine-, "luminum may suffer from
corrosion under high pH conditions -nd since application of
cathcdic protection tends to increa.,, the pH at the metal
surface, careful investigation or tes-ing should be made be-
fore applying cathodic protection to :ctop pitting attack on
aluminum structures in environments wLth a natural pH in ex-
cess of 8.0.
2.4.4 'Copper Structures.
a. "A minimum negative Tcathodi.c) polarization volt-
age shift of 100 millivolts measured ,etween the structure
surface and a saturated copper-copper sulfate reference
electrode in the electrolyte. This p"larization voltage
shift is to be determined by interrupl-ing the protective
current and measuring the polarizati.on decay. When the cur-
rent is initially interrupted, an immediate voltage shift
will occur. The voltage reading, after the immediate shift,
shall be ed as the base reading from which to measure
polarization decay.

2.4.5 "Dissimilar Metal Structure.

a. "A negative (cathodic) voltage, between all struc-
ture surfaces and a saturated copper-copper sulfate refer-
ence electrode contacting the electrolyte, equal to that re-
quired for the most anodic metal should be maintained. If
amphoteric structures are involved t - could be damaged by
high alkalinity (see precautions, pE graph 2.4.3.c),
they should be electrically isolate, .4ith insulating flanges,
or the equivalent."
2.4.6 "Lead Structures.
a. AlthoUX not parof RP-01-69, the accepted criteria for lead
structures is the same as stated for aluminum in para 2.4.3. In addition,
an accepted criteria for lead structures is a negative voltage of at
least 0.75 volts as measured between the structure surface and a saturated
copper-copper sulfate reference electrode contacting the electrolyte.

2.4.7 "Secial Considerations.

a. "ecial cases such as stray currents ant stray
electrical gradients may exist which require the use of cri-
teria different from those listed above. Measurements of
current loss and gain on the structure and current tracing
in the electrolyte have been useful in such cases.
b. "Abnormal conditions sometimes exist where protec-
tion is ineffective or only partially effective. Such con-
ditions may include elevated temperatures, disbonded coat-
ings, shielding, bacterial attack, and unusual contaminants
in the electrolyte."

3 VIECAUTIONS FOR CATHODIC PROTECTION DESIGN. Care

"' b' iaken to avoid unsafe or damaging currents and volt-
ag -. Designs which result in unsafe conditions cannot be

7
t .l'rated. :.- ethoJt pr.:i1or, ,-.-Ue1ei 1 d,.nl :1 (over-
prote ctio~n) '-an 3ometln.8 dam;jo u' .vt;tl,P0 or, s1tr.', Uvt,, and
must b, l!: . . C.t,..n ;oi. ' ' i*olm(: p1l (h1ii;hl: a, . or
highly " ke.L_ r.e ) , intnt'fe, :iwW1,11 t'ilcti v" cathodet p.-
tection. Frcau ;Iis to connid,vt, aue
aol.fld h.orr Jn more.
detail.
3.1 Interference with Other Structures.
Cathodic protection sometimes causes undesirable
effects on structures not intended to be protected.
Current is received in one area and discharged in
another in travelin!,, back to Its source. Curront pickup
areas where interference current is received arc' actually
eathodically proteered. Current disc;at-ge areas where cut,-
rent passes from metal ourfacr-, to soil or watV.* corrode.
When pipe is joined by m,,chanical, nonconduct;ini, ,-oupling-s,
a compliuvted proble m results If current bypanse., these
joints. Figure 2 illustrates a typical current flow
pattern.
In Jesigning cathodic protection with miniml interference
problems, the me:,lt important single factor is location of'
anodes with ise.pect to tho unprotf.cted tntructure. Figiro 3
illustrates the -f,'ect o!' a point ,,node on various pipint.
configurations. Anole and forelgn structxrc.- are shown.
Cathode is remote and does not aff.. ct anode field. It Is
assumed that ,the electrolyte is homogeneous. If the anod,.
is alone with no other structure In the electrical field.
the pattern of equipotential line.-, surrounding the anode in
concentric ci.-cles (as when a pebl.le ia dropped into a pond
oS still water). Potential is hihhest af; the anode and drops
off in all directions.
if another stmcltur.: cronses I. s :ield of equipotetitial
lines (Zoncentric circles), the potential gradien;t between
lines causps current to flow In the strmicture away from the
anode in both directions, towni,.,t the larre&st diameter ,-qut-
potential 'tircle a: indicated by :rrows on Fimul' 31).
After passing, beyond the large.t circ, '-,rent bek~itrs to
discharge into tlh.e electrol'yte to rettri to thr. cathlodr..
As inicated in Ft "tvce 3c, the farthev from the anod,- t.ir-
structure cro--es through equipot(,.titl lines, the smaller
the ;gadi'nt and thp less the( ctur-ent flow on it.
The cathode field i." similar to that of the anod,, with .Ito
equipotcntial lines, except that iurrntit flown tova'ld the
cathode. Also, unlike the anode which at!ts lfk, : point
structure, the cathode is frequently a long: pipe ,'r cnble,
with equipotentlil lines that are elon;atei eltp,-1 (It,.-ure
Id). If the foreign structure i,; close to the cathud.,,
current flows alon!, both structu'o, in the ,ame fIIre-1Lon.
 2gr
Figreod

CATHODIC~Crroin
PRTCTOrADeaEFEE

An~des(Eachjoint
9 -1
U, EqupctenticI Lines-
Around Anode b) G radi ent'Ca uses ow Away
From Grade

d) Flow Toward
Negative Cathiode Connection

c) No Flow on Pipe Becouse

of Distance from Anode
Figure 3
EQUI POTENTIAL LINES

10
The U scussion so far assumes anode,. cathode, arid rore2gn
st;ruclure In approximately the same horizontal plane. The
vortii:al plane is introduced with deep anodes. These anodes
-v-e pl"aced below the earth's surface at a depth of 50 f'e(.,
* mc]'e so that their field of influence will be farth,.r.
.Iway I'rom most buried structures. If a deep aaod in assumed
t.o be a point, Ito field of influence io a concentric nphere.
Nearby well casings, structural steel piling:, etc. can easily
be ins;ide this field of influence; and the potential gradient
will cause curre.nt flow (Figure !).

St-ructurecs other- than buried pipes and cables ber.ome In-

volved in cathodic interference problems. Power line neu-
ttals, which connect water pipes-, telephone frro, nde, power
jiouncis, and sometimes even gas lines, become a purt ol' the
circuit. Thus it io not surprising to find ci'rent Ilowns,
in pole guy cables, ground cables, etc. Power or commuuitca-
tions cable sheaths, mountcd on poles, occasionally go ,inder-
tr'ound for short lengths. Here they can pick up or dinchar.e
current which flows along their entire length. Even well-
ballasted railroad rails have been known to receive c.urrent
in sufficient quantity to affect signal.I.

Cathodic interference can be detected by meastring structure-

to-soil potentials and current flow (IR drop).

3.1.1 Ground Bed Location and Design. Type and loca-

tion of impressed current around beds dete'mtne field of in-
fluence and, therefore, amount of interference received by
unprotected structures in the area.

Types of ground beds to consider are:

Poin .Surface
Distributed
Point Deep Well

Th- point sul'facc type is easiest to design., and consntruct

but most likely to affect adjacent structures. However, Lt
can be located at an optimum position where its el'f'ct will
be minimal. Distributed systems use more anodes and/ov
power supplies to do the same job. In this way, potential
gradient is limited by keeping ground current concentration
small and allowing anode placement close to the protected
structure. A distributed system also uses less current to
protect the same area of metal. Deep anodes may minimIze
effec:ts on surface structures. However. they cannot be r'e-
paired and may harmfully influence adjacent well canlni's ant
piling.
Figure 5 illustrats a surface anod, Installed b.,twen tWo
fc'rei)n pipelines and connected to a remote cathod. (not
shown). It is seen that current flows in both dlrecthlt:

11
0

Areas

Figure 4
EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES: DEEP ANODE.

away from the anode on the o.,,sest pipe when anode location
is off-center. This anode can :oe moved to the 450 diagonal
for minimum effect.
Figure 6 shows two parallel pipelines, one of which is
cathodically protected. Current flow directions are indica-
ted by arrows. Current flows away from the close anodes in
Figure 6a. By moving the anodes out farther, -current flow
in the unprotected pipe is reversed as in Figure 6b. At
some anode-to-pipe distance between those shown, current
however, it is usually not practical to 1ocate a point where
less than 5% of the anode current is on the unprotected struc-
ture. The anode should b. placed on the far side of the Yal-
ance point so that current flows toward the point of cathode
attachment-.

12
 /

Figur 5
ANODE_ LOCATIONJ - INTERSECTING PIPES

it 13-
 + ectifier

aCLOSE ANODES - FOREIGN STRUCTUIRE CURRENT:FLOWS.AWAY

-- 4 00

Note: ArsIt?5~fatenI ;cfe

F rnStructure

r b)
REMOTE-ANODES STRUCJ'URE'CLIRONT -ibS
-- FOREIGN IN
Figure 6
ANODE LOCATIONS - PARALLEL PIPES.
 3.1.2 'Mtigation;.-Tests iust be made on all struc-
tures adjacent to a-cathodic protection system to determine
effects and design mitigation. (Usually a bond can be in-
stalled to drain current back to its source.)
Pipe-to-soil potential and current flow are measured at many
locations before cathodic protection is turned on. Then
measurements are repeated at exactly the same points with the
system operating. The algebraic difference between on and
off readings is the effect of cathodic protection. The loca-
tion showing greatest pipe-to-soil potential change in the
positive direction is called the "critical" or "control"
point. This is often at the point where protected and unpro-
tected pipes cross each other. Mitigation can usually be
accomplished by installing a bond between the unprotected
structure (at location of natural discharge) and protected
structure (as close as possible to the negative connection).
Mechanically Jointed pipes must not be bonded into a cathodic
protection system unless all Joints are shorted across so
that they carry current. If the "critical" point is cor-
rected by this method to its original otential (reading be-
fore cathodic protection was turned onT, other test points
on the same structure will automatically be corrected. Some-
times, magnesium anodes are Installed at the "critical"
point. This will usually only correct the local area d1.rect-
ly opposite the anodes.
When bonding structures together, it is necessary to drain
only sufficient current or slightly more than enough to
"clear" the "critical" point of exposure. The amount of cur-
rent drainage is mutually agreed upon by representatives of
owners of structures a'ftel. cooperative testing. Bond resis-
tance, to accomplish drainage, is often obtainable by trial
arid- error, as was noted in paragraph 1.2.2.b. If long con-
ductors are necessary, preliminary tests can be made to com-
pute total bond resistance, including all connections, etc.
The method and relationships for this computation are shown
in Figure 7. Subscripts for couplings (R3 ,1, for example)
indicate location of voltage reading and current drain
(voltage read at point 3, current drain at position 1).
Current drained at "I" is rectifier output; at "2", it is
the current flow through the bond. Two sets of readings are
taken. For the first, voltages are read at locations 2, .3
and 4 with the rectifier on and off. For the second, volt-
ages are read- at the same points with the bond in and out of
the circuit. Couplings for each location are then calculated,
equaling voltage change between on and off readings divided
by rectifier drainage current (RtA R 3 1 R4.l) or voltage
.chann~e. with bond- ln anti out 41-vgide b "Au.iwr
AiJ,.
(R2 ,2 3,2

15
 Foreign
A' do 0r''PiPeline

Rectifier

Protected Pipeline-AF

% Interference Current = R3, x 100

or 12 • R3 I II E2 4" V2

a R3 , 2 (E2 4-V2) - R2 , 2
R3,1 11

Figure 7
INTERFERENCE BOND PROBLEM SOLUIION

r6

ii 16
 The Interference effect of the rectifier equals R3lJat
critical point "3r. The protective effect of the 6ond
equals R3 219.. When these quantities are equal, the Inter-
isfoened:a is overcomei. Therefore, the bonid current T2

The potential difference between the two structutres 1Ix the

combined effect of rectifier and bond-instgllations 'I
(R2 111 = TV2 -) plus the galvanic potential (E2 ). Circuit
quals the
ressta~e (Rb). internal resistance (R2.,2) plus 'bond
resistance These relationships provide another expres-
sion of bond current:
12 = E2 + V2
11b + 72

Rearranging for bond resistance, we find:

Rb . E + V2 - R2 ,2- R3 ,2 (E2 + V2 ) - R2,2
=2R 3, Il

This value (Rb) is the bond resistance in terms of measured

quantities.
3. ~crrHiesiy For effective cathodic pio
tection, sufcetcretms flo6w onto the corroding sur-
face to make it entirely cathodic. If too little current
reaches the surface, it vay still corrode. However, too much
current per unit area (current density) can also be harmful.
Extremely high current densities,(reportedly may produce hy-
drogen embrittlement of steel W causiinq absorbti*n
of atomic hydroqen, alttaouqh this phenomenon is
not observed ini the field.
Hydrogen produced by high-current density at the cathode
* might also damage coatings. Aboy, certain voltaqo char-
acteristic of the specific metal, hydrogen ,bubbles-form.
These can exert great pr~sure at coatinq detects
producing coating disbonidina. -For steel , this voltage
is about 1.2 -volts negativd, relative to copper-copper
sulfate. Disbonding Is normalIly a problemonly with thin or
poor ~quality coatings or severe environments.
Reactions at the cathode produce alkalinity here. Alkaline
material corrodes amphoteric metals such as lead or aluinumn.
For these metals, too much-'protective" current i-1s
actually
aluminum or lead structures.
 in adition careful testinq should be made before instal-lina-
cathodic protection on amphoterie metals in environments of
natural pH above 8.0.
3.3 Electrolyte pH., Extreme electrolyte acidity (low
pH-) or alainity (h11gh pH) can adversely affect a cathodic
protection system. As noted in paragraph 3.1. alkaline
material corrodes amphoteric metals such as lead or aluminum.
Alkaline soils or other environments such as concrete will
corrode amphotleric metals and cathodic protection will not
stop- this. In fact, because cathode reactions produce alka-
line material, cathodic protection may increase corrosion in
this situation. Therefore, in cathodic protection of ampho-
teric metals, environment pH should be considered. If pos-
sible, amphoterics should not be installed in alkaline en-
vironmer, ts (pH greater than 8) without prior testing.
Righly acidic environments are not conducive to cathodic pro-
te-tion, for a different reason. When cathodic protection
is applied to a structure, the structure polarizes. Once
i polarized, the structure requires lower current for adequate

[ 1protection. This is a basic part of cathodic protection,

greatly reducing operating costs. In acid environments,
polarization is difficult or impossible to achieve. Conse-
quently, cathodic protection in acid- environments may be
difficult or costly.
".nothe, problem in acid environments Is corrosion of cement
arnf, 'uncrete. Because these materials are alkaline, they
may rapidly deteriorate when placed in acid areas.
In general, with either extreme acidity or alkalinity, spec-
ial tests should be run to determine if cathodic protection
will be effective.
3.4 Safety. Provisions should be made during desi;_gn
for possib operation safety hazards. Danger to persbnnel
and environment should be considered and corrective meas-
ures taken.
3.4.1 Environmental Concerns (Explosions)'. In areas
-designated by electrical and general sarety codes, special
oil-impersed explosion-proof rectifiers should be used. Fit-
• tings should be installed in explosion-proof housings. Such
locatibns include refineries, fuel terminals and fueling
areas, manholes (sewer gas), ammunition depots, and wherever
else flammable liquids or explosive gaseo may possibly exist.
Spcial pree(auhtowsi should be ta1l'i| wheoe dynami,e .l- u'ed.
TO mln3mlZe dang 4j, ui cuPrent flow :,uni zathiudu -protecbuon
reaching detonator caps, cathodic protection systems should
be turned off when dynamite is boinj* usel. It ma:y also be
desirable to turn uff cathodic protecticn durinr l!:t1in or
tinloading- 'lammablec from ponr, I, cov ihip.
 3.4.2 Bonding.. Bonding for corrosion control purposes"
mbe foA in Vol1Imp . Bonding may also be needed
for safety where aIPs,
airpans, or trucks are loaded or
unloaded. This is good prac ;ice eiren if no cathodic protec-
tion is being used on a fuellfng sytitem, because of danger
from static or stray current voltaies. A voltage gradient
through soil or watev may result in a difference in potential
between vehicle and refueling system. This can produce
sparks, causing explosions. A temporary bond providing good
electrical contact between vehicle and refueling station will
prevent this. Care must be taken to assure good contact and
* bond integrity.

Bonding is also used for safety during repal-rs 6f underground

pipelines. Where stray or cathodic protection currents flow
on a pipe containing volatile oils or gases, sparking can re-
sult in fires and explosions when the pipe is cut. A tempor-
ary bond across the cut provides an alternate path for cur-
rent, preventing sparking. Where cathodic protection causes
the only voltage difference, turning off the rectifier during
repairs will also prevent sparking.
3.4.3 Induced Alternatin5 Current. Alternating -cur-
rent can be inauced on well-coar ec, und3erground structures
located below overhead electrical transmission lines. A
structure in such an electrical field. acts, as an induction
coil to produce AC voltage across the coating. Besides pro-
ducing possible corrosion to the structure, this induced AC
may be a safety hazard to the corrosion engineer or anyone
who may come in contact with the structure. Therefore, when
designing cathodic protection or other corrosion control for
well-coated, underground structures, location of overhead
electrical transmission lines in the area should be noted.
Location of test stations in areas where induced AC may exist
should be avoided. Overhead electrical transmission lines
Should also be a consideration during testing.
4 IMPRESSED CURRENT SYSTEMS. Impressed current cathodic
protection systems are always made up of three major compon-
ents, in addition to the protected structure and electrolyte:
1. Direct current power source
2". Anodes (connected to positive of DC power source)
3. Connecting cables

4.1 Power Sources. 'The direct current power source will

be one of the following:
* Rectifier (adjustable transformer-rectifier unit)
Thermoelectric generator
Battery4
Generator - driven by eng .e, wind, or fluid turbine
Direct current - from power used mainly by other
equipment
Solar cell
* Most commonly used
19
 4.1.1 Rectifier. Rectifiers are by far the most coM-
-mqnly used power source for impressed current cathodic pro-
tection. Standard units, constructed for cathodic protection,
consist of an adjustable step-do tI transformer, rectifier
stacks, meters, circult breakers, and transformer tap connec-
tions all within one case. The rectifier converts alternat-
ing current to direct current for use in cathodic protection
systems.
a. Tyoical Rectifier. A wiring diagram is shown in
Figure 8 for a single phase full-wave bridge-type rectifier
most commonly used in cathodic protection. This diagram also
illustrates the switch recommended as a safety device with
most rectifier installations. -Elements ofthis and-.other
rectifiers and optional features of 3ommercially available
types are described here.
(1) Transformer. The transformer steps down supply
AC voltage to that required for operation of rectifier stacks.
Transformer taps are usually included so that output voltage
may be adjusted manually. These taps should permit adjust-
ment of rectifier voltage from zero to maximum in even steps
of not more than 5 percent rectifier rated voltage.

The transformer consists of an iron core with two electric-

ally separate wire coils wound around it. A.C. supply volt-
age is applied to one coil ("primary winding") producing a
magnetic field in the iron core which induces AC voltage in
the second coil ("secondary winding"). The ratio of primary
to secondary voltage equals the ratio of primary coil turns
to secondary coil turns. Secondary voltage is varied by tap-
ping off oE~i of the turns (coarse and fine adjustment). The
easily magnetized core is made of special steel which does
not retain magnetism.
(2) Rectifying Elements. Rectifier "stacks" perform
the actual conversion from alternating to direct current.
The stack itself is an assembly of plates or diodes in various
configurations (paragraph 4..l.b). These permit current
flow in one direction only, producing pulsating DC output con-
taining a'"ripple" component of A.C. No rectifier is 100%
efficient, and a minimum of li of output power is A.C. In
addition, there are losses in efficiency because no rectifier
diode blocks perfectly reverse current flow. Typical real
efficiencies are 60 to 75% for a single phase rectifier. Cir-
cuitry (paragraph 4.1.1.b) affects this. Rectifier effici-
ency is calculated according to the equation:

efficiency (%) = AC input ower x 100

ut power

Rectifiers used in cathodic protection are usually selenium-

oxide plates or silicon diodes. Silicon exhibits superior

go-
 To. AC. Fbww tgy

Fus'-'

v IV

Rejctifier Stocks sui

-Norgtive to Stract,-re
+ pwsit;. to
V'Anodes
Fipir It
TYPICAL RECT I If WIRING DIAGRAM

21
efficiency; and a.1Ptng characteristics (selenium loses its
efficiency as time passes). However, it is prone to power
surge failures and will not be deperdable, unless combined
with a selenium circuit and speclal protective devices.
Sililcon and selenium are compared in paragraph 4.l.l.d(7)-.
(3) Circuit Breakers. Circuit breakers are another
basic element of rectifiers. They provide protection from
overload and a convenient on-off switch. Thermal, thermal-
magnetic and magnetic types are used, although magnetic
circuit breaker, have found widest acceptance. Circuit
breakers are located on each A.C. supply line. Where more
than one direct current feeder is used, separate fuses are
lised In each branch circuit.

In addition, a eused switch should be installed on the A.C.

stde of the rectifier, for additional protection (F'igure 8),.
(11) Meters. Cathodlo protection rectifiers should
,on1.a1in two direct current instruments to ihdicatc output:
a voltmeter and an ammeter. These may be separate circuits
or "unineter" construction (one meter provides both volt and
ampere readings). Because they arm easily damaged- by light-
ning, these meters are separated (except when bein-, read)
from the operating circuit by switches.

Rectifier meters are generally standard D'Arsonval movemenits

type, drawing 50 millivolts at full scale.
". Roctifyln, Circuits. Various rectifier wiring
Lrra tgi meiits are pcssible to produce different characteris-
Lics. Some of these circuits are:.
Single phase bridge
Single phase center tap
Three phase bridge
Three phase wye
All these*produci, full wave rectification. Although at least
one special rectifier (paragraph 4 .1.1.c(3))
uses harf-wave
rectification, the full wave type is most often used and gen-
erally considered most effective. The pulsating nature of
half-wave rectification is iihely to produce noise on: commun-
ication lines.

In general, three-phase rectifiels are more expensive than

single-phase rectifiers of the same size (if both are avail-
able in that size). They are, however, more efficient (Oara-
graph 4.i.l.b(3)). A rule of thumb to determine which type
is more economical is to consider D.C. outpuv power (watts-)
(voltage in volts times current in amperes) (reference 18).
If iz abovQe
,:enerally 100Q
-f poer
circuit w-ta., eff/Iciency eo2 the three-_phase
outweig:hs htgzher Initia~l cost. Pelo 1000.
the -single pha-.e_ is more economical. Near 1000, both types
should be considered and relative costs and uff!ciencies
compared.
The thre-ph;( wyccir.-' ,I" or, -. '
wave rcctl!'twatlun, but out 6f ph;.:,: so 4i.C.
p111" ttJ on are minimial.

22
 (1) Single Phase Bridge. Single phase bridge
rectifiers are mosc commonly used in cathodic proteotion.
(This is because th iy are cheaper and more easily adjusted
than center tap units. A diagam of this circuit is shown
in Figure 9b. It contains four cells. (If any one of
these fails, or changes resistance, the other three fail.)
Current always passes through two rectify-ing elements. One,
on its way to the load, and one, on its return. At any
time, two diodes are conducting current wkile two are block-
ing current. The result ii full -wayeD.C, output, one-half
of'the A.C. wave rectified by each pair of diodes. Because
Of diode arangement, current always flows through the load
in the same direction (positive (+,;to hegative (-)) in
Figure-- 9b).
(2) Single Phase Center Tap. This circuit, shown
in Figure 9a, contains only two rectifying elements.
However, its transformer is heavier and less sensitive to
adjustment than bridge units. Full-wave output, as in the
bridge circuit, is obtained. However, only half the trans-
former output is applied to the load, as seen in the dia-
gram. This type is more efficient than bridie w red-units.
However, it is also more expensive, physically heavieb, and
more bulky.
(3) Three Phase Bridge. The three-phase bridge
rectifier, diagramed in Figure 10b, operat(s like three
single phase bridges, except each bridge shares a pair of
diodes with one other bridge. There are three transformers
producing secondary voltages which reach their peaks at dif-
ferent -times. This "out-of-phase" o eration produces D.O.
output with less A.C. ripple - only .5%,
(4) Three-Phase Wye. This circuit, shown in Figure
lOa, produces only half-wave rectification. The three-
phase Wye contains only three diodes, oach connected to a
transformer. The three trans'ormevsproduce A.C. voltage
out-of-phase with each other. This type rectifier is prac-
tical only for low D.C. voltages.
c. Special Rectifier Type-, Rect-fiers have been
developed with special characteristics, differing from
standard circuits. Some are monitored to maintain constant
structure-to-electr'olyte potential or constant current out-
put. These and other special units are discussed. hera.
(1) Constant Curren- Rectiiiei% A constant current
rectifier uses- automatic control to maintain constant direct
current output over varying load resistance. This is gener-

saturable reactor. A saturable reactor usually uses thrce

separate windings'on an iron core. The two outside or gate
windings are connected to the transformer A.C. output. The
Inside or control winding is connected to a D.C. supply
wi-thin the. CtiPfd E. -When DC. Issuppl-tedo the control
winding, it saturates the iron core with magnetic flux to a

II~mpedance,
degree proportional to the amount of D.C. This lowers pat-
in effect removing part of the core from the

I 23

L}
 ................

Transformer

A.C'. Input

IWPOA

aSINGLE PHASE CENTER TAP CIRCL4T

I Stacks
I Transformer

A.C. otu
Input

b) SINGLE PHASE BRIDGE CIRCULIT

SIGL PHASE RECTIFIER CIRCUITS

24
 D.C.

00

D.C.
output

Figure 10
THREE PHASE RecTiows CwCLxrt:
circuit and lowering resistance to current flow through the
gates. A Small deviation in D.C. input power can result in
a large change in A.C. output power. Figure 11 shows a
schematic of a constant current rectifier.
(2) Automatic Potential. Control Rectifier. An
automatic potential control rectifier uses a reference elec-
trode installed near tha structure and a saturable iveactor
or silicon controlled reactors (SCR) to maintain constant
structure-to-e2lectrolyte voltage. This voltage 'difference
is the input to a control circuit which compares actual
voltage with the pre-set desired voltage. The controller
then varies rectifier output through SCR's or saturable re-
actor, if necessary (Figure 12).

Typical reference electrodes include zinc anodes, copper-

'copper sulfate electrodes, silver-silver-chloride electrodes,
or stainless -steci ground rods. These are located near the
popuect-d stru .ure, but out of areas of high IR drop around
anodes.

A saturable reactor is described in paragraph 4.1.l.c(l).

Silicon controlled rectifiers are similar to silicon diodes
in that they allow current flow in only one direction.
They contain a third connection (gate),. In order for any
current to flow through the SCR, a positive voltage pulse
must be applied to this gate. Current then flows for the
remalnk.r of the A.C. half-cycle. The amount of SCR output
-ur nG depends on where in the half-cycle the pulse is ap-
plitd. The control circuit, acted upon by reference voltage
input, determines this.

SCR's may make up a portion of the rectifier stacks, or they

may be a separate control varying, for example, transformer
or stack output. SCR's require surge protectors and, like
other silicon diodes, mountin6 on heat sinks.

Automatic potential control rectifiers are used for cathodic

protection mainly where electrolyte resistivity varies
widely-with time. Typical applications Include protection
on ship hulls,, on power-station travelin( gates, or inside
water storage tanks.
(3) Multi-Circut, Constant Current Rectifier.
This special, patented rectifier (Figure 13) contains
separate circuits for energizing up to eight or twelve im-
pressed current anodes, for use in protecting underground
tanks, etc. These are relatively inexpensive and simple to
install Each anode is connectedr o, a ineciIfin
nodule
containing a silicon diode and a resistor ('lob to 500 ohms,
ipproximatu):. The moditles are mounted in a case and con-
not.l, throlbJ, "m r flust and swliuh, directlybio the
110 volts A.C. 1In,-. This power is used dlrectly; no
down transformem 1h, inplulorl. The r-ectifier- n, ;'ati-ce i- c(n1-
nee;ofl to thj A.". eneural, which is "jrun,i " tro :r oVt;r

26
 CONSTANT CLU1VENT RECTFIER

A a nI
lnput Am

o Figure -12
AUTOMATIC POTENTIAL-,CONTROL RECTIFIER
 11ov AC
• sili onDiode Resistor

Rectifier
Mod~ule,

Curret

Tonk

Figure 4'3
SIMPLIFIED DIAGRAM FOR MULTI-CIRCUIT
CONSTANT CURRENT RECTIFIER INSTALLATION

piping and tanks, etc. This ground must be checked prior to

installation to assure connection.
The system is designed to deliver near constant current (100
milliamperes i-10%) from each anode. Each module resistor
controls current output because its value is large compared
to other circuit resistance. A lamp is used in some models
instead of a resistor. The system is quite simple, but
problems can arise. Only one diode is used in each circuit,
producing half-wave rectification. The pulsating current
thus produced can cause noise problefiis on nearby communica-
tion lines. In addition, although small currents (compar-
able to those produced by galvanic anodes) are used by this
r-ystem, the possibility of stray currents still exists. The
110 volt A.C. power Is used directly, without a transformer,
and current may pick up on structures other than tne one to
i e pr.oec~od and i;ravel back to the power- company's A.C.
transVormrr several bloks away,
(1) Other Rrcttl'iers. Standardized rectiflers have
been developed 'or use mainly in gas and electric distribu-
M,,In. These combin, atl;ractive appearan.:e wIth enomy In
"c rtntbdar unit. ,Tmnce may be burl,- I o, mount.'-1 on- -r%',

28
 ,T T M 97..,

Rectifiers are available containing several individual single

phase bridge circuits In-one unit. These produce a wide
range of current and voltage outputs, depending cn 'Whether
series or parallel circuits are employed. In some models,
stacks may be added. to increase current output.
d. Comiercially Available Types. A number of manu-
facturers stock standard sized cathodic protection recti- V
fiers, offer many optional "extra" features, and will build
,most special units to order. Features now available include:
Constant D.C. voltage or current output
Multiple circuits
Air cooled i .o61: immersed
All A.C. Vt~e iuputS, three,phase or single
.phase
Center tap or bridge circuits
Variety of combinations of D.C. voltage and
current output
Efficiency filters to minimize A.C. ripple
Interference noi-se filters
Explosion-proof
Small-arms proof
Lightning and surge protection (A.c. and Z.:.. es)
Silicon diodes or selenium stacks
Painted or galvanized cases
Mounting legs or brackets
Direct burial
External "on-off" idicators
Variety in price and quality
(1)" Air Cooled or Oil Immersed. Rectifiers are
available as air-cooled, pil-immersed-stack units and total-
ly oil-immersed units. Most units are air-cooled, but oil-
immersed rectifiers -should be specified for corrosive, dirty,_
or explosive atmospheres. Air-cooled units have a lower ini-
tial cost, and are easier to install and repair. They are,
however, subject to poor ventilation due to fouling of air
screens by dust and dirt and stacks corrosion, which can pro-
duce loss in efficiency or complete failure -of stacks from
overheating. Oil-immersed rectifiers are completely en-
closed and easily kept free of dust, dirt, and insects; they
are essential in hazardous locations. In general, air-
cooled units should be specified except where danger of ex-
plosions, high-ambient temperatures, corrosive atmospheres,
or high humidity conditions exist, and in windy or dusty
locations.
(2) All A.C. Voltages, Three-Phase or Single Pha 3o.
Choice between three-phase or single-phase rectifiers was
discussed in paragraph 4.l.l.b. The bridge circuits are
generally chosen because -of higher efficiency and greater
outputranges. Center-tap circuits are practical only for

29,
Rectifiers are availab.e with all A.C. voltages used in in-
dustry. Input voltage has no effect on rectifier efficiency,
but it may affect installation and operating costs. Recti-
fiers are built which can operate on two different A.C. in-
puts, such as 115 and 230 volts. If existing power lines
are to be used, they must be compatible with rectifier in-
Out voltage.

Where a choice is available, Table 1 can- be used to deter-

mine -the mo..t economical choice, in terms of installation
and operation.

Table 1
Economical A.C. Supply Voltages (Reference 18)

Rectifier D.C. Rating Single-Phase Input Three-Phase Input

(watt, = volts x amps) (volts A.C.) (volts A.C.)
Up to 2700 1i5 208
2700 to 5400 230 230
Over 5400 440- 230
Over 7500 440 440
(3) D.C. Voltage and Current Output. -Cathodic pro-
teeierior ectifiers are commercially available in a wide
Pedirect current outputs. Direct current voltages
, , c jolts to 120 volts and direct current amperage from
"Iampres to 200 amperes are common. Almost any direct cur-
rens, rating can be supplied, but from an economic standpoint
It In; generally best to consult a manufacturer's catalog and
select a standard size.
(4) Filters. Filters increase A.C. to D.C. conver-
sion eff:tciency and minimize noise interference for communica-
tions lines by reducing A.C. ripple in rectifier output.
The- D.C. output power level remains essentially the same,
while A.C. input power is decreased. Such a filter can in-
crease the efficiency of a single-phase rectifier 10 to 14%.
Decause threc-phase rectifiers are more efficient to begin
with, an efficiency filter will generally not increase their
efficiency appreciably. For single-phase rectifiers, effi-
ciency filters can save money on operating expenses and often
pay for themselves in a very short time.
Noise interference filters are used to reduce interference
in telephone and other communication equipment. Generally,
these fi1lJters- als-o aomeciably redtLce A..C. ripple in sinrle-
planc. rVectifiorT1.
(5) Explos1on-Proof. In hazardous areas such as
refineies and *hemicatl plants, special explosion-p-'oof
oect!irers should bo uoed. Thrse r,. Opeciaj l-.rnersed
i'I Liimth *i'.L',.a3 I "1, l t ':, 0ni
: |ri * xp. r ,r'-pro, iru" 1; "s

30
Sudih rectifiers conform to Safety Standards for -Class I
Orbup D hazardous locations.
(6) Lightning Arrestors. Lightning arrestors on
input and/or output are frequently specified option. They
are standard on many rectifiers containing silicon diodes
because of potential destruction from surges. These arrest-
ors prevent damage to rectifier and other circuit compon-
ents in lightning areas by conducting the high current until
it subsides. Lightning arrestors may be of several types
including arc-gap, or rare gas.
(7) Selenium Stacks or Silicon Diodes. Rectifying
elements are made from semiconductor c;ystals into -which
other elements ("impurities") have diffused. Diffusion is
controlled so that the resulting crystal has increased re-
sistance
sistance to
in current flow in one direction and decreased re-
the other.

Semiconductors used for stacks in cathodic protection recti-

fiers are generally either selenium or silicon. Germanium
rectifiers have found little use in the cathodic protection
field. Early rectifiers used only copper oxide stacks, but
these were replaced by the more efficient selenium stacks.
Some old installations may still contain copper oxide recti-
fying elements.
Selenium rectifiers are used where efficiency is not a major
consideration (for small power demands or where dependabil-
ity is most important). Silicon rectifiers are used for
larger installations because their greater efficiency can
save on operating costs; they are, however, less dependable.
(a) Selenium Stacks. Selenium stacks consist of
nickel-plated aluminum base plates coated on one side with
several layers of selenium crystals. Selenium and desired
impurities are vaporized and then deposited on the plates.
A thin layer of metal, called' the counter-electrode, covers
the selenium surface, acting as a current collector. In
some cells, an artificial barrier layer made of lacquer is
inclided between the selenium and counter-electrode -to in-
crease reverse resistance. However, this' material decreases
efficiency and stack life, gradually deteriorating or
"aging" from operational heat. Aging is accelerated by hilh
I
forward current and high operating tbmperatures. Cells not
containing this barrier layer age much more slowlvj and therefore
are sometiui s called non-aging sggen1q. Selenium rectifiers may
contain a number of stack in se e o, parallel for in-
creased current or voltage capacity.
Selenium plate life is determined almost entirely by plave
oneratinirtmertr -0-crat"ng, -teripernti iiii
by amount of heat dissipation and amount of current deliv-
ered through the stack. The more current in the forward
direction, the more power lost in the stack, and therefore

31
the more heatin; of the piate. Also, heating is produced
by reverse current leicage. Therefore, 1the more voltage ap-
plied to a stack, the more heating from reverse current.

Heating produces higher operating temperatures and "aging".

Aging increases resistance to forward current flow. Power
loss for a given amount of current may increase to a point
where conversion efficiency is too low for practical opera-
tiorn. The aging effect is somew4 ':predictable and can be
determined by measuring forward voltage drop and reverse
current of the unit (reference 18).

'.igh current density and high temperatures will accelerate

aging of selenium stacks. Temperature is the more destruc-
tive. If selenium stack temperature is kept moderate, high
current densities produc6 little aging acceleration. On the
otlwr hand, if the temperature of the selenium plate rises
ecessively, even with very low current density, aging is
uccelerated greatly.

Extreme temperatures are generally produced by uneven stack

h(:ating, caused by a loose connection 'or damaged plate or
by voltage surges. If a voltage surge is large enough, the
stacks will be completely burned out' requiring replacement.
Possibly the surge could damage only one stack in a unit.
For instance, a bridge type rectifier containing four stacks
no,. two pairs in a bridge, and a fault in one stack would
1i;.n -e one path, forcing all the current to be carried in
the other path. *If this condition continues with two stacks
carrying all the. load, accelerated aging and early failure
of the unit would result.
(b) Silicon Diodes. A silicon diode is made from
a single 6rystal of silicon, into which impurities have dif-
fused. A section of the crystal is sliced off and enclosed
in a metal case which is then mounted on a copper or alumi-
num plate. This plate dissipates heat built up during
normal operation.

Because a silicon diode is made from a single crysta,, it

does not age or fail gradually. like selenium. This is a
definite advantage over selenium. However, voltage surges
or overload currents will cause a single crystal diode like
silicon to fail completely whereas such corditions would
only age a selenium stack. Protection, such as quick action
'uses, voltage clamping devices, combination silicon-
selenium circuits, and lightning arrestors can minimize the
possibility of silicon diode failure.

Silicon rectifiers show insreased efficiency of up to 10 per-

cent over selenium on higher voltage ratings. -Curves show-
ing operating voltages versus stack efficienny for sing le and
thrce-phare full wa' e, brid ;r- type rectifiers art. ohowr in
Fi ure 14 for selenium and Fiure 1. for ' 1 .A,.

32
 2voltDC-

ba

707

Actual DC Operating Voltageo

Fiur 14
EFCINC VS. 1C-gvoltAG
OPRAIN

LIA/
UUL 50L~L~UMI~W~

Thre xm
 100,

90

70ulD Oeuig otg

15n
Figure
EFIINC S OAIG OTG FRFLLWV SLCN0CNS

Ci() terOton. Nueos pios esds hs

eatursmay er
intluded atuadeou
cotios bauacer'ds ta-s

logs-should be conodulted-for information-on specific options.

ators 4..1.2
can L~e Thermoelectric
considerea wfereGenerator.
po-wers notThermoelectric gener-
available and cur-
rent requirements are small. Heat is converted directly in-
to electrical power. This is accomplished through a group-
* of thermocouples arranged electrically in series and ther-.
mally in parallel (a thermopile-). One end is heated by the
burning fuel; the other is cooled by fins. Heat flux results
Kfrom _th -Ateznp ara- gzdU in the therrnovile, and v-lectri-
rcty is produced through the therma'c6idples._ Thermoelecti--c
generators ar'e presently available in sizes,from 5 watts
through approximately 500 watts.* Their price is prohibiltive
Per many appliclatins. In ordecr to achieve desired current
ouatput, they may be arranged- in series, parallel, c~r ~mi
tIon sattxp3. They: are sometimes installe:.d at I.,lte
 c =
* , - ....... - --- - - L = q" -- • ? .

locations along
from. the lin e. pipeline rights-of-way and powered 'by fuel.

.1.3 Batter Batteries, like thermoelectric gener-

ators, Mnty be uiewIhere power,is not available and current
i'requ-rements a. smal : a well-coated st.:uture in a remote
area, for exampTe. Unlike thermo-electric generators, bat-
teries require frequent replacemeft or recharging.
- .. 4 .Oth'e Sources. Other direct current sources
are soinetimes used, especially where no power exists.
Engine-driven generators are one type. Wind-driven genera-
tors were used in the early days of cathodic protection be-
fore rectifiers were commonly available; sofe of these units
are ;still operatinf-. An experimental fluid and/or gas tur-
'bine has beein developed f6i' use in gas pipeline transmission
t- ,rovide pOotedtion for a major water course crossing.
S,3ar cell-storage battery uisits are another experimental
power source. These units contain solar panels which col-
lect heat from sunlight :and generate electricity during the
day. At night, the Storage battery supplies power.
Finally, where direct current is supplied for other electri-
cal equipment, such as aboard ships, sometimes it is conven-
ient and economical to use it also for cathodic protection.
4.2 Anodes. Impressed current anodes must be made of
material with a deterioration rate (weight loss per unit of
current emitted) that will provide reasonable anode life
from a practical amount of material. These anodes must also
be rugged enough to"survive practical application in a vari-
ety of electr'olyte environments, while being commercially
available at reasonable cost.
A v7!iety of materials can be used as anodes in impressed
current cathodic protection systems. Scrap iron or steel
might be employed. This can be in the form of junked engrine
blocks, rails, pipes, etc. Abandoned and "in-place" pipe-
lines or rails are sometimes thZ. most practical and economi-
cal anode for special situation6. They are, however, con-
sumed at about 20 lb./amp-yr. Important materials for im-
IF
pressed current anodes are discussed here. In addition to
bare anodes, anodes packaged in selected backfill are also
available.

4.2.1 Grapo.ite. Graphite anodes -are mado by fusing

coke
increasescarbon
or p4rt l-e-s
resistance at very hick. temnmopaitur-.,tn,
to oxidation.
a. Specifications. Typical specifications for i
graphite anodes are given here.

35
 Chemical Properties Percent :b. Weight
Impregnant - -. 5 max.
Ash -1.5max.
Moisture and volatile matter 0.5 max.
Water soluble content 1.0 max.

Physi cal Properties Value

Dniy99.~i n 1br
I) cu M~-.max.
- Resistivity - ll.,0Q x I0- ohm-cm. max.
The cable connection to the anode must De-able to withstand
a pull of, 325 pounds
b. Sizes Available.
Surface Area
Weight, lb. Size sq.ft.
25 Graphite 7-in.dia. x W0 in.long 4.-O0
27 NA Graphite 3-in.dia. x 60 in.long 4.0
63 Graphite 4-in.dia. x 80 in.long 7.1
68 NA Graphite 4-in.dia. x 80 in.long 7.I

Graphite anodes are generally simple cylinders with the lead

end impregnated with paraffin for a foot or so to minimize
the possibility of moisture contacting the lead wire. The
1pad wire is not installed by the anode manufacturer, but by
-,he distributor. One -.thod of lead wire installation is in-
~tetol in Figure 16. Type NA graphite used in seawater
pPp-C, ions is impregnated with linseed oil in a vacuum-
pri. sure process to eliminate pores.
c. Characteristic4. In graphite anode manufacture,
p trol,_um 'oke crushed to less than 200-mesh size is mixed
with coal-tar pitch. The coal-tar pitch serves as a binder
to hold the coke together until processing to graphite is
complete. The coke is converted into jgraphite in an electric
resistance furnace at 2800°C. Any pitch not driven off is
also converted into graphite so that the rod is essentially
all graphite except for impurities equal to 1.5 percent maxi-
mum. However the anode has a porosity ranging from 20 to
30 percent. Linseed oil is used to impregnate the anode to
reduce porosity and prevent absorption of watelr. This is
especially li p6rtant in seaater anodes as chlo,!ne produced
by the anod( _ill be formed internally leading to disintegra-
tion of the anode. Anode failure in this case is mechanical
and not duo to selective attac'k of the Ihdlr-as such-.- In
fresh water, the nascent oxygen formed reacts with graphite
to form carbon dioxide.

A1l corroslon produots from graphite anodos are jra ,,s. Oxy-
gt-n, chlorine, atad carbon dioxide are producei: at the anode
surfac(,. In fresh water or soil, carbon dioxide and ox:.en
are produerd. In .-Jawater, the main gaz formed I. .Thlorine
with .esoser amournts of oxygen rud carbon d I' t?,i
gase. formed do not diffuse -away from the arndv throui th-

F'
 No. 8, 7-Strand-I4MWPE

E -1,

Colusnd Gro~liteAnod2,
(Plain or Type-N-.A.)

Dvivo LoadStrands Curled over

TYPICAL-('IAMIT1E ANODE LEAD CONNECi KION

37
 electrolyte, the g_..3es will displace moisture or water in
the anode vicinity, effectively insulating the anode from
the surrounding media. Anode resistance then becomes Veryj
large and remains at a high value as long as the anode is
.... operated.

Because graphite anodes do not produce an anodic film during

operation, any portion of the anode in contact with low resis-
tivity media deteriorates more rapidly than the remainder.
After the aitode has been consumed in the low-resistivity sec-
tton, it is, for all intents, inoperative, due to high resis-
tance caused by shorter length and higher resistance between
anode and media. Graphite anodes are therefore very sensi-
tive to nonuniform environment.

When the top of the anode is in contact with low-resistiviti

media, the ent ire anode may be lost in a short time from
selective corrosion. This type selective attack, commonly
referred to as "necking", occurs near the electrical connec-
tion to the anode, severing the lower portion of the anode.
This may be corrected through use of carbonaceous backfill
around the anode.
d. Operation. Graphite anodes should not be operated
at current densities exceeding 1 ampere per square foot in
Foils and 0.25 ampere per square foot in fresh water. At
*-urrent densities not exceeding these limits, the average
vtE-riorate rate will be about 2.5 pounds per ampere-year.
" A her current densities are used, the anode tends to be-
come less electrically conductive. Reduction in conductivity
Is rlud to attack along crystal boundaries which separates the
raphite into individual crystals, softening the anode.
Under these conditions, the anode quickly loses conductivity
causing cathodi , protection to become inoperative in as lit-
tle as one or tW years.

Graphite anodsa should not be operated at current densities

exceeding-3.75 amperes per square foot in seawater. At cur-
rent densities not exceeding this limit, Dhe average deteri-
oration rate varies from 1.6 to 2.5 pounds per ampere-year.
Deterioration of 2.5 pounds per ampere-year corre ,onds to
a current density of 1.0 ampere per square foot (.z less;
deterioration of 1.6 pound per ampere-year corresponds to a
current density of 3.75 amperes per square, foot.(Referene 19.)

The potential between steel and graphite in contactith-Soi)

or water is 2.0 volts. Thus, a voltage-in-exc-e-s of 2.0
:olts must be impressed by the rectifier to cause current to

4.2.2 High-Silicon Cast Iron. Cast iron containing

-14 to 15 percent silicon plus I or 2 percent other elements
(crbon, ,wangan,.-s-, molybdenum) has b'en us offeitivelr as
nudo material in the past, in low-chlorine erWironmentc.

31
This naterial .has been used for over 50 years, in engifieei. rig..
equipment such.as pumps, valves, and special products for. '.
the chemical industry. The cast surface is readily and: con-
tinually oxidized with-a-thin flm of silica (Si02 ), develop-
Ing a pas3ve surface, which further retards corrosion, de-.
creasing the deterioration rate from approximately 20 lbs./
ampere-year to less than 1.0 lbs./ampere-year.
Where gases of the halogen family are generated and in intim-
ate contact with the anode for an extended period of time,
however, the film does not prevent attack. Localized cor-
rosion and pitting occur with time. This is particularly'
applicable to chlorine, which is very aggressive and readily
developed during electrolysis of water containing relatively
low concentrations of chloride ion.
This observation resulted in the developmerb of a modified
high-silicon iron alloy resistant to these aggressive condi-
tions. Nominal compositions are identical except the im-
proved alloy (high-silicon, chromium-bearing cast iron,
HWocWI) containis about 4.5% chromium. This element,.along
with silicon, forms a more passive and stable film, resis-
tant to chlorine under aggressive conditions. HSCBCI anodes
have replaced. the silicon alloy for cathodic protection use,
and are presently the only ones commercially available.
4 2.3 Mh-Silicon.Chromium-Bearing Cast Iron
in M 110HSU= i99 i5' as1R properties that are conuon
ioril7etals. They are dense and homogeneous, assuring uni-
formity throughout. They cannot absorb moisture and become
soft, losing electrical conductivity. Typical composition
is given in Table 2.

Table 2
Percent
in n.
Chromium 4.50
Carbon 0.95
MAnganese 0.75
Iron Remainder
Table 3 lists some of the more important mechanical and
physical properties. HSCBCI anodes have higher strength
than
mki nonmetallic
them subjectanodes; however,
to fracturve their
from, very
severe lcw elongation
mechanical or
therml shock.

39
 Table -3
Mechanical and Physical Properties of HSCBCI Aodes
Tensile Strength (1/2" dia. bar), psi 15,000
Compressive Strength, psi 100,000
Hardness, Brinell 520
Density, gr/ml 7.0
Melting Point, 1F 2,300
Specific Resistance, micro-ohms-cms (200 C) 72
Coefficient of expansion, 320 to 212'F 7.33 x 10-6

Because HSCBCI is an iron base alloy, it possesses the good

electrical properties common to all metals. (Its specific
resistance is 72 micro-ohm-centimeters at 200C.) In addi-
tion, unlike graphite anodes which require several volts im-
pressed at the rectifier to overcome the galvanic potential
difference between carbon and steel for any current to flow,
HSCBCI anodes produce current when only the slightest volt-
age is impressed. HSCBCI anodes exhibit superior conductiv-
ity and lower back EMF than nonmetallic anodes. Also, very
little change in resistance is noted with time, unless the
anode is damaged.
a. Standard Anode Shapes and Sizes. Typical standard
sizes of HSCBCI anodes are listed in Table 4, along with
*om general applications. Type M (Figure 17) is generally
lised for military applications; this anode is available with
both ends cored for Joining.

Additional "special a.,odes" - variations of standard sizes

and other shapes - are given in Table 5. Type G "duct"
anode and Type K "button" at.ide are shown ii Figures 18
and 19. .HSCBCI ancues can be produced only as casti.Igs,
This somewhat restricts their length, but allows consider-
able flexibility in design. Special anodes for specific
problems can frequently be produced, but are generally more
oostly than standard anodes.

40
 Table 4
Standard Anodes HSOBCI
Weight
Nominal Each Area General
T Size Lbs. Sq.Ft. Application Special Features
B l"x6O" 12 1.4 Fresh water Each end enlarged
tanks, to 1-1/2" dia.
With cored open-
C l-l/2"x6o" 25 2.0 ing for joining.
Open box Uniform 1-1/2"
coolers dia. with cored
requiring opening both
lengths ends for join-
greater
than 5 ft. ing.
CD 1-I/2"x60" 26 2.0 Groundbed One end only en-
with back- larged to 2"
fill. dia. with cored
opening for
CDD 1-I/2"x60" cable connection.
26 2.0 Groundbed Each end enlarged
'with back- to 2" dia. with
fill per- cored openiig
mits join- for cable con-
ing in nection.
D 2"x60"r 44 2.6 series.
Groundbed Uniform 2" dia.
without with cable con-
backfill. nections on one
D 2"x60" 60 2.8 Mild saline end only.
Each end enlarred
or deep to 3" dia. with
well with- cored oprnin .
out back- for joininr.
J 311136f fill.
80 2.5 Severe )no ,-nd oily: or-n-
ground, ].arg:ed to '"
deep well dia. with cored
or seawater optiinj for
backfill. ion.
113x60" 4.0
110 Severe
grounddeep On,. ,-nd
larced onl%, -
to h"dia.
well or sea wit~h cor,:d open.-
water with- lti. Pot' crtbic*
SM 4 -1/2"x60" 220 out backfill conn,.-ti un.
5.5 Seawater wli Unntm, i11-/0"
high current ,t1.wlth co, ,
discharge por opn.liv , ea,'
anode. p'tjlj. Veln11io.
I.WO nabl1, Coll-
i 1 rl,
:!;
, oii , "I4
rr(l ' 1
 Table .5
SpecialAnod-es- HSCBCI
Weight Area
Nominal Each Sq. General
Type Size Lbs. Ft. Application Special Features
BW 1-I/8"x9" 1 0.2 Elevated Lightweight flexible
fresh water assembly with con-
tank. tinuous cable.
FC 1-1/2"x9" 4 0.3 Dist.system Cored opening each
in ground end for Joining
trench, anodes in series.
G 2"x9" 5 0.4 Underground Inside configuration
cables in permits single cen-
ducts. ter cable to anode
connection.
B-30 1"x30" 7 0.7 Telephone or Cable connection end
electrical l-I/2"dia.(Half of
ground rod. Type B Anode).
C-30 1-1/2"x30" 1.0 Dist.bystem Cable connect-ion end
12-1/2 for more 1-1/2" dia. (Half of
difficult Type C Anode).
applications.
CD-30 I-i/2"x30" 13 1.0, Dist.system Cable connection end
for more 2"dia. (Half cf
difficult Type ODD Anode).
applications.
M-30 2"x30" 30 1.3 Dist. system Cable connection end
for more 3" dia. (Half v,
aggressive Type M Anode).
applications.
K-3 3"x3" 6 0.25 Small heat "Button" anode with
exchangers integral cast bolt
and like for attaching to
structures strdcture using
with limit- suitable gasket.
ed mounting area.
K-6 6"x2-I/2" 16 0.5 Ship hull, "Button" anode with
lock gate, integral cast bolt
heat for attaching to
exchanrers, structure using
or any suitable gasket.
other struc-
ture with large
flat surface.
K-12 12"x3-7/16" 53 1.0 Ship hull, "Button" anode with
lock ate-. intezral cast bolt
heat ex- for attaching to
changers, structure using
or any other suitable gasket.
structure
with large
rlat surfacr.

J4
 - 7
1N~ " ;'v~ j~

No. 8 -7-Strand
lnsu1ated Copper cc_
Cost- Epoxy Kesj'rj Cap

* Two Jythylene
Compression Wasbers
Seal ing Compounid
-Coulked Lead'

Tinned Wires

60-2

Fiue17
HSCICi r'?E "M" IMPRESSED CI*RENT
ANODE

'3
a) FLEXIBLE DUCT ANODE ASSEMBLY

PolyehylemTwo Polyethylene
Caulked Assemby ~ on Wshers

SpecfiedS"a Compoimd
b) CROSS-SECTION OF TYPICAL DUCT ANODE
Figure 18
TYPICAL DULCT ANODE
 Button Type Anode

Busing (Teflon War Hull Pointed withVinyl

Syst~e Epoxy esin

Insulating Saaet Coating on Hull
(Polyester Gloss)

Steel Strop

.H lIi
!~ull Liner
"0 Ring, Rubber Cable
Steelas'
/__ r Stuffin%Tube
Was.ier

Was .er, Corrosion-Resistant ire Nut, Cormsion-ftesisn:'t ".

se Bronze Cover
F Ia Lug

Figure 19
BUTTON TYPE ANODE

b. Electrical Connections. Because HSCDCI anode's are

axtremely hard and not easily drilled, the electrical con-
nection is made using special techniques. Maximum accept:-
able resistance between cable and anodc should bo 0.01 -hm-.
High molecular weirht polyethylene (HMF4E) insulated copper
cable is fitted into a cored hole in the anode end. Thii
hole, enlarged at the internal en-,, is partially filled with
lead to securp the cable, and then carefully sealed to ex-
cludp moisture. An epoxy cap, 1-inch high minimum, covers
the top (Figure 17 and Figure 20 show additional Tni'lon
FEP seal).

It is desirable and has becomen more common praetice to .-Inp-

plement the above moisture seal with an external opo o n-
capsulation (Fiizure 21). When properly applied, this fea-
ture will preclude a current discharge and roui Iin,- of the
anode end. (Ileckini; occurs here, as with ,raphite a,,oI.'. )
This is&jAQmandatory
.....
4"14" 3--inaccosr'ible
,rg for --
1--3,v
liaionc. locatlons
ivuvinj, such as
"cait deep
w:aber
and/or temperatures above ambient.

'5
 t

lntarface
Sealant
K No. 8,
7-Strand Copper Cable
wi th HMWPE I nsul ation

Heat Shrinkable Etched

Teflon (FEP) Tubing

Epoxy Cap, I" High

Interfoce Seon Minimum Integral with
Annular Seal

F Washer 1/4" Thick

Caulked-Heat Shrinkable Etched

Lead or"Teflon (U~P) Tubing

Anode

Figure .20
ANODE-TO-CABLE CONNECTION - TEFLON SEAL

46
 -~~ -, - -- 'V ~

Interface Sealant

No. 8, 7-Strand Heat Shrinkable Etched

Copper Cable wi Teflon (FEP) Tubing
HMWPE Insulation Epoxy Cob, I" High
,,inimum, Integral with

Iiand
00External Seal on Anode

Note:
!i*Ust-ance Across- Cable
Anode Should be No Washer, 1/4" Thick
More Than 0.01 Ohm
Maximum 11
Potting Compound

Caulked Lead

Tinned
Wires

Figure 21
ANODE-TO-CABLE CONNECTION - EPOXY ENCAPSULATION

L 47
The anode-to-cable connection is the weakest point of any
impressed current anode, and requires careful workmanship
and quality materials. A representative number of any anode
shipm should
.t be carefully inspected- ard tested. Sels
shouldibe wel-bonded and of speciied maie als. Anode-to-
cablercsistanc hould be below theanmi'eimum value stated
above. Occasionally, spectrographic analyses of the alloy
should be made.
Anode-to-cable connections may or may not be made andinsu-
lated by the anode casting manufacturer. If not made by him,
th casting manufacturer assumes no responaibility for their
xiiaJlity.
, .2.4 Aluminum. Aluminum anodes are sometimes used
for cathodic protuetionof the interior of water storage
tanas. Thr main advantages are lower initial cost and
li ,Int weight. The corrosion products of the anode do not
contaminate potable water. The deterioration rate of alum-
inum is 6.5 pounds per ampere-year. Commercially-available
anodes are not over 75 percent efficient and are consumed at
a rate of 9.0 pounds per ampere-year. This high consumption.
rate is undesirable and, because of it,.- HSCBCI anodes or
raphite anodes are being used instead of aluminum. Alumi-
nm anodes are generally used only where a one-year or so
1'e Is required (icing conditions in unheated tanis, etc.)
n addition, alloying is extremely critical, making this
n oxiaimpractical for most applications.

i.2.5 Platinum. Platinum wire is sometimes employed

as an anode, pcenerally to protect internal surfaces where
space It limited (internal surfaces of pumps, pipelines-,
wells,, etc. ). Platinum is essentially isoluble (approi-
mately 0.00001 pound/auiperti-yoaie In flowing seawater at cur-
rent densities from 50 to 500 amperes per square foot - see
reference 20). However, this metal is fragile and prohibi-
tively expensive, and is used mainly as- athin coating omver
other noble metals (pararaph 4.2 )

4.2.6 Platinized Titanium (Tantalum, Niobium).

Titanium is a7Fnh,niTiey-,rea i ,which forms an adherent,
,cEiave
etal
inert oxide film in most corroding modia. Very little,ur-
rent will leave this ourface, once the o-xide has formed, be-
rnause .he oxide has high elri-trical resiMntance. This elimin-
ates the uzu of titanium itzelf as an anolo. However, if~ a
thin layer of platinum is plattd onto t1tanium ( lplatinizt~d
Ft ~ ^SV ^4 W'..
.%JT- ~UI-. ".-'0 1,A~I.L through
pla'~tinum Into Win electrolyte.
Plti1r-d titanjium anuderi ar. -.aclly fabvicated andJ op, rate
,,: rcurront d.*.It ls('~rl~ r'm
).h (ta~'e
Only nt v'~r", ._'mall pltii±l I :jo -i in, ts~i~
 requirel for mr:st applications. Fully platinized and parti-
ally platinized anodes are both manufactured. The partially
platinized anodes allow current flow only from platinized
areas. These anodes are stronger and less expensive then
solid platinum. Deterioration rate is low, essentially that
of solid platinum (0.00001 ib/ampere-year in seawater).
Platinum thickness of 100 microinches is typical.
Anodes that are fully platinized can withstand extremely
high voltages. Howeveri those which are only partially plat-
inized are subject to voltage limitation ("breakdown volt-
age"). The breakdown voltage is that at which titanium
oxide decomposes. This value varies from 8.5 to 14 volts
anode-to-electrolyte voltage (reference 21) depending on
electrolyte,, film. thiacess, surface roughness, and salinity
of water. A system voltage of 12 volts is generally perm.s-
sible.
A typical platinized titanium anode system is shown in Figure
22. It consists of five components: The metal to be pro-
tected; a reference electrode (Figure 23) mounted on or
near the cathode surface; the anode(s) (Figure 24) mounted
through the walls of a tank or similar structure, or sus-
pended from a dock or pier (electrically insulated from the
cathode); a control amplifier which signals the power source;
and the power source itself.
In addition to titanium, platinized niobium or tantalum
anodes are also available. These metals form oxide films
like titanium. Numerous configurations are available; the
anode of Figure 24 is typical. Commonly-available sizes
of this anode are given In Table 6.
Table 6

Typical Sizes of Platinized Titanium Probe Anodes

Overall Extended Platinized
Diameter Length Length Length

3/4 inch 20 inches 15 inches ' inches

3/11 inch 12 inches 7 inches 3 inches
3/ Inch 23 inches 18 inches 9 Inches
inch 20 inches 13 inches '1 iches

1/2 inch 20 inches 15 inches 6 inches

j 1/2 Inch 17 inches IR inches 5 inches
1/2 inch 23 inches 18 inches 0 inchne

9
-Electrcal ?Poier-

controller

m ent na

Fisurfa22

Cumi
 (7) -(8)- (9)(2 ()

3I

1~Gland - Packi~ng
2.Extension - Electrode
3. Assembly - Elemeht
4. Sleeve - Pilot
5. Sleeve. - insulator
6. Lug - Terminal
7. Washer - Plain, 3y'8, - N1. PL,BRS.
$8, Wahr - Lock, SPlit 3/8 -CAD. PL. STL.
9. Nut - Hex, Lt.Jam - 3/8 - 16 UNC-2 B, NI..PL.BRS.
10. Head - Universal, T/C

Figure 23
TYPICAL SILVER-SILVER CHLORIOE PROSE REFERENCE
ELECTRODE
ASSE?4LY FOR USE WITH PLATINIZED TITANIUM PROBE
ANODE
 Covei Electrical Connections
with Insulating:Grease
Standard
The rmocoulde,.
Condulet Terminal.
H Wrap with One Layer
Pipe Ipe Tape
Structure WallI

- atiniz Lth

[- -
Standard Fitti.n
for Anode Mounting 4
K6 -- 6
~15' I

Teflon Sleeve

ills 20" -,
Figure 24
TYPICAL PLATINIZED TITANIUM PROBE ANODE ASS,,ASLY (1/2-INCH)

4.2.7 Alloyed Lead. Alloyed lead has found some use

as a seawater anode. Alloys of silver, antimony, tin, or
combinations thereof in small percentage were considered.
These Vorm a surface film of lead dioxide (or lead peroxide)
which is conductive. As the oxide film forms, the rate of
lead deterioration drops off typically from 2 to 3 lbs./
ampere-year to approximately 0.2 lbn./ampere-year. Th,. oxide
film tends to decompose at moderate current densities and is
thus limited to a range of about 3 to 25 amperes/foot . The
alloyed lead anodes are seldom used because other materials
have proven morc dependabl.p.
4-z 3 thorn System Components- In addition to anodes and
power sources, impressed current cathodic proteatiwn systems
contain a number of other system componen ;s.
11.3.1 Coin,,I.. ,ir Cablor. Th: cables whl-'. , . t !e
itsu'lly ,ir.,d op ribmep
VO1:4.L',,,d L.n an ec. ,otr .

52
(However, sometmes it is advantaireous to use overhead pole
lines or "cable racks" on adjacent structures.) For that
reason, high quality insulation must be used. This is es-
pecially critical on "positive" cables (those which are con-
nected to the positive terminal of the rectifier and lead
from it to anodes) because any break which would allow cur-
rent to pass out of it and into the electrolyte will mean
cable failure. A further discussion of cable insulation is
found in paragraph 7.7.1.

The conductor is usually single conductor stranded copper.

(ASTM Specification D-1248-70, Type l, Class C, Category 5,
Grade J-3 for IMWPE insulation, Specification ASTM B-3 for
conductor.) Number 8, 7-strand is the size used for most
impressed current anode lead wires (HSCBCI). Number 4,
7-strand is used for all bonding. Number 2, 7-strand
or larger is required in military applications for the posi-
tive rectifier cable (rectifier to anodes). Test station
wires are normally Number 12 solid copper test wire.

4.3,2 Splices and Connections. Splices and connect-

ions in an impressed current system should be kept to a
minimum to avoid excessive circuit resistance and/or current
leakage throuteh pinholes. Wiring is most often buried or
submerged in an electrolyte, where even the smallest pinhole
in insulation will mean rapid failure. The loss of protec-
tion could be for long periods before detection and would
represent ncstly repairs, usually involving excavation.
Rectifier circuits are low voltaige; thus, any increase in
resistance will substantially increase power costs and may
reduce proteation eff'ectiveness.

It is necessary to splice r.'ah individual anodce into a

"header" cable unlzss abnormally long individual leads are
used betw..n t-:h anod.- and rectifier power supply. The
cable-to-anode cnn. ction is critical point in all atholi.
protection sy-temz (Paratzraph I.2.3.b). In addition,
there is always ,onneetion from thr' rectifier to the pro-
tected struture which Is equally, critical.

Ever:, connejtlr, rh,,ull b ,car;c'ully inspected bffl r- -n

after in.ulti-in with material of a quality at 10.arl equa]
to that of t.he -able,, Thermit-welding; of cab1e-to-:if .:ucture
cr cable-to-cab!a ,onn ,'tlon7 is preferable whert po..1ble.
This proviv's ihe'e ,reatost likelihood rof a Iriw ru'sIt4'n,-
,.*onnP_-tic.,, withcut 31z'ble chance of breta1,'p, or .,u'rs.
bul1 ]up .. ;e-fperin - with the connecti,)n. A cable cv,nrt, Pt tno
to structur, uslni , a thermit weld t' shown in Foigr- 20
A typical cable spll.o using a thermIt weld wan shown in
47 I'11i'ti .1~U~o and Vt-aile'i apecit'irmtions
for this Is founrA in parairaph 7,8.

53
 Insulated
~Hot Coal-Tor Copper
/ Cable
Conductor ThermitWeddEal

to Structure

Structure
Figure 25
CABLE CONNECTION TO STRUCTURE

Alternate cable-to-structure connections is shown in Figure

26. These are applicable in areas where thermit welds
may no; be used, due to damage of fire or explosion from
'he ei thermlc weld process.

Alternate splice connections include mechanical connections

of various types. Crimp-type and split-bolt connectors are
most common):( encountered.

A cable connection vu lead sheath cable is shown in Figure

27.
4.3.3 Resistor Box. Where several anedc oircuits
are supplic current from one rectifier, It in. sometimes
useful to employ a "resistor box" (Figure 28). This is a
terminal box containing variablc resistors, each connected
Into one an,.Ie cirrmiit. Thenu resistors are varied to pro-
vide necrs:;ur., nurrcnt level. to each circuit, in order to
taintain al quatp rvnthidic proteotion without overproteetion
(proper current listributlor.).
4.3.-4 B±l'ill. Backrill in used irournd anodes in-
tL.r''1% 4n *- ttro rialtin qw-iLtuit .cnthtarn. and
lo:al corro.-ioit ot" l1it anorl,, trifav.,. It mav :I ioi,,!n.t,',an,
•nodt 11,4, by b,.Vt,' .rurn I tt;teli. I417t1 "ilsoi pr*vi'i.
"tuni r' *ii n t.o inotl(-" I hollr mol,tuo'v

trouAxtrMi, 54
 Wire Stripped of Insulation

Pipe

Silver-Bearing Conductive
Epoxy Cement iu.t Pipe to
Connector Interface and
Cable to Connector
Interface

Wire Stripped
of insulation

o) GROUND CONNECTOR

ThermitCable

Solder
Plateoat Thermit Weld and
Solder Joint with Col;-

u)SOLDERED METAL PLATE

*Figure 26
CAILE-TO-STRLCTURE CONNECTION WHERE THERMIT WELD PROHIBITED

55
Copper Conductor, Insulation Stripped Off,
Solderad to Lead Tab and Coated with Hot

Lead Tub

I ' Min.-0

Pi pe

Figure 27
CONNECTION TO LEAD SHEATH CABLE

5$
 From Positive Terminal
~ of Rectifier

-. ~ '~% t Rigid Steel Conduit

Risistor, 100 Watt Min.

PoieHeader Cwabltohno
e
Copper plit Bot UesiWtor
ul s atBox Tr
Connectors~~
e
a
Figur 28
CRCUT
T~ PCAL ECTIAELRSISTft
1" x 1" x 4

Reisor
 !I
"Carbonaceous" bankfill material is usually used. This
material is most often coke breeze (essentially finely divi-
ded, low resistance carbon part.:cles). Typical physical and
chemical specifications for impressed current anode backfill
are given in Table 7. This material is used with both
HSCBCI and graphite anodes.

Table 7

Coke Breeze Backfill for Impressed Current Anodes

Physical Analysis
100% to pass a 1/2" screen
35% to pass a 3/8" screen
20% minimum to remain on 1/8" screen

Moisture
Chemical Analysis (by9.5
weight)
to 14.7%
Volatile Matter 3.0 to 3.14%
Fixed Carbon 78.22 to 78.110%
Ash 18.6%
Sulphur 1.20%
Resistivity shall be a maximum of 50 ohm-centimeters on a
dry basis not under pressure.

Coal coke will usually meet these standards without exten-

sive ti-atment. Petroleum coke must be calcined. Natural,
o'r flake graphite might also be used.

Backfill is often used around impressed current anodes in-

stalled in the earth. It performs the following important
functions:
Lowers anode-to-soil resistance
Helps eliminate gas blocking
Permits use of greater current density
Permits uniform deterioration of the anode
Extends anode life.

In effect, backfill extends anode length and diameter to

the dimensions of the surrounding backf ill, thereby reduc-
ing anode resistance tu ,:round. In some soils, particularly
tirht clays, the functioning vf the anode may be impaired
with time, unlers. backfill is used, because of oxyfen that
builds up on the anode surface. This .onditlon is known as
)ga3 blocking and retards current flow.

Backfill should be thoroughly tamped around the ancdvs to

-. liminate eas blocking. and to achtv,, P:oad ,loctrical con-
tact to anode surath. Dkrthri irnIlnrmatlo vn
,1,jti,, in
holes for anodi- in fund in parai, .iph 7,5.

58
 'i.4 Advartat,,e. of' Impressed Current Cathodic Protection.
TmpressedJ !urrent cathodic protection has several advantage.
ov(r galvanic anodes. (Advantages of galvanic anodes are
disc 1sed in paragraph 5.4.)

Impressed current system output Is not limited by a natural - -

galvanic potential; consequently the output can be varied
relatively easily. A change in rectifier output in a prop-
erly designed system -will overcome the effects of change,,
in environment and structure surface. To, change -the output
of galvanic anodes, the number of anodes must be altered.
This requires costly excavations.

In high-resistance environment, impressed current can be

supplied with comparatively few anodes and a minimum of
effect to other structures. This is both a space and cost
advantage over galvanic anodes.

Impressed current has another space advantage over galvanicI

systems: anode beds can be more readily located at the
point where current will be supplied most efficiently. Pos-
sible ground orientations include:
deep anides (50 feet or deeper)
distributed
multiple, low-output unit~s
tank and vessel interiors
inside duct systems.
(Examples of various cathodic protection systems are giveh.
in paragraph 6.)
4.4.1 Deep Anode Installations. A deep. ajod, .nctal -
lation is defined as one with anodes located at "adopth of'
50 feet or greater below grade. Current is emittod:, at thIs
depth so that only a small percenta?,e is received by romdi -I
structures close to the surface (chose not beiig pla.wd
under protection).
4_.4_.2- Distroh, ttle'!. A distributed anode instal]Itio
is enerally consijered as one midc up of a greater rumber
of anodes than usual, with all anodes placed relatively
close (I to 201) to the surface of the protected stru,:tu'.
and the current distributed over the entire surface ar,'_.

4.4.3 Multiple Low-Output Units. This arrangemnenL

refers to a number of small installation,; consisting of f w k
anodes and low, output power cource with each. The,4u %M1
uised in place of frwer largo' units to reduce c'urrent dens-
ities and total power cost.
4L_.. " a,.nd VVZSei Interiors. Relatively small
anodes are located in positions whorc-they will emit cur-
rent to surfaces needinir protection without excessive

59
displacement and/ - changes in fluid flow characteristies.

4.4.5 Inside Ducts. Connected multiple lead anodes

are located in utMi,-iE ct systems to protect metal-
sheathed cables (a special type distributed anode system).

5 GALVANIC ANODE SYSTEMS. Galvanic anodes generate

their own current. Each galvanic anode is connected to the
structure to be protected. They are simply pieces of metal
which cove]n, m, appreciable potential between themselves
and the Otvucture, discharging current into the electrolyte
and onto the structure surface. For practical purposes,
the amount of cathodic protection providedw.by a galvanic
,,ode is considered proportional to:
1. Potential between galvanic anode and protected
.. t ri ture.
2.,, Resistance of electrolyte.

Thereofore, anode output and effectiveness is best deter-

mined ,by trial and eror (using test anodes, fo-r example).
Aimy qher method is merely an estimate, based on the experi-
;'-nce of the design engineer. Such factors as moisture con-
tent 'and composition of environrient, coazing quality, polar-
Ization characteristics, and seasonal variations greatly in-
fluence output. With impressed current, rectifier output
is altered to overcome these variables. With galvanic
anode?:, output is set. Testing is important in determining
,a ot,-anode output, Just as in determining whether a
..t,,re will oorrode in a given environment; the principal
in uoth instances is the same: the corrosion behavior of a
. Iven metal in a given electrolyte. Therefore, experience
Is especiall.y Impoitant with galvanic anode systems. Pro-
tctlon requirements can ,oe computed; actual anode output
.U1 ol,[y be .sTiin I -alos data fron, actual installed
%nio'.ks is used.
q'lvanic anodes used f'or cathodic protection are usually
:'WvnesIum, zino, or aluminum. The maximtum potential be-
twr-et thoi;u ano.l - and a protected structure will never ex-
eia ';at tIn excoss of one volt. Current flows
uU a l'l1." lr.tvl into th. ele;trolyte. It passes
t*ii,u 1i Ih, *.l-utriYte and I.- taeiuved by the surface of
h, ;,,.o ':t.d :,tL.icture, it passse through the protected
.i ,,ij .-1ure to th,, In'ulated cable an- fcllows this cable
~ I.
Ii,, ', tw.' :ai. anIt, anode.

I Aoiodvo. (;%1vaIc 'modo, like Impressed %.urrent

L.',d.
J' i i =it
b made. of mat.,rial rith a deterloation rate
'111i,'I1, o1' mac,1,al. Anodteos oianot be Loo ,-oatly or f'ra "ile.
Thr, pi|,ntil
[tihr,
,11'rer-.nce bu-tw'..n Ulore imd .truatu.: muzlt
h)s,!-A; ,,hough force
ro ad,.uu tu proottve virtert ot.
t;'Itl"1,'1 p.'. 4ab,.r,'l.r wtl the....-,)irac1ori~ti; w'hl h
 are cu.rrently use~d as practical -t1vani- anodes inttde mai-
nesiur., zinc and a 1 ,iminum.
available* . .las I.iagJrz'::;iuu.
jastings and Maj exLurions i.uin weights
v;iu jja|i:.g
;.tu . Cuni'
:L.',e a. I~
Ly from
1 to 200 pounds (Figure 29). A variety of shapo, are
available for 4pplication in :oil, conid, sers, tanks, healt
exchangers, and inside large iate valves, to mention a few
practical applications.
a. Alloying. 1Ao alloys are commonly used; these ai-'
peforred- to as stahdard and hih-manganese (high-potential).
Typical specifications for the.e alloys are shown in Table:.
8 and 9. The high-manganese alloy yields approximately
20 to 30 percent more current output, with resultinG shoi-tc'r
life, and an increased driving potential (open cir',tlt) of
-1.75 volts relative to copper- copper sulfate as opposed to
-1.55 volts for the standard alloy. In addition, -a .o-
called "High Current" anode is available. This is a elon -
ated standard alloy anode which generates 4t0 to I50 pc-erit
higher currents because of ibfcvuased surface are': (ASITM
Specification AZ63A).

Magnesium is subje-t to self-corrosion which varies wtth

alloy composition and impurities. Metals considevoed impuiril-
ties in magnesium anodes are usually: iron, nickel, copper,
"silicon, lead, and tin. All these impurities form intet.-
metallic compounds with magnesium which are cathodic to the
surrounding magnesium and tend to increase the amouiit o'
self-corrosion. Self-corrosion restricts th--, usabl, :r.rper -
hou:'s of magnesium anodes.

Of the listed impurities, nickel can be the mosi; dr-.i;xment;al,

producing a marked reduction in current effi-i ,n..y vhi.n
present in amounts exceeding 0,.005 percent. I'iolc,'ks
second in detrimontal effect, causing almost as much s'.f-
corr.osion as nikel when present in the same.qiantity.
Copper, lead, tin, and nilicorn have slirhtl.l,: ler"n , on
magneslum anode effliciency in quantitivs o":er 0,00'" p, 'cent,
with silicon having the least effect.
Table 8
Chemical Analysis of Magneslum Anodes (Stanlard Alioy)l
Element Per-entar

Mananpse 0. 15,) Minimun

• Zinc
Copp-Ir 2.5 - 3.5%
0.02% Matximum
Silicon 0.10% Maximlmn
t-
Iron 'i .af 0 M'nlImiit
• Other M-tall[e %Iemn,,bs 0.3% m,aximum
-- Maranesiutm Remaa ndo r
:/ !A077.1 Sp,.cl'ication AZ63-

-61
r-~~~2
rw
.,-- .-
..-..
.

MAGNESIUM ANODES

62
 Table .9
Chemical Analysis of Magnesfum Anodes (High Potential)

Element Rercentage
luminum 6 0 aimum
Manganese 0.5 - 1.3%
Zinc
Copper 0.02% Maximum
Silicon
Iron 0.03% Maximum
Nickel 0.001% Maximum
Other Metallic Elements 0*.05% each Maximum
0.30% total Maximuwm
Magnesium Remainder

(*) In the range 0.5 - 0.8%, Mn. is at least

0.5 + 60 x Al. % by weight.
All metals more iiuble than iron produce intermetallic com-
pounds with magnesium. However, iron forms an unstable
intermetallic compound with magnesium. At temperatures be-
low the melting point of magnesium, iron occurs at-isolated
particles dispersed throughout the magnesium matrix. Man-
ganese, zinc, and aluminum form intermetallic compounds
with iron, thereby reducing solf-corrosion of magnesium due
to the presence of free iron. The reason for this is that
manganese has a higher melting temperature than magnesium
and that manganese is closer than iron to magnesium in the
,alvanic series. The manganese will usually freeze out as
a magnesium-manganese intermetallic compound which has a
higher freezing temperature than most intermetallic com-
pounds formed in m.agnesium. This intermetallic compound
will tend to freeze out of the molten magnesium around the
iron (which iz first to freeze out), forming an envelope
around the iron. iron thus is isolated andf do(-.. not contri-
bute to anode self-corrosion. Manianese is cathodic to
magnesium but to a much lesser _xtent than iron, so that
potential of .a h'..,h man~anes, anode (more than 0.50 percnrat
mananese) 1.3 -1.75 volts rroferred to a copper-copper sul-
fate half-cell ".! compared to -1.55 volts for a :tandard
alloy maneslum ancrlt. The efficienoy ol' the hi-h ianan-
ese anode, howe7ver, is somewhat lower than for standavd
alloy ma-,,nesium,

Aluminum and zinc -r,- both cathodic to ma :ne ,I u, but -.r-

both us.f'.u. in the , pecent aluminum, p- .:,'
io zin.,
mainesiuzn a. ': AuumInum and zine form intr.m.<tall ,..
poundis with the cathodic group of met'ilo' and wil;h m- neslum.
which improves the charaotorlistles oP m~i 11s-ium -i-, !t galvan-
ic anodr-, but in turn reduces the op-n cyrutt. potential to
SvoI1m. Vin e'~nti~ ~a~ti
-Viued~ptentlal A
amount oP self-corrosion occuorin,, as hith purlt,: magns,.tlum
which has a higher potential, but I'ron mcre self-
11uIT.rs

63
 corrosion than the standard alloy. The lower potential of
standard 6 percent aluminum, 3 percent zinc:, magnesium
alloys is due partly to self-corrosion and' partly to the
lower potential of the intermetallic compounds of magnesium
with aluminum and zinc.
b. Anode Efficiency. Theoretically, pure magnesium
has an electrochemical equivalent of 8.8 pounds per ampere-
year or 1000 ampere-hours per pound. Pure magnesium is im-
possible to produce; the commercial:l. "pure '" r-oduc t achieves
much lower Vaiues of ampere hours per pound (Figure 30).
As discussed in paragraph 5.1.1.a, alloying can improve
this efficiency.

Efficiency of magnesium as an anode varies with current den-

-sity (Figure 30). At anode current densities greater than-
500 milliamperes per square foot, the efficieicy of standard
alloy nodes will approach 65 percent and an electrochemi.cal
equivalent of 650 ampere-hours per pound. At current densi-
ties less than 100 milliamperes per square foot, this effic-
iency will usually not exceed 50 percunt or an electrochemi-
cal equivalent of 500 ampere-hours per pound., At current
densities below 25 milliamperes per square foot, self-cor-
rosion is greater than the corrosion producing useful pro-
tective current so that efficiency of standard alloy anodes
is below 50 percent.

TIiPfh nnnganese-maendsium anode efficiency varies with cur-

£ent k-nsity much the same as a standard alloy anode except
L tha over-all efficiency is lower. At anode current
*densities greater than 500 milliamperes per'square foot,
efficiency of high manganese alloy anodes approaches 55 per-
.;ent and aii clectrochemical equivalent of 550 ampereo-hours
per pound. At 100 rmilliamperes per square foot, efficiency
Is approximately 40' percent and at anoclo current densities
below 25 milliampe'es per square foot, efficiency is below
35 percent.
c. Potentala!. Open circuit potential of standard
alloy magnesium anodis is approximately -1.55 volts to a
copper-copper sulfat6 haif-cell. The open circuit potential
of high manganose-magne'sium anodes is approximately -1.75
volts to a copper-copper sulfate half-cell-

The potential of iron in contact with soll or water usually

ranges around -0.55 volt relative to copper-copper sulfate.
When cathoiic protection Is applied by means of magnesium
anodes, the potential of iron assumes some value between
-0.55 and -1.0 volt depending upon the do -ree of protection
provided. In highly corrosive soils or waters, the natural
potentia-l of iron may be as high as -0.82 volt relative to

iciJt should riot. b sed- a crltrvon aalulain. the

net drivini, potcrntil-l availablo from ma-nes!im ano:l-.s.

64
 - - -I -(LawE ffkt¢, -e- ) ;, -
,
- -

40

50.
F Hig3

CURRENT EFFICIENCY OF MAGNESIUMA ANODES

A more practical approach is to consider iron polarized to

-0.85
have a volt. On poteitial
driving this basis,
of' standard
0.70 volt alloy,
(.5 ma~gnesium aniode
--0.85 =0.70)
and 0.90
of high volt
manganese-magnesium
(1.75 - 0.85 voltanodes have a
= 0.90). dr'iving
For poten1;'
cathodic pro-
tection desig;n involving magnesiumn anodes, these potential:.
0.70 and 0.90 volts, should be used depevidin,,upon alloy:
selected.
d.. Backfill. For reasons discussedl in paragraph
4.3.4 for impressed current anode, backfill is l~o o~t,n
useful for magnesium anodes.
for magnesium anodes is: Analysis of' typic .U back:ill
Bentonite
Gypsum C t75.
Sodium Sulfate
Anodes are avaliable prepaci~a,+
,, in a pcrme~bl-' -lot L,
containirw prepared backfill.
e. Size. Vuroous stze" ard shade of polneize.to
anodes, balt On paikabai In selected blkl , ,- u , -,.de
4..
her-,. o mrse urn noebcfl sis e1
(1)
Standrd Alley.
usflfrm-eimaoe. and hd ftpna
nlsi l y sLze, ak'!
i'if.r
various evironmnen are asonvs n 'Tblc,, n - r0 1.

fo ansumaoe s
Gysu

-65
 Table.. 10,
Stuncl~rd Size. for T ih o1
Welj'ht P557.qv 3 gel e
Stte Inches 4t., UI. Tnahes,
x x8 1 525 x 1.5
9 3 x : 14 27 5,i25x 0
10 1.5 x 1.5 x 70---
12
16 1 Y.2
4: x 12
x.60 32
-- 7.5 X 18

'17: x 17 ?45 7. x2
17 - x :.28 --
-2 x.:20-1/3 68 8.5 x 28
'.,
*5)Z -- --

7 -7xi a0 l7. x 2L
;, Lx-.: 16
h 100
-0
10 x 2,
!tc: Corf rnate~ral: reular core for soil .nol -s is a
,1.vv, :un pitch, .rola-ound strip 3/8 Inc. ID,
.zed,
" I-n. OD.,.
Connetin, wire: rejular connectin; :ir' for o!1
aznodt . is a 10-ft, lenj~th of singiv-strani No. 12 AV G IN
1.;r. copp.-v wire, siler-szoldeired t.. the corle with the
j -,c
sald :aginst moisture. Special connecting wires
!-L "ths othcP than 10 Tt. are a valable.

Table 11
Macn(.sium (-taridar3Alloy) Modes
Standard Size for Use in Water
.1-!!ht
Do_. Siz, Inches Type of Core
77 7 .5 4!6 3/4'; da2., -XI-anized pipe core,
flush fnds.
50 7 x 7 x 16 Threaded 3/4" dia. galvanized pipe
extending I" both ends, flush
ends obtional.
50 7 x 7 '-: 11 I/2" dia. galvanized eyebolt core.
8 x3/" dia. ' Ivanizel pipe core,
flush ends.
50 8x 6 1/2" dia, galvanized eyebolt core.
!0r 7 x 7 x 32 3/4 " da. ga Ivani2ed pipe core,
flush ends.
100 7 X 7 x 32 1/2" dia. ga]i'anrnzed eyebolt core.
100 8 x 32 3/k" dia. galvanized pipe core,
flush ends.
100; 8x 1/2" dia. "/alvanized cyebolt core.

66
 Table 12
Magnesium (Stanard lloy) Anoden
Stanlard Sizes for Use in Condensers and Heat Excharnerls
W~eighrit
Lb. Size Inches Type ot Core
1 7*x~ W 3/4'" bolt -
241 2 x 9 x 18 1/4 x.2" straps
114 Itx 9 x 18 1/2 x 2" straps
60 7 x 9 x 18 3/4" bolt

(2) High Current Anodes. Elongated standard alloy

anodes for use in high-restintance soln are given in Table
- 13.

W
Wei.;ht Haet nesium
- '
(Stand Elongated Anode,-,
ackageirsize
led
Lb. Size, Inches Wt Lb. Inches
T- . - T 3 x 15.5
3 2.35 x 10.5 10 4 x 1A
5 2.63 x 14 14 1.5 x 18
9 2.49-x 28 37 5 x 33
17 2.86 x 40 "U 5 x 46
?2 3.75 x 414 C"; 6.5 x 50
50 4.58 x 16 120 7 x 52

II

rt
A

[1 67

Is_ 2 - ~ ~
S 0

(.~ ii~
.4ngne&e(Higi Potential). High mga
ese alloy slzuv for suii or water (Vackaod for soil only)
are given In Table 14.

'Nbie 14
afn.:;iutm (High-Pqotintial Alloy) Anodes
~W, ,Ight r'or Use In Soil or Water
] Ocbed smz,
7"-101ga~~l
Lb. '".Inl-ea Wt. zLbe Inches
r, X-. x 4., x 12
5 3.75x3.75 x 7.5 17 6 x12
9 07 5 x 2.75 x26 35 6 x 31
9 3.75 x 3.75 x .25 27 6 x 17
37x 3.75 xl 36 x,21
1 2.75 X 2.75 i l 50 6x 46
3.75 x 3,75 x 21 42 6.5 x 26
1, 2.75t 2.75 x 60 6x-55
17 3.75 x 3.75 t26 45 6.5 x 29
20 2.5 x 2.5,x- 59.25 70 5 x66
24 4 .5 A 4.5 x 23 60 7x 30
10 .5.55.5 x 21 74 x 28
tO 3.75 x 3.75 x 59.25 105 6.5 x 66
.x 5.5 x30
g45 100 8 x 3P-
x16 100 12 x 25
.n 4.5 x 4.5 x 60 ---
?f" : Core matcrial: regular core is galvanized 20-gauge
6i,-fora;,-d steel strib. Anodes lon.er than 24" have 9-gauze
Conneetinir wire: regular connecting wire is 10-ft.
length of solid #12 AVG IV insulated copperwire, silver-
soldered to th(. kore with joints sealed a ainst moisture.
Special wires ur other lengths are available.

(4) Extruded Rod Anodes., Standard alloy ma-n esium

rod anodes for use in water tanks and water heaters are
available in sizes given in Table 15.
Table 15
Magnesium (Standard Alloy) Extruded Rod Anodes
for Use in Water Tanks and Heaters
Weigh~t,
lb.oer ft. Size T:ipe of Core
.3b 0.75" dia x 1 ft to 20 ?t l/b dia sreel rod
(J. l)' 0.8111" (dia x 1! ft ito P0 It 1/87 I,I mtol vod
1.)," dla x f'.i to 20 !'1, 1/8" dia steol v'od
1 .06 1.315" dia x i Vt to 20 ft i/8" dia steel rod
1.50 1.561" dia x 1 ft to 20 ft 1/8" da stel rod
2.50 2.024" dia x 1 ft to 20 ft 1/8" "a -teol rod

}~

fj
 (5:) Ribbun: Aples. 3tandard alloy majgiest-m
ano-t's are available for use in proteotine buried conduit,,
,': ",bl. , :,r, %n "'1 a where mort! o.n7fnnioflal :'!aapeo'
vould be impractical. These anodes are available ih coils
of 200 and 10X) feet. They consist of a oee of 10 PatAge
steel vim surrounded by standard alloy mneslum 3/8" x
3/4.,
5.1.2 Zlnc. Zinc anodes are comercially available
in weihits fr"=-" pounds to 250 pounds in plate, bars,
ribbone, and rods, Tor anoder Installed in the earth, pro-
-pared baekr'1ll should be.used.
a,. AlloyIn. There are two basic alloys in cimon
use. One is used ffor protection in coil or rresh water;
-the other, tor marine uses.. Typical specirioations for
theme two types are shown in Tables 16 and 17.
Metals which arp considered INpwities in zinc anodes are:
iron, lead-, a6d copper. Iron is the most d&trlmental.
Since iron -h=s a limited solid solubility in zlinc of "pprox-
Impply 0.0011 peri~nt, any iron In e-xcess or this percent-
age precipitates out as discrvte particles. These partl"alev
of iron are catholic to the surrounding zinc and. serve as
centers or self-corrosion. The corrosion pLoduct of this
self-corosion, zinc hydroxide, ,deposits on the Iron, form-
In. a dense adherent coating. This- coatInr cat .pread dur-
in.- anoie operation frem tke original iron ,particle ceitter
until the enti-re anode surface is coated with adherent zinc
hydoxlde zoatln(• Zinc hydroxild is not ele-tricall1 non-
ductlve. Therefoe the anode becomes Ineffective because
It is insulatei from the electrolyte by built-up corrosion
product.
Addition of other metals
sll-ht peroentaGes such 16as and
(Tables aluminum
17) anl. cadmium
increase In
zinc'.-
tolerance for.iron, decrease the tendency to V'orm Insulatin-
films,-, and provide for easier production.
b. Anode Efficiency. Zinc has an electrochemical
equivalent of 23.5 pounds per ampere-year or 372 ampere-
hours per pound. However, zinc operates at an efficiency
of 90 percent or better or an actual electrochemical ,.quiv-
alent of 354 ampere-hours per pound. The self'-corro I.on ,f
zinc anodes is approximately,5 to 10 percent Under -mo;t
conditions, ireGardless of current output.
c. PoteniAals. Open circuit potential of zinc 1.1
-l,10 volts to a copper-copper sulfate halfCcell In moi. 1
sol4s and waters and backfills. The drivln, potential of
zinc with rete'ence to iron is 0.25 volt based on a pola-1-
zation potential of -0.85 volt for steel relativc to ioppe'--
copper sulfate. Where zinc anodes are eonsldered foo- a
cathodic protection design, a driving 'potentlal of O./5
volt should be used to arrive at the number of anoles re-
quired. If a higher driving potential is -used, an

69
 Table -6
;!h"!,o Anilytgis of 'Uh, no d

for andPi~es
Sol Vate 'n

?roeong
C~vaaii P0.003 lAxiinum
Zln003 Naxinm=
1 Se~zf'iations-: ASW B-1-48467 wTp
IT

Che%Vza1 Analysis, or Zinc, Atodes

-tor.,-Maine Ise1

ldad~in .2
Iron. 0 .005 Maximum
Lead 06 aim
0.005 Maximum
SV~j~~n 0. 125- "Maximzum
7In c Remainder
Spcf~int miL-A-18001H or Astm b4,18.61, type i

70O
 incufi,,ippt nmberof hod iii -be the re-suli; and the re-
rjul1 ?"-'3 t..ovrmtut? will.1 riot W!a~tanr4
-The rel&i e potenr4l of xteeL. an zine In water has 'beon
found to revezrso at temperatures Above V4tO*, 'Zinc anodes
for Ateel proteutot shouald bi' avoiddxto watee aiytemn
above this temperature-, beooase- Increased corrodiOn o* Ontoc.-l
may r-esult.
Bwf _t11. ZInc anodes are g-al fetd -by-
nonuniforu environmient, because of lo6w driving potential.
The, relatively, low dr*ivlng potential1 betwen zinc. and' steel
* requivr a loing slender shape to obtain, low anode..-to-earth'
z'esisiance., ti-nth !zicanodes -increases-the possibil-
ity of' large soil z'epistivty variations along Its Ie gth.*
Variations in A~oil resistivity produce Variations in cur-
* rent flb* which In turn cause uneven anode deterioration,
Zinc anodes should'bi isal-led in pr'parei backfill In
order 'to obtain me~re uniform' current. flow,"0
In additioni, ;inc anodes installed bare are- mvE subject to '
production of -Various Ooreosion produvtu, 'Zinc ions prow-
luced durine, the corrosion of a zinc node are deposited at
varius dstandes, from the sUrface o1' the an'e IfOxen
carb n itsI, or phosphate" Ions are present in the media, a
dense adherent poating of-high clebtri~a-l r'esistance for=3-
near the surface, effectively insulating the anode Ctoom the
surroundinc, media. This stonis corrodsion of' the anode and
resulting protective current. However, rost zinc anodes are
installed below the water table and in soils-with no free
carbonates or phosphates,, ltthat passivity does not Usually
occur. Sulfatb ions reduce the tendency f'or foimation -of
the high resistant film 'ol cogrosiop products.,
SolIs containing gypsum generally produce most coinsistent
anode behavior. Baakfills base4 on th1s- are recommended ~
4for undergroundi use. Two typical specifications are:;

Element Fcnar
HrateT, gypsum 57
Bentonite 25 50
Sodium sulfate 5 --
e. Sizes . Various sizes o-' bare zinc anodes are
available in the two Alloys. Most anOdes for.undergroiind
use are available-bare or packaged In low resistance back.;.

'71
 (1 in'T-t, ±oim. Mid, dreh Wter Al1o*', Anode 41iea
ro~aeapi or freh waiter p4c~t&n ~e.ivr
jTavle- It.

Stutdardm is ov 1 Zinc Ariwdt

in reuh Wter -or Udeirgouqd
Tdr'0 t6e
Lb. nh~
14 x 1.4x 60o
-1 - 60
-Kv.
G~ 6
x bi
2' x 23U-G
1Rotev ;Cori Por standard an,0des- shown is 1/ d iame ter

Specfid anpde3 -9-e, iR:4-Ile in, rangoe given in Table- 19'.

Sizes. of Zincd Anddes

-1ea

ize, Irio~e -Lfe

I-ng henhes
4.2 itx 6 to, 6o
-55 x5 6io 48
12.8 7 x7 6-to 36
21 9xk9 12 or'24
26 6 lxO 10 to 24
Note: Cor'e V:i/4"' diameter E.G. mild stee$. rod. Also
(~l~ns available in 3A~" 1/2", or 5/8" diameter..
-(2) Sea Water Alloy, Anode sizes fov ma~rine appli-
oatonsare Pounid In Tablie -?.
 !1;ar Aa~?t of. Z I rw,Anok'* Trlli Wat'ri
Lb. Size-. Innhdt
12 1-.25x 3 x12
24-x z.,6 k-32
50- 2~ 4
150 4 14 3 6
250 9 x, 12-
250' 4x 4 x601
Note: 94iiO'd and: smler ,ahodes -aelapzdste
Mounting~ tjAps. 50-pound ektze contains 3 /8" dta-
w~te' galvanized steel 'fd for core. Larger sizes
-ontaln 3/4" or I'"dlameter gilalied steel pi-PC
cores.
Spealal anodes- are afall,11ble, in rangeR giver) in Vratle, Pl .
Table l

t
SO-ech e inhS 3a W O-Ore
l Sizes of Zinc, Andd efor Wk
PeJc Size, fnh&ng nche ,
1 2x2 6to 66
2. x3 -6tao66
4.2 4x4 6 -to,6 o
6.-5 5 x5 't4b
12.8 7 7 vi to 3
21 9 x9 -to24
23.4 q X 0 - 9t624
R'610x10 9 to2 4
Vote: A varity of cores are available -fith the d Iffe -
ent sizes.
()-Ribobon Ano~1s. Ribbon Arlodcs6 are available In
both alloys,. T hese are useful for proteztIng ptpeline Iv-
rer
teriors, for cp-n1 pipe exterirs-insid'e casin, §,Figuire
31'). Por tank and d~ict 'Intet'iors,.
slzie is 5/8" k, 7/8"1 weighing, 1.2 -poun~ds' pei foot. Cor6 is
1/10" diameter ,galvanized wij~e.

5M.f6ot.,~tls; nod
argri,isava16.be
The i
s~A-
Tvo sizes are aiaila'dle fori-fr6Ah, water or underground ilse.

I
1/,Th
larger ighvaingbl in6 500-Coof6t.o The;sanodersize is
oi§, ande izeis11/32" X,1/.2
in 000ft. egi'
a-.2 lb
perfoo. Cre~fr oth-sizes is 1/10" diameter
- ~~glvanized6 wi... l.pz oo.Te~ale oe

73,
 ZN-CFi 0 11
SZINC 1O N ftOCfON OF VE kNSo
_P0 CA M

5.1.3 Alumbim Anodes, Aluminum galvanic anodes have

found some application in awater. They are used to pro-
tect such structures as offshore drilling platforis and ex-
ternal ship hull surfacec.
* The eficiency of aluminum anodes varies depending on oper-
t4onL conditions and alloys used.. A value of 810 ampere-
hours per pound based on 60% efficiency is typical.
Open circuit potential for aluminum is about - 05 volts
zelative to copper-copper sulfate. The drsiving potential
for an aluminum anode connected to a steel structure is
therefore about 0.20 volt. Aluminum anod performance may
be disappointing if alloys vary even slightly from specifi-
cation, and ,anufacturers seem to have difficulties :holding
-constant material content.
5,.2 Other System Comporents. System components for
galvan'ic anode systems are similar to those used for impres-
'sed current (paragraph A.3) or as hlready discussed. Can-
inecting cables are smaller than those used for impressed
current, because of smaller current flow and less.need for
physical strength. Number 12 solid copper' wire with Type TW,
'RHW-'iSE, or polyethylene insulation is used for connecting
cables. Anode lead wires are normally 10 feet long, number
12 solid copper wire with TW insulation.

5.3 Advantages- of Galvanic Anode Systems. Ga'lvanid

anodets
tems. have Several[ ofavantages
(Advantages impressed over lmpressea
current curreht sys-
are discussed in
paraiIalI-i 4.4).

A
Becawse ralvanlc anodes generate their own-power, they re-
,I.-.
(fell ti-# ,:.t,-mirc I. pMw-r iKirc.. Ttln me an' theyv:a,, od.e,,
oe u:;ed where rectit'ers are dilr'icult or Impossible to
power, such .as in remote regionsi.
There ar -soietimen cost advantaCes to Malvanic anodes. The
systems are nimpler than Impressed current, and galvanic
anodes can sometimes be texoena
cathodic protection is usually capitalized. Both installa-
tion and maintenance costs are low. There are no monthly
power costs. In addition, rights-of-way or easesent costs
are minimal with this type installation.

Because of the low current outputs, galvanic anodes rarely

produce interference to foreign structures. When lnterfer-
ence Is encountered, stray currents are small.
6 EXAMPIES OF CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS. Figures
32 throug;h 52 illustrate various anode con figtrations
and',a sumgested approach to the cathodic protection ot' many
different structures in a variety of applications.. These
are not intended to represent firm designs for structured,
without a systematic evaluation of local conditions.
Paragraph 7 of this manual presents specific basic design
information, and paragraph 8 gives specific examples of
des ining systems.
7 CATHODIC PROTECTION DESIGN. Cathodic protection is
applied t6 many different types of structures. Each situa-
tion requires special consideration. There are, however,
fundamental general procedures which must be applied to de-
sign of all cathodic protection systems. The detailed anal-
ysis of these procedures is different for an elevated water
storage tank than for ship 'hulls or buried pipelines. How-
ever, the same steps should be followed in. all cases.

7.1 General Procedure., A general summary of Steps in-

volved is given here. In the remainder of paragraph 7,
design considerations are discussed in more detail. Useful
data in the form of tables and graphs are included.

General design criteria are similar for galvanic and itpres-

sed current systems.. one basic difference between tho two
is the usual method of anode layout. Galvanic anodes are
usually designed and installed as individual anodes, distri-
buted at a riven separation along the structures (30 feet,
for- example). Impressed current systems more frequently em-
ploy banks of anodes (beds).' Of course-, either type anode
may be installed in either way, but the distinction is most
frequently as given above.
 r - -- I

I I So between Heat
and Water Pi pes

I Pbsitve Cable
Positive Cable

Negative Cable

RectifierT

Boiler Room

---- Water Pi pe
Figure 32
TYPICAL BUILDING UNDERGROUND1) AND WATER LINES

76
24 (12 per side) 2"x60"
High-Silicon, Chromium-
Bearing, Cost Iron Anode Bed
Anodes, Spaced 10. 50
Apart
90

H-,'drant Refuelin&,
Outlets

Rectifier -loi

Pump und Ref uelin., Header

Control house 7 Defueliri9 Header
Figure 33
IMPRESSED CURRENT POINT T':',PE CATHODIC PROTECTION
FOR AIRCRAFT HYDRANT REFUELING SYSTEM

77
 Entrance170 Packaged
*Tube I _B 'Mognesium Anode
J.J* 5 Req'd

1 Req'd

pConduit 6. Candulet w/ Terminal Block

No. 12 TW Wires D

Thermrit Welds
D
Sttel Surfaces
Coated whith To Anode
Coal-Tar Epoxy

i U H

Pumping Chamber{

Concrete Foundation
Figure 34
GALVANIC ANODE TYPE CATHODIC PROTECTION
FOR COATED UNDERGROUND SEWAGE LIFT STATION

78
 Reinlforced Concrete Steel Reinforcemerit Welded to Support
Deck Eye and Structural Steel
& ______ _:7

A" "

" .. Anode Supporting Eye

Wire, A-i
Flexible Stronded Copper
Thermit Welded to Both
Support Eye and 4"
Steel Rod

3/4" Dia. Round to 3 Opening

Block Steel Rod 1" (Inside Diameter) Neoprene, or
equal, Hose Taped to Steel Rod at
both Upper and Lower Ends, Using
Plastic Tupe

2" Min...La FilletWeld

Zinc Anode

l -3/4" Galv. Steel Pipe Anode Co~re

Rubber Stopper
Figure 35
ZINC ANODE ON REINFORCED CONCRETE BLOCK

79
 Plan View Building

RciirNegative Positive
Cabl eCable

- A

Basemtent WallI

L 4- CT- - Conduit for

Positive cable

Heatpe 41 Hole Augered I Jnto O

3 Anodes 2" Dia. x 60" LongA

Section A-A

Figure 36
RADIANT HEAT OR SNOW-MELTING PIPING

80
* AC 1Wu

Pos~tve - Negative Return Camle frm

Collector Cables Steel Pilo Network
Supplying)D.C.
to Aodes

Typical -Massive
Reinforced Concrete A
Foundation

'00

Hollow Steel Piles, 16" iiameter, HSCBCI AnodesPlaced

Supporting Foundi~ioris - Between Piles and 2
Below Bottom of
Foundation, Each Anode
Protecting Two-Piles
CATHDICFigure 37
CATHDICPROTECTION OF-FOUNDATION PILES
 ~node Header Cable
Rectifier

Thermit Weld _
Negative Lead To~ Anode
to Tank

Appro ' 51

AnodetAnd
Header CubleAnd

Fi~, 38
IMPRESSED CURRENT CATHODIC PROTECTION
FOR EXISTING ON-GRADE STORAGE TANK

02
 Rectifier
1<
SWeiAnode - Installed
Negative Cable Horizontally
To Tank /

V R
2/37
Anode Header
Cable

= Anode Lead Cable

Rectifier Tank

- Grade

Anode

Anode ;edrCable
Figure 39
IMPRESSED CURRENT CATHODIC PROTECTION WIT.i HORIZONTAL
ANODES FOR ON-GRADE STORmGE TANK - NEW INSTALLATION

83
 ( -L

> > z

0Z-ZC
-DE 0
zo G
0 C, U- z
-~0 LULL

D ~ Ciec 0 C

6-- 0 0 Z

-Ja
L 'A - (
0

IL, :) 0. (1 & u
0i - .A
c Da 0u i84
 iECTF lI

Thes units are w"'ely used for cooling purposes, often in refineries.
Corrosion conditions are very aggressive. Space is limited between coils,
and anodes 1-1/1" daxO long nave been successfilly used. They
can We joined together to produce lengths 7-1/2 feeilo'
Figure 41
OPEN WATER BOX COOLER

D5
 1.3150 do. steelcow'Mduns
on suppot
4ulzond ank wly - ied Isodemw'

iI ppe x 30"wsldsd tohwd

-AA

>1 -

7' ~7

1;-1/4" ?c Hy 1/2 COUPi41g

Weld-ad~to Hood

Anode, wit Stjse[Core 1"x 1-a1/4'1 Red., Busni ng

HORIZONTAL HOT-WATER TANK-MAGNESIUM ANODE INSTALLATION

 -M

Anodi Header table

Figure 43
IMPRESSED CURRENT CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEM
FOR SHEET PILING FOR WHARF CONSTAUCTION

'87
 Anodes CAbl4

miss 11 id

TI

Figure 44
SUSPENDED ANODE CATHODIC PROTECTiON FOR H-PILING-IN- SEA WATER'

88
0o Mae

Clamp

Figure 45
CATHODIC PROTECTION FOR H-PILING IN SEA WATER
 Nor Dock

* Rectifier

Fill Horzontl Anodes

e ctfe

'Section ".A-A"
Figure 46
CELLULAR EARTH FILL PIER SUPPORTS

90
 - 1-

Tank Capacity:

1711
octifier
Negative Lead Positive Anode
Welded. to Tank Header Cable
Watertight I*
Cord Connector
- + Weld

% igid-Galvanized
%%h Conduit to
Rectifier
mTank
Outside-Woll
Seto -A
Tank Floor
Rectif ier

_ _

Anodes Mounted
+ On Tank Floor
Storage Tunk

Anode Ledd Wire

Impressed 3" Dia. Plastic Tee

Current Short Nipple 4b Di.Threaded Adopter
Anod3'i.f
I'Steel Flange Welded-to Tank Floor

Anode Support De8

CATHODIC PROTECTION OF TANKS USING RIGID FLOOR MOUINTED ANODES

92.
 CylinderRectifierI

*C Corte -Mug, (Optional)

a) CASING AS ANODE. (TYPICAL) (CYLINDER 'NOT "SHORTED" TO CASING)

Rectifier

Pit Floor

b) CYLINDERS WITHOUT CASINGS OR WITH "SHORTED" CASINGS (TYPICAL)

CATHOC
~OT~ION Figure 49
CATHOIC
PRTECTOFC HYDRAULIC ELEVATOR CYLINDERS

93
 1+

00
o__
Hoist
TCylinder

o 0_

0 0

* a) IMPRESSED CURRENT CATHODIC -PROTECTION (TYPICAL),

Anode Lead

Iloo.-mo untecas
TLQ- Test Hole
Station with -Shunt for
Cuiisl Meaiaeuitewnt A
Conveni en? 4

-0-i
Hoist Cylinder \,J

b) GALVANIC ANODE CATHODIC PROTECTION (TYPICAL)FOR ONE!1HOIST

Figure 50A
HYDRAULIC HOIST CYLINDER

91
Nevizontal

Aode

Bon ionu toi

5oiona1Aoe
Figurel
AKF
THPIaL AHDCeRTCrNOFUDRRUN
CowsWow LofTanl

6' Centr Anod

 Tank Ande

"Caile Positiv

Air and
Water Lines

Figure .52
GASOLINE SERVICE STATION SYSTEM

96
An Important aspect of design ror either galvanc or impres-
sed current cathodic protection is the current required to
n.ote.t the ctra-ure. it is important to realize that struc-
tur, current requirements are best determined by actual field
tests whenever po~sible. Calculations based on estimated cur-
rent densities t(so many mllliamperes/ft 2 ) and surfce areas
are at best approximate. (Table 22 gives surface area per
length of some standard size pipes and estimated current den-
sities for various environments.)
Actual current requirements depend 6n many factors including
number of points of current impression (attentuation), distri-
bution of coating holidays, and homodeneity of electrolyte.
These factors vary greatly from structure to structure and
are difficult or impossible to predict. Only where current
requirements cannot be determined in the field should calcula-
tions be used, and then it mst be remembered that the results
are only a rough estimate.
Table 22b may be used as a rough guide for expected current
lenaities required for cathodic protection. This list is for
bare steel. To arrive at a current density for coated steel,
the percentage of uncoated metal should be determined or esti-
mated and the proper factor applied to the tabulated current
densities. Numerous exceptions to the table will be found
to exist in practice, and it is emphazized that these figures
should not be used in ths- design of a cathodic protection
system without field test confirmation.

it should be noted that current requiremeni.c: for the protec-

tion of galvanic zouples far exceed the tabulated values
given herein. In order to protect steel which is coupled to
copper, with approximately equal areas of steel and copper,
'0 to 30 times more current is required than is required to
protect the steel only.

7.1.1 Examine Drawings and Specifications of the:

Structure to be Protected. Some approximation of metal sur-
face conditions should be known. This may be limited to an
Investigation of whether the structure is coated or bare, the
type coat~ng used, years in service, etc.

Other structures (those not being cathodically protected)

should be located, as should any electrically insulated parts
of the structure being placed under protection. An abandoned
metal pipe could possibly be used as an anode.

97
 Table 22
a.) P1pesurace Area
Outside Area,
sq. ft. per
Pipe Size Uin. ft. of
Inches Pice
3 0.916
11 1.178
6 1-.734
8 2.258
10 2 .182
12 3.34
14 3.67
16 4.19
18: .1171
20 5.24
24 6.28
30 7.85
1
b.) EStimated Current Densities for Bare Steel Structures
Ma.
Environment per sq. ft.
Heutral soil or water (pH 7) O.4 to 1.5
Well-aerated, neutral soil or
water (pH 7) 2.0 to 3.0
1;ioving
-ca ":ater
fresh water (velocity above
5 ft. per see.) 9.0
3.0 to 10.0
to 25.0
Wet soils 1.0 to 6.0
Heated, int soil or moist concrete 3.0 to 25.0
Highly-acid soil 3.0 to 15.0
Anaerobic soil with active sulfate-
reducing bacteria, initial
requirement 6.0 to 42.0
Fresh water that Is relatively
still 1.0 to 6.0
!resh water that is highly
turbulent and, contains much
dissolved oxygen 5.0 to 15.0
Hot water 5.0 to 15.0
Mildly acid or alkaline solution in
process tanks, depending on
turbulence and temperature 1.0 to 25.0
Brine tanks 8.0 to lO.O
1 Taken from AFM 88-9 Chapter 4 "Corrosion Control" -
original source unknown.
9I

~98
II
Fixtures, brackets, and available mountings which could be
used for mounting cathodic protection appurtenances should
be noted. If the installation iS to be connected to a
buried pipeline, simplest location from the construction
Viewpoint should be noted and property owner's name and ad-
dress determined.

Location and type (phase, voltage, capacity) of A.C. power

supplies should be determined.

A cursory analysis of the above gives the engineer basis for

selection and/or revision of a tentative location and gerer-
al poitionni- of anodes.
7.1.2' Obtain "Field",
or At-The-Site Data. Resistiv-
-ityof the electrolyte should be measurea. Field measure-
ments are sometimes supplemented or replaced by laboratory
tests on samples; pH and sulfide content of electrolyte are
often included.
If practical, current requirement tests should be conducted.
Tem_.irary anodes can be placed in the electrolyte and cur-
rent cap be forced out of them with a generator, batteries,
or other D.C. power source. Effects on both the structure
to be protected and others in the area (including electric-
ally insulated portions of the protected structure) should
be carefully noted.

physical measurements should be taken to Verify location and

dimensions of the tructure to be protected and, at the same
time, position of other structures. Existence and avail-
ability of power should be verified.
Base operatinv and/or maintenance personnel shoUld: be con-
sulted, to determine their feelings as to the practicality
of the proposed installation,. Their cooperation, is important.
7.1.3 Choice of Galvanic or Imoressed Current. The
type cathodic protection best to use is decided mainly from
two factors: feasibility and relative costs. Feasibility
includes analysis of physical and electri.cal conditions at
the structure location. Superficial economic analysis deter-
mines approximate costs.
Factors to consider include desired structure life, power
availability, location of other structures, environmental
conditions, possible changes in environment or structure,
accessibility, and possible damage from vandalism or natural
conditions. It is usually feasible to use either impressed
current or galvanic anodes, and an economic analysis tempered
by the above considerations determines the choice.

99
EcOnomics include inittal operating, maintenance, and re-
placement costs. Based on current requirements, the cost
per ampere-year is estimated. This frltre, combined with
the analysis of system feasibility, deteimines whether gal-
vanic or impreesed current cathodic protection should be
used.
7.1.4 Notify Oprators of Other Structures in the
Area. The operators or any other structures 3n W ME
,should be notified of tentative plans for impressed current
cathodic protection. This notification should also include
the local corrosion coordinating cogmittee, if there is one
in the area. The notification procedure is primarily .of im-
portance in underground and submerged Installations. How-
ever, process equipment, tanks,. etc., may also become
Involved.

7.1.5 Design Cathodic Protection System. All data

and information gathere in the precedling steps must be
assembled, analyzed and developed into a cathodic protection
system design. During this design phase, coordination With
base operating and maintenance personnel is necessary to in-
sure that the completed system does not interfere with other
equipment and/or normal operations. It is also advantageous
to have the interest of all personnel behind the project to
insure proper operation and maintenance.

1.2 Fundamentals of Design. A cathodic protection sys-

tent is an electrical circuit. To design cathodic protec-
tion, the various parts of this circuit must be related and
analyzed. En this section, a basic cathodic protection cir-
cuit is exarmined, factors to consider in actual design are
discussed, and information required prior to design is con-
sidered. This information is general, applying to both gal-
vanic and impressed current unless otherwise noted.

7.2.1 Total Circuit Resistance. The total circuit

resistance (external to the power source in impressed cur-
rent systems) mist be considered and kept in mind at all
times. 'Critical components which control this are:
a. Anode to electrolyte interface
* b. Structure to electrolyte interface
c. Connecting cables
d. All connections and splices
* Note: Structure-to-electrolyte interface resistance
is usually a minor portion of the total circuit resistance
and cannot be controlled by the engineer. This usually in-
creases with the passage of time and increased current
density.

Anode-to-electrolyte resistance is usually the ,,,t-ol1-,&-

factor (greatest single influence) which must be given more
consideration than any other item in cathodic protection

100
tt]
desi&n. This quantity is made up of the total resistances
of all anodes used. Since each anode-to-electrolyte resis-
tance is parallel to the others, the more anodes ,used the
lower the "effective" anode-to-electrolyte resistance, and
the lower the total circuit resistance becomes.

Anode-to-electrolyte resistance can be computed from data on

anode size, shape, and configuration plus soil resistivity.
This method is sometimes in error because of the Infinite
number ot anode configurations possible which ,require extra-
polation frm limited empirical data, and also because of
its dependence on reliable electrolytc resistivity measure-
ments. (Resistivity - especially in soil - varies with
moisture, temperature and location of test.)
Errors in anode to electrolyte resistance calculated from
empirical data will result in errors in anode *urrent output.
This can be very serious with a galvanic anode system, be-
cause additional current can be Supplied only- by adding more
galvanic anodes. This is costly and time-consuming. For
impressed current cathodic pr'tection, the error usually re-
quires a change in rectifier output; if the installed recti-
fier 1is not of sufficient capacity, replacement may be re-
quired. Efficiency may be decreased. For these reasons,
many engineers first measure structure to anode resistance
by actually impressing current into installed impressed cur-
rent anodes or using a test anode installation for galvanic
systems. In this way, a rectifier can be sized to actually
"fit" the circuit resistan,;e or a reasonable number of gal-
-vanic anodes selected without reliance upon questionable
test and empirical data. This has the disadvantage of delay-
ing completion of an installation. However, it means that
sufficient cathodic protection current will be supplied in
an efficient manner.

7.2.2 Design Factors Requiring Analysis. The follow-

ing items should always be analyzed when cathodic protection
is being designed.
a. Anode-to-electrolyte resistance, as previously
mentioned, often controls the entire circuit resistance and
therefore must be analyzed in detail. The following factors
must be studied:
water, or chemi-
cal) (1) Eletrolyte resistivity (soil,
(2) Resistance between a sinirle anode and surround-
ing electrolyte (anode-to-electrolyte interface resistance)
(3) Effects of anode configuration and spacing be-
tween them
(4) Anode(s)
being cathodically locat.ion,
protected as with
well respect
as other tostructures
structure
(5) Anode position (vertical or horizontal). If
either position is practical, both should be explored.

101

Vj
 b. Weight or anode required to give the desired life.
This can. be estimated-from approximate anode deterioration
rates and efficiencies (Table 23). These values vary de-
pending on electrolyte and other conditions.
Table 23
Approximate Anode Deterioration Rates
Detero ton Rate- Efficioncy
Anode Material (lbs./aw.-year) bercent)
Steel .... 50
HSCBCI 1 50
Craphite 2 50
Magesium 8.8 50
Zinc 23.5 .90
c. Special backfill around anodes (other than soil)
is often advantageous. This should be carefully considered
because it does add extra cost to an installation which may
or may not be Justified,
d. Resistance of positive and negative cables is a
portion of total circuit resistance which adds to power
costs. On. the other hand, money spent on catle which is
larger than necessary is not wisely used.
e. Vulnerability to physical damage must always be
considered. Anodes, cables, connections, etc. must all be
reivefully placed to minimize this possibility. -Cathodic
",.o L tion must operate continuously to be effective. Dam-
-.
ige ,o components not only interrupts protection, but also
means costly repairs,
7.2.3 Measurements and Other "Job-Site" Data.
a. Electrolyte resistivity should be measured.
This is usually done by use of field instruments or soil
box. It is an important item in the computation of
anode-to-electrolyte resistance, and may affect anode
life.
b. Chemical analysis and/or other information on the
electrolyte into which anodes are to be placed should be ob-
tained. This information is used as ,a guide in the selec-
tion of the proper alloy anode, and special precautions to
be taken with the installation. Anode life can be extended
by using the anode suited for its environment.
c. Physical characteristics of the site Where the
system is to be installed must be studied and -understood.
This will insure a long life with trouble-free operation
because with this information the design can be tailored to
the specific situation.

7.3 Preliminary Field Data. As mentioned previously,

the cathodic protection system designer must first obtain
information from the actual job site. This information con-
sists of electrolyte resistivity, chemical content,

.102
 KI
measurement, location
of dimensions, of thedata
operational other
on structures, verification
existing anodes, general
data relating,to coatings, unusual features, etc.
7.3.1 Electrolyte Resistivity. Electrolyte resistiv-
ity my be measured in the Tleld or by laboratory analysis
of a sample. The data are used to coaute anode-to-electro-
lyte resistance, number of anodes required, and estimated
anode life. If the electrolyte is soil, electrolyte resis-
tivity measurement will also help establish the most favor-
able location to install anodes. In the field, electrolyte
resistivity can be measured by the 4 pin vibroground mithod.
Swole of vatexchemicals, or soil can be tested in a
"soil box.*
7.3.2 Chemical Analysis. A partial chemical analrysis
of the electrolyte is often helpful to indicate corrosivity.
pH, presence of sulfates, and any other applicable factors
may be determined by field or laboratory mthods.

.7.3.3 General Information on Structure to be

Protected. General inrormation on the structure must be ob-
tained before beginning design of the cathodic protection.
This can be gathered by visiting the site, examining the
structure itself plus available plans and specifications,
and measui.ng key dimensions so that actual "as-built" data
are available. Base personnel and/or others should be con-
sulted. Data on the following is the minimum requirement:
a. Material and type of construction (metal alloy,
type pipe Joints, etc.)
b. Coatings used. (Type, method of application, in-
spection procedure, etc.)
c. Density of soil and/or other characteristics of
electrolyte. (Moisture content, seasonal Variations, tidal
conditions, current or turbulence, etc.)
d. Any unusual characteristics and miscellaneous.
(Areas of concentrated corrosion attack, configuration of
structure, tentative anode configuration, location off A.C.
power lines, abandoned structures which might serve as
anodes, etc.)
7.3.4 Foreign Structures. The location of any other
structures in the vicinity off the protected structure should
be determined. All available drawings must be carefully
examined. Discussions with base personnel and also person-
nel known to be operating plants in the area often reveal
the presence of buried structures not otherwise noticed.
This step is especially important when cathodic protection
current is being impressed into the soil to protect buried
pipelines, cables, or tanks.
If other such structures are discovered in the area, the

103
engineer should first find out, by consultation with the
owner's representative, whether or not cathodic protection
is being used. If it is, he should then conduct tests with
the other parties in order to determine any effect to his
own structure.- If cathodic protection is not now being
used in the area by other organizations, consultation with
representatives of these groups will determine their inter-
est and willingness to cooperate. Occasionally, it is pos-
I
sible to design "cooperative" or "Jointly-owned cathodic
protection systems. This possibility should be investigated
and may become practical if other companies are interested
in cathodic protection. Considerable savings may result by
sharing installation and operating costs.

7.4 Anode-to-Electrolyte Resistance. As mentioned

earlier, anode-to-electrolyze resistance is an important
part of total cathodic protection system circuit resistance.
In general, the more anodes used, the lower this resistance.
Also, with a fIxed number of anodes, lower electrolyte resis-
tance will mean lower anode-to-electrolyte resistance. The
anode-to-eiectrolyte resistance of a vertical cylindrical
anode is somewhat lower than that of a horizontal cylindri-
cal anode suspended in the same electrolyte.

High anode-to-electrolyte resistance means high power costs

for the impressed current cathodic protection system. By
adding anodes, anode-to-electrolyte resistance is reduced
)ut initial investment in material and labor is increased.
The designer must balance the economics of operating ex-
pense vs. initial capital investment to the advantage of
his accounting system.

High anode-to-electrolyte resistance means low current out-

put for galvanic anodes, because voltage is constant - a
function of anode, structure, and electrolyte composition.,
Additional anodes are required to obtain grea~ter galvanic
current output; this also increases initial investment.

If the anode size, anode position (vertical or horizontal),

and electrolyte resistivity are known, anode-to-electrolyte
resistance of a single impressed current or galvanic anode
can be computed by application of various empirical formu-
lae. Total anode-to-electrolyte resistance of an anode
group can be computed by considering all in parallel and
then applying the applicable "spacing factor". (Parallel
anodes influence each other to increase their effective
resistance. This influence is greater with closely-spaced
anodes and decreases as distance between anodes increases.)

The resistance of anodes buried in soil can be lowered by

surrounding them with carbonaceous backfill. Thiz is bene-
ficial in high-resistance soils. If soil resistivity is
ten or more times backfill resistivit y, the voltage drop of

104
anode 2urrcnt passing through backfill may become negligible
with-o.h ct to volta,, drop through soil. Thus, a back-
filled anode's resistance may be considered lower than that
of a bare anode because it is effectively longer and of
greater diameter.

Increasing diameter and,/or length of a cylindrical anode

decreases anode-to-electrolyte reslstance. However, changes
in length have a greater effect than changes in diameter.
7.4.1 Basic Equations for Resistance Calculations.
The following expressions pan be used to estimate anode-to-
electrolyte resistance for horizontal and vertical anodes.
These equations apply to both galvanic and impressed current
anodes, and can be used for either standard or other cylin-
drical anodes. Simplified expressions for resistance of
standard size impressed current anodes and current output of
standard size galvanic anodes are given in paragraph 7.4.2.
a. Resistance of Single Vertical or Horizontal Anode.
The follow*ng formulae are relations developd by H.B.Digt
for a single cylindrical anode:-
8 Ll
Rv .0052 P (2 3 Los
L

Rh = .0052?O 4L2 + 4L 2 + -I)

L 02.3 Log +

where

Rv = Electrolyte to anode resistance single vertical

anode to remote reference (ohms).
Rh = Electrolyte to anode resistance, single horizontal
anode to remote reference (ohms).
I
)P = Electrolyte resistivity (ohm-centimeters)
L = Anode length. (feet)
d = Diameter of anode (feet)
s = Twice anode depth (feet)
For a single vertical anode, the following simplified ex-
pression can be used:

Rv - )O K

where
Rv = Electrolte to anode resistance
(ohmsi. single
C> vertical
anode to remote reference
= Electrolyte resistivity (ohm-centimeters)
L = Anode length (feet)
K = "Shape Function", a function of anode length/anode
radius which can be obtained from Table 24
L/d = Ratio of length to diameter of anode (any units)

105
 Table 24
The Shape Function (K)
HSCBCI or Graphite Anodes)

LdK L/d K
.'6-"o =3
6 .0150 25 .0224
7 .0158 30 .0234
8 .0165 35 .0242
9 .0171 40 .0249
10 .0177 45 .0255
12 .0186 50 .0261
14 .0194 55 .0266
16 .0201 60 .0270
18 .0207
b. Resistance of Vertical Anode Group (One Row).
The total anode-to-electrolyte resistance for a group of
vertical anodes, connected in parallel and equally spaced
in one row is expressed as follows:
Rn 1 Rv+ £0.
n S
Rn = Total anode to electi-olyte resistance for a group of
vertical anodes equally spaced and in one row (ohms).
(A remote cathode is assumed.)
n = Bumber of anodes
Rv =Anode-to-electrolyte resistance of single vertical
anode to remote reference, (ohms).
= Electrolyte resistivity, measured with pin spacing
equal to S,, (ohm-centimeters).

P = "Paralleliijg Factor" can be obtained from Table 25.

S = Spacing between adjacent anodes (Peet) .

106
 Table 2
Paralleling 1actor, P
n P n P
3 .00289 14 .00168
4 .00283 16 .00155
5 .00268 18 .00145
6 .00252 20 .00135
7 .00237 22 .00128
8 .00224 24 .00121
9 .00212 26 .00114
10 .00201 28 oo1o
30 .001
c. Resistance of Vertica.i Anode Group (Two or More
Rows). An anode group composed of two or more rows of
vertical anodes, separated by a distance substantially
larger than that between the anodes within a single row, has
a total resistance approximately equal to the total parallel
resistance of all the rows.. The usual formula for parallel-
+
ing resistances (j ='IJ kJ+ + ...) is used.

7.4.2 Simplified Expressions for Resistance of

Impressed Current Anodeo.
a. Anodes in Sois. If vertical anode dimensions are
assumed to be 8 to 12 inches in diameter and 10 feet in
length, while horizontal anode dimensions are assumed to be
one foot square in cross-section, 10 feet in length and 6
feet below the surface of the electrolyte; the following
empirical formulae may be used. (These assumptions are use-
ful when designing anode systems with 60-inch cylindrical
impressed current anodes in soils wiere effective backfill
has been installed around the anodes.)

Rv = = e

Rv = Electrolyte to anode resistance, any number of

vertical anodes to remote reference, (ohms).
Rh = Electrolyte to anode resistance, any number of
horizontal anodes to remote reference, (ohms).
P = Electrolyte resistivity, (ohm-centimeters).
F = Adjusting Factor for groups of anodes (from
Table 26).
Note: F = 1.0 where only one anode is used.

107
 Table 26
Adjusting Factors 'rorTParallel Anodes
No. of
Anodes in
Parallel 5 -0. 15' 20' 25'
2 0.652 0.576 0.551 0.53) 0.530
'3 0.586 0.460 o.418 0.397 0.384
4 0.520 0.385 0.340 D.31; 0.304
5 0.466 0.333 0.289 0.267 0.25'
6 0.423 0.295 0.25. 0.231 0:219
7 0.387 0.265 0.224 0.204 0.192
8 0.361 0.243 0.204 0.184 0.172
9 0.332 0.222 0.185 0.166 0.155
10 0.311 0.205 0.170 0.153 0.142
11 0.292 0.192 0.158 0.141 0.131
12 0.276 0.180 0.143 0.132 0.122
13 0.262 0.169 0.139 0.123 0.1'4
14 0.249 o.16o 0.131 0.116 0.107
15 0.238 0.152 0.124 O.1O9 0.101
16 0.2206 o.144 0.117 0.103 0.095
17 o..218 0.138 0.112 0.099 0.091
18 0.209 0.132 0,i07 0.094 0.0:86
19 0.202' 0.127 0.102 0.090 0.082
20 0.194 0.122 0.098 0.086 0.079
22 0.182 0.114 0.091 0.079 0.073
04 0. Cl O.lO6 0.085 0.074 0.o67
26 o.f6. 0.100 0.079 0.069 0.063
28 0.152 0.0911 0.075 0.065 0.059
3o 0.145 0.089 0.070 o.o61 0.056
Approximate anode-to-electrolyte resistance values for single
anodes are quickly and easily obtained from the following:
Rv = 0.0018Y
10-foot for a vertically installed 60" anode in a
column of backfill, one foot in diameter.
Rv = 0.0022> for a vertically installed 60" anode in a 7
foot column of backfill, one foot in diameter.
Rv = 0.0047Y for a vertically installed 2" x 60" anode,
without backfill.
Rv = 0.0050y-'for a vertically installed 1-1/2" x 60" anode,
without backfill.
R = Anode-to-electrolyte resistance for a single anode, in
ohms.
where
Y Resistivity of electrolyte (ohm-centimeters).

108
L
 b. Anodes in aWater Tank. The following is a
formaa leveloped by E. R. Shepard for a single cylindrical
anode:

R m..24-2log d

where

R- resistance, (Ohms).
9P- water resistivity (ohm-cm).
L - anode length (ft.)
d = anode diameter -(same units as D).
D = tank diameter (same units as d).

If four or more anodes are used in a circle in a water tank,

this equation is modified to read:
R = 0.012X log D/a
L

where
a - equivalent diameter factor from curve in Figure .53
times diameter of anode circle.

When short stub anodes are used in a water tank, consider-

able current fringing effects are prevalent at both ends.
The actual resistance of a short anode is the fringe factor
from curve in Figure, 54 times R as calculated from the
above equations.

A short anode is considered as one which has an L/d ratio

less than 100. When a short anode is used singly, the L/d
ratio is figured for the individual anode. However, when
short anodes are used in a string, the L/d ratio is figured
for the entire string. For example, five 1-1/2-in. dia. by
12-in. long anodes in a string would have an L/d ratio of
60/1.5 or 40. The L/d ration for one of these anodes when
used alone would be 12/1.5 = 8.
(1) Anode -Spacing for Water Tanks. When impressed
current anodes are used in a circle in a water tank, the
following formula may be used to determine optimum radius
of this circle:
r = DN/2(f+ N)

r = radius of anode mounting from center of tank (ft.).

D
N = tank diameter (ft.).
= number of anodes.

F 109
 006

S0.2

'Quatity of Anodes in Circle

-im 53
EQUIVALENT DIAMETER FACTOR FOR ANODES IN A CIRCLE IN WATER TANK

7.4.3 Simplified Expressions for Galvanic Anode

Current Output. Current output for a standard size magnes-
ium-or zinc anode can be estimated from the equation:
iCfy
i

where
i = current output (milliamperes)
C = a constant (50,000 for zinc; 150,000 for magnesium,)
f = anode size factor, obtained from Table 27
y = structure potential factor, obtained from Table 28
= electrolyte resistivity (ohm-centimeters)
This equation assumes a .bare or very poorly coated struc-
ture, electrolyte resistivity above 500 ohm-centimeters,
and distance between structure and anode of 10 feet. For
well-coated structures, structure-to-electrolyte resistance
is greater, making anode output current less. For a well-
coated
and structure,
120,000 then, constant "C" becomes 11O,000 for zinc
for magnesium.

110
 •,Table -27-(Reference 21,)
Gamlei Anodle 3ze lractor- f
3tardard Ano~es
Anode Weight Size Factor,
.(Pounds
3 packaged ) .o,.531
5 packaged) 00
9 padekaged, 0.71
17 packaged 1.00
32 packaged_ 1.06
'50 packaged-anode dimension 8 in dia.x 16 in) 1.09
50 packaged-anode dimension 5 in x 5 in x 31 in) 1.29
ng Anoes
9 (2.75 in x 2.75 in x-20 in DaW r 6in x 31 in)
6ll 1.01
10 1.5 in x 1.5 in x 72 in backfill 4 in x 78 in) 1.71
18 2 in x 2 in x 72 in-backfil1 5 in x 78 in) 1.81
40 f3.7 in x 3.75 in x 60 in backfill 6.5 in x66in) 1.66
20 2.5 in x 2.5 in x 60 in backfill 5 in x 66 in)
5
42 3 in x 3 in x 72 in backfill 6 in x 78 in)'
1.72
1.90
Extra Lona Anodes
15 (1.6 in dia. x 10 ft backrilled to 6 in dia. 2.61
20 (1.3 in x 20 ft backfilled to 6 in dia. ) 4.28
25 (2 in dia. x 10 ft. backfilled to 8 in dia.) 2.81
Table 28 (Reference 28)
Structure Potential Factor, y
Structure-to-Electrolyte Structure Structure
Potential (Volts, Relative Factor, y Factor, v
to Copper-Copper Sulfate) (Magesium) (ZincL
-0.7o 0.bo 1.l4
-0.80 1.07 1.20
-0.85 1.00 1.00
-0.90 0.93 o.80
-1.00 0.79 o.4o
-1.10 0.64 0.00
-1.20 0.50 0.00
For a groundbed of more than one vertical magnesium anode,
total current output is a multiple, not linear, of single
anode output. The multiplying factor is a function of anode
number and spacing as well as size. Table 29 (reference
22) gives values of this factor for vertical 17-pound pack-
aged magnesium anodes. This table can be used to approxi-
mate current output values for other size magnesium anodes
as well as zinc anodes.

111 i,
*1
 ii

~I.]

[ /

I' *

02 020 I 40 6U VU

Figure 54
FRINGE FACTOR FOR STUB ANODES

Table 29 (Reference 21)

Multiplying Factor for Magnesium Anode Groups
Multiplying Factor tAnode Spacing in Feet)
No. of Anodes
in Parallel 5 10 1 20
1-3 TT T.940 1.95
K 3 2.455 2.705 2.795 2.848
4 3.036 3.455 3.625 3.714
5 3.589 4.188 4.429 4.563
6 4.125 4.902 5.223 5.411
7 4.652 5.598 6.000 6.232
8 5.152 6.277 6.768 7.036
9 5.670 6.964 7.536 7.875
10 6.161 7.643 8.304 8.679
7.4.4 Determining Anode-to-ElectrolyTte Resistance by
Testing*. Tables and formulae provide only a rough estima=te
or anode-to-electrolyte resistance or galvanic anode current
output. These values are determined by many I'actors and 0an
only be truly determined after installation of anodes.

112
Two practical methods of determining total anode-to-electro-
lyte resistance by direct measurement can also be used for
impressed current syrrems.

The first of these consists of the following steps:

a. Install anodes complete with all connecting cables.
b. Test the resistance between structure to be cathod-
ically protected and installed anodes. Step "b" will yield
the circuit resistance so that proper size rectifier can be-
ordered.

The second method consists of the following eteps:

a. Install rectifier, complete with pdo'er supply, be-
fore installing any anodes.
b. As each anode is installed, calculate circuit re-
sistance by reading rectifier D.C. amperage and voltage.

When readings indicate the desired resistance, anode installa-

tion is discontinued.

These methods are useful when it is impractical to obtain

electrolyte resistivity readings. Also, they eliminate the
effect of errors in computations caused by variable electro-
lyte resistivity and allow the engineers to size the cath-
odic protection unit very closely.

For galvanic cathodic protection, a temporary or test ground-

bed of the type anode to be used may be installed. Resist-
ance, current output, and actual protection can then be
tested.
7.5 Backfill Around Anodes in Soil. Backfill, care-
fully tamped around anodes installed in soil, generally in-
creases their effectiveness. It reduces anode-to-electro-
lyte resistance; under favorable conditions, this resistance
may be reduced to one-half to one-third bare anode resist-
ance. In addition, backfill provides a uniform, favorable
environment, reducing polarization effects and uneven dissol-
ution. This minimizes hish-resistance build-up on anode sur-
faces and often helps increase operational life. For these
reasons, use of backfill should be considered in cathodic
protection design.

Backfill adds to the cost of cathodic protection. However,

powei, savings may warrant its use. If soil resistivity is
ten or more times backfill resistivity (in the neighborhood
of 500 to 1000 ohm-centimeters), the voltage drop of anode
current through backfill becomes negligible with respect to
the anode and the backfill becomes the effective anode.

In many cases it is impossible to use backfill at all, or

impossible to get it properly tamped and/or distributed
aroundanodes. Examples of this are swamps, quick sand, and

113
 soe "Deep Well" installatlons. However, "packaged" anodes
My be the .answer to some problems. In addition, backfill
always requires additional inspection care during installa-
tion because it should be tested before being used, care-
fully tamped, and distributed uniformly around anodes.
Packaged anodes should be carefully inspected because anode-
to-cable connection is hidden from view.
7.5.1 Imo. essed Current Anode (HSCBCI or Graphitel
Backfill. Caronaceous backrill (paragraph 4.j.4). suit-
able for use around Impressed curent anodes..
breeze (crushed coke or flake graphite. The can
) coke be coke
must orig-
inate from coal, or be recalcined petroleum coke. Flake
graphite isusually more expensive than coke breeze, but may
be best to use for "Deep Wells" because the particles tend
V~o --
lip over each other,.

HSCBCI anodes do not require backfill for operation, but

lower circuit resistance may result from its use.
Backfill should always be used with graphite anodes in soil,
to provide a low resistance environment. Otherwise, the
large difference in resistance at the anode surface (anode
to soil) will cause rapid dissolution of the anode and
greatly shorten its life.. Graphite anodes can be used with-
out backfill in extremely low resistance homogeneous environ-
ments (such as sea water). In high resistance electrolytes
11 .u where backfill cannot.be used (such as swamps, etc.),
gra,!.ite anodes are not recommended.
7.5.2 Galvanic Anode Backfill. Backfill for galvanic
anodes consists of a combination or material (paragraphs
7 5.l.l.d and 5.1.2.d). It is essentially gypsum (mould-
Ing plaster), bentonite clay, and sodium sulfate. Sodium
sulfate lowers anode-to-electrolyte resistance. Bentonite
acts as a sponge, holding moisture around the anode. Gypsum
is a binder which holds the backfill together preventing
leaching of the comptni-nts. If backfill is needed and, for
some reason, none is available, bags of "moulding plaster"
(actually gypsum) can be substituted; this is available at
most local building supply houses. Hairless moulding
plaster is preferred.

Backfill should always be used with zinc anodes in soil.

Zinc requires an environment free from damaging compounds
such as carbonates, which react with the metal causing it to
"seal over". This naturally stops the anode's effectiveness,
because little or no current will flow. (High-resistance
surface film is formed.)

Magnesium anodes experience little or no corrosion product

build-up and thus do not absolutely require backfill. How-
ever, backfill is usually employed to increase current output.
 7.5.3 Packaed arA Unpackaged Anodes. Both galvanic
and Imprssod I5nrent ieast-Ion or EaplTe) anodes are
available prepackaged in the appropriate backfill, for ease
of installation. Galvanlc anodes am generally packaed in
cloth bags, whereas Impressed current anodes are packaged in
metal cylinders ("stove pipes").
Prepackaged anodes are relatively simple to install; the
backfill is already tamped in place, and the entire installa-
tion is ready for direct burial. This is of particular use
in areas were backfilliag is impractical such as swamps or
caving sand. Unpackaged anodes are less expensive, but re-
quire more installation time for use in backfill. Backfill
must be thoroughly compacted in layers by hand or power taip-
ing. Particular care must be taken in placing and tamping
backfill around anodes to assure complete and intimate con-
tact, free of voids, between anodes and backfill. However,
a more intimate contact with soil results:

Disadvantages of packaged anodes are:

a. High additional cost of material.
b. Added cumbersome weight to transport and handle.
c, Possibility of voids developing during transporta-
tion.
d. Anode inspection and lead wire connection is

difficult. Breaks or defects could be present, prior to

installation, which could affect anode operation.
The choice of packaged or unpackaged anodes depends on
economics and site conditions. In general, packaged impres-
sed current anodes are not Justified for military use except
in unstable" excavations.

7.6 Rectifier Alternating Current Rating. Based on the

definition of'rectifier efficiency, the A.C. rating for a
single-phase rectifier can be calculated:

Iac = Edc x Idc (1-phase)

F x Ea'c

where

Iac = alternating current (amp).

Edc
Edc = direct current
= direct (volts).
current (amps).
F = rectifier efficiency.
Eac = alternating current (volts).

115
A
A
For ,a three-phase rectifier the equation becomes:
lac -a Ede x- Ide (3-phase)

where the letter nomenclature is the same as shown for

single-phase.
7.7 Cable Specifications and Data. Connecting cables
can be selected arter consideration or the following factors:
1. Current carrying capacity.(heating)
2. Voltage attenuation (IR drop which can reluce
anode voltage below required level).
3, Mechanical strength
. Economics (power losses vs. initial investment)
5. Dielectric strength of insulation in electrolyte.
environment.
Table 30 lists properties of single conductor stranded
copper cables (high molecular weight polyethylene or RR-USE
in direct burial service). Both high molecular weight single
extrusion polyethylene and RR-USE in3ulations give 8atis-
factory service in cathodic protection.

The positive rectifier cable (rectifier to anodes) of im-

pressed current systems must be well-insulated. This cable
is positive relative to earth; cable insulation breaks re-
sult in current discharge and rapid corrosion. Failure of
part or all of the system may occur. For this reason, cable
insulation, in this part of an impressed current system,
must be chosen with care.

The negative rectifier cable (rectifier to structure) of

impressed current systems and the connecting cables (anode
to st;ucture) of galvanic anode systems do not require such
high-quality insulation. These, as well as test wires and
other cables connected to the protected structure, are them-
selves protected. In order to avoid Wasting cathodic pro-
tection current, and to prevent corrosion if the cathodic
protection is turned off, however, well-insulated cables
should be used. In addition to possible loss of current,
galvanic cells (requiring more current to neutralize than
other corrosion) between copper cable and steel are also
possible if bare or poorly-insulated cable were employed.

116
1 Table 30
Concentric Strandid opper Single Conductors
Dlrect tial Service Suitably Insulated

Overall 3LiMM
Diameter Approx. maximum Allow.
Not Weight Maxinim D.C. D.C.
Including Not.Inc. Breaking Resistance Current
Size Insulation Insulation Strength 0 200C Capacity
Tr 007b4ZI OJ 0 1 2
12 0.0915 20.16 207 1.6200 20
10 .o.116o 32.06 329 1.0200 0
8 o.146o 50.97 525 0.6400 45
6 o.184o 81.05 832 O.4030 65
4 0.2,r0 128.90 1320 0.2540 85
3 0.2600 162.50 1670 0.2010 100
2 0.2920 204.90 2110 0.1590 115
1 0.3320 258.40 2660 0.1260 130
1/0 O.p730 325.80 3350 0.1000 150
2/0 0.4190 410'.90 423Q 0.0795 175
3/0 0.4700 518.10 5320 0.0631 200
4/0 o.5280 653.30 6453 0.0500 230
250 MC1 0.5750 771.90 7930 O.0423 255
7.7.1 Insulation. Some manufacturers have labeled
this "cathodic protection" cable. The original product was
'po1yethylene (PE) insulated and polyvinylchloride (PVC)
Jacketed. The latter was not intimate or a close fit to the
former. Therefore, moisture entered cable to anode connect-
ions, causing rapid failure. This is not a problem with
single extrusion cable insulation.

The most widely used cable insulation for cathodic protec-

tion service today is probably high molecular weight poly-
ethylene (IMWPE) 110 mils thick. This is used for lead
wires, rectifier cables, and bond wires. It is recommended
over high density polyethylene (HDPE) which is only 60 mils
thick - further, this material reportedly is subject to
stress cracking. Although relatively expensive, HMWPE exhib-
its superior performance and is recommended for all positive
header cables in inaccessible locations (buried or submerged,
for example), or where moisture can reach the cable, or
where damage is likely. Less expensive insulation will gen-
erally suffice in other applications.
Synthetic rubber insulations (Type RHW-USE) consisting of a
butyl sheath and neoprene jacket with a nominal total thick-
ness of 100 mils continue to be used. The reported disadvan-
tages of dual plastic insulations are not applicable because
-]
the two rubber compounds have good elastic "fit". These

117
uaterials give excellent .service unless they are exposed to
liquid hydrocarbons (gasoline, etc.).
In deep groundbeds, where conventional cable instilation rmy
be subject to degradation from chlorine, economics sometimes
justify use of more costly materials. The highly inert
fluorocarbons plastics, such as fluorinated ethylene propy-
lene (FEP), tetrafluorethylene (TFE), and polyvinylidene
fluoride (PV72), are used both as a primary insulation and
outer jacket, respectively, by different cable manufacturers-.
The outer jacket of these more exotic materials is about 10
mils per side. The primary insulation, usually a cross-
linke& extruded polyalkene, is about 30 mils per side. A
thin outer jacket is subject to mechanical damage during
installation. Even these sometimes fail.
-One newly developed insulation used for deep g-oundbed in-
stallations consists of an outer jacket of high-molecular
weight pol, %thylene (40 mils) and a primary insulation of a
copolymer )-.-CTFE (ethylene and monochlorotrifluoroethylene,
20 mils). This combination shows promise, but has not been
fully proven in the field.
Type TW insulation, which may consist of a variety of mater-
ials, is adequate for certain applications - test wires,
galvanic anode connections, above-grade rectifier wiring,
'
etc. - where cables are not exposed to the electrolyte or
'igh pos' -;ive voltages.

7.7.2 General Application. Recommended wire sizes

and insulation types for general use in military cathodic
protection installations are given here.
a. Test Wires. Test wires are to be
No. 12 solid copper cable With'Type T4, RHW-USE, o' poly-
ethylene insulation. These wires handle only small amounts
of current and are themselves cathodically protected. There-
fore, the wire size is small, and, choice of insulation mater-
ial is not as strict.
b. Bond Wires. All bond wires are to
be No. 4., 7-strand copper cable with high molecular weight
polyethylone (HMWPE) insulation. Bonding is an important
part of cathodic protection, insuring electrical continuity
where required.
c. Galvanic Anode Lead Wires. Galvanic anodes gener-
ally are supplied- with standard lead wires: 10 feet 6f No.
I? solid copper cable with TW insulation. Since galvanic
anodes produce little current and A.C. fault currents are
unlikely, this size wire is generally 'satisfactory. Type TW
insulation can be used because galvanic voltages are low.
d. Impressed Current System Cables:. Impressed cur-
rent anodes are generally supplied with standard lead wires:
5 feet of No. 8, 7-strand copper cable with PMPE insulation.

118
Th"ee leads are spliced into a header cable going to the
:positive rectifier teminal, For military installations,
this cable is to be 7-strand copper cable with WPE insula-
tion; size is No. 2 or larger, depending on current require-
ments. This cable is especially important,. being a major
component of the circuit. In addition, it is subject to cor-
rosion and rapid failure at each cable insulation or splice
insulation defects.

Rectifier negative (rectifier to structure) cable is also

important to circuit integrity, but this cable is actually
being cathodically protected and therefore not as likely to
cause problems as the positive one. It is good practice to
use well-insulated cable here also, however, to avoid current
losses and possible galvanic cells between copper cable and
steel structure. (Thic could be a problem if the system is
ever tun.ed off.) HPE insulated, 7-strand cable - usually
No. 4 6r No. 6, is used. Economical wire size can be deter-
mined according to Kelvin's LaW (paragraph' 7.7.3).
7.7.3 Economic Wire Size. Conformance to Kelvin's
Economic Law rs one the governing factors in design of
cable conductors for cathodic protection systems. This law
states: "The proper size of cable is that for which the
cost of the losses equdls the annual fixed charges." or
"The proper
annual cable
cost of size and
losses is one
the which
annualmakes
fixed the sum of
charges the
a miniffidA.".

The following relationship permits computation of the annual

cost of losses:

V = MKm
where
M = 0.0876 12 R, and Km LP

V = Annual cost of losses, (dollars per year)

I = Current flow in cables (amperes)
R = Resistance of 100 feet of 6able (ohms)
P = Cost of power (cents per kwh),
E = Efficiency of rectifier, or other current source (%)
L = Length of cable (feet)
Table 31 lists the :M factors for various wire sizes and
conductor currents. The annual cost of fixed charges of a
cable can be computed from:
F = 0.15 SL
F = Annual fixed charge (dollars per year)
S = Initial cable cost (dollars per foot)
L = Cable- length (feet)

119
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120
 0.15 = Estimated annual charges (dollars)
Note: This factor will vary. However, the following
estimate is used here:
0.02 .... Depreciation
0.06 .... Interest
0.04 .... Taxes and Insurance
0.03 .... Operation,and Maintenance
Total annual costs will equal the sum of the annual cost of
losses and the annual cost of fixed charges / (I - V 4 F,).
7.8 Connections and Splices. The designer must not
allow any more connections-an splices in cathodic protection
D.C. wiring than absolutely necessary. This is because all
systems are basically low voltage and increased resistance
will increase power costs and reduce protection effectiveness.
Also, wiring is often bu.:ied or submerged in an electrolyte
where even the smallest pinhole in insulation will mean rapid
failure, and repairs are difficult because of inaccessibility.

Every connection shouli be carefully inspected before and

after being insulated with material of quality at least equal
to that of the cable insulation. Thermnlt welds or solder
should be used as connections.. Mechanical connections some-
times result in higher resistance, fail prematurely, and are
often not as foolproof to install. Care must be taken not
to damage cable insulation and/or structure coatings more
than necessary. As previously mentioned, any break in
splice or cable insulation in posit~ve D.C. wiring, when
these are suspended in the electrolyte, will mean rapid And
premature failure of these positive feeders.

Necessary connections for' galvanic anode systems include:

cable to anode (each anode)
cable to struture (each anode)
In addition, bonds or test wires require connections, if
these are to be installed,
Necessary connections for impressed current systems include:
cable to anode (each anode)
n3,ativ cable to structure
In addition, it is necessary to splice each individual im-
prezsed current anode into a "header" cable unless long indi-
vidual ! iis are used brtween eich anode and the rectifier
power .zpply. As ith galvanic systems, bonds or test wires
mu, abs.' b requirei, necessitating additional cable to
structure .- cnnuctions. If more than one header cable is re-
quired because o? structure geometry, additional splices may
be require-d to join these.
(Note: all splices should oe indicated on design layouts and
not left to tho discretion of installation contractors. No

121
 I
splices other than ;hose indicated on drawings should be
allowed without permission frog the engineer.)

Cable to anode connections were discussed with individual

anode types. These connections are crucial and their
strength should be at least as great as the cable breaking
strength.

Cable to cable connections $such as splices between anode

lead wires and header cable) require insulation to remain
moisture-proof. Recommended insulation is epoxy connection
coverin~s which come in kit form.

Cable to- structure connections (paragraph 4.3) do not re-

quire epoxy splice kits, although these are available. It
is more practical and equally effective to coat the connect-
ion with hot coal-tar enamel (or material equivalent to struc-
ture coating) and wrap with pipeline felt.

8 EXAMPLES OF CATHODIC PROTECTION DESIGN. Several

design examples are detailed here for guidance and assist-
ance in proper use of this manual. Conditions are assumed.
They are shown for illustration only, and no consideration
is given to cathodic interference on neighboring structures.
These illustrations do not fix design criteria or indicate
any one material superior to another.

Design calculations should be based on field measurements

rather than calculated estimates. In this way, actual con-
ditions are considered, and cathodic protection is designed
around an existing situation., Frequently, cathodic protec-
tion must be designed prior to structure installatlon- neces-
sitating the use of calculated current requirement and resis-
tance estimates. These calculations are, of course, more in-
volved than those based on field measurements. These longer
calculations are followed Ln some examples, with the under-
standing that this method s3hould only be used when it is
impractical or impossible to obtain actual field measure-
ments.
a. Elevated, Steel Water Tank, This impressed current
design is for a tank which has not been -built; hence, it is
not possible to determine current requirements, etc. by
actual measurement. Calculated estimates are used.
(1) Design Data.
a) Tank capacity 500,000 gal.
b Tank height (from ground
to bottom of bowl) 5 t.
c Diameter of tank
d High water level in tank 35 ft.

SRise
SVertical
ejOver-all depth of tank
shell height
pipe diameter
39
ll
5
ft.
ft.
ft.
122
 (h) Shape of tank Ellipsoidal,
both top and
bottom-
Jil All internal surfaces are ncoated
j Design"for maximum
current density 2 ma./sq.ft.
(k) Electric power available 120/t4Ophase
single VAC,
1"' String-type HSCBCI anodes are used
m Design life 10 years
n Water resistivity 4000 ohm-cm.
(o Tank water will not be
subject to freezing
(p) Assumed dfterioration rate 1.0 Iba41hp-yr.
q Anode efficiency (assumed) 50%
(2) Compuitations.
(a) Area of wetted surface of tank
bowl (Figure 7-55)
Top section (T)
AT = 2lrx (approximate)

where

r = 28 ft.
x = 10 ft.
AT-- 2 x 3.1416 x 28 x 10
AT = 1760 sq. ft.
Center section (C)

AC = 2T7rh
where
r =28 ft.
h = 11 ft.
AC =2 x 3.1416 x 28 x l
AC)= 1935 sq. ft.

Bottom section (B)

AB = r2
where
r = 28 ft.
a = 14 ft.
AB = 2 x 3.1416 x 28x 142 + 282
AB = 3900 sq. ft.

123
 CETR-ETIN

(B

Figure -55
SEGMENTED ELEVATED TANK FOR AREA CALC ULATIONS

.....
..I
 Therefore j
AT 176o sq. ft.
AC- 1935 sq. ft.
AB - 3900 sq. ft.

Total - 7595 sq. ft. (wetted area of tank bowl).

(b) Area of riser pipe.
AR = 2 'rRhR

where

rR- i2-5 ft. (radius of riser)

hR - 115 ft., (height of riser)
AR -2 x 3.1416 x 2.5 x 115
AR - 1810 sq. ft.

I' (c) Maximum design current for tank.

T - 2.0 x 7595
IT = 15,190 ma. or 15.2 amp.

(d) Maximum design current for riser.

IR= 2.0 X 1810
I R =3620 ma. or 3.62 amp.
(e) Minimum weight of tank anode material.

YSI

where
Y = 10 yr.
S = 1.0 lb./amp.-yr.
E = .50
I = 15.2 amp,
W =1 0 x 1.0 x 15.2
W = 301-b..
(f) Minimum weight of riser anode material.
W = YSI

125
where

Y -l10yr.
3- 1.0 lb./amp.-yr.
I - 3.62 amp.
E - 0.50
x 3.62
l.0 ..
W - 10x0.50
W - 72.4 lb.
(g) Radius of main anode circle.
r = (DN) (V'+ N)

where
D - 56 ft.
N . 10 (assumed)
r = 56 x 10

r = 21.3 ft., use 22 ft.

(h).Spacing of main aiodes. Generally
tance from the anode to the the dis-
tank(wall and
tank bottom is about equal; this-distance
'should be about one-half the circumferential
distance between anodes.
N =-101 (asue nube0)'aods
C= 02x.24lxspacing.
1. Circumferential
C- (29r)/N
where
r
N 22
1 0 ft. (radius
(assumed of anode
number circle)
of anodes)
C -2 x 3.1416 x 2
C 13.8 ft., use 14 ft.

2. Cord spacing is approximatelo the same as

circumferential spacing; 14 ft. will be
used; see Figure 56.

(i) Selection of main anodes.

1. Size of anode units selected is I-1/8"'O.D. x

3/4 1.D. x 9",long . Th' -1 is .astandard
sausage-type anode which weighs 1 lb.., and
and h2s a surface area of 0.25 sq ft.

126
 Figure 56
ANODE SPCINGFOR ELEVATED STEEL WATERt TANK

2. The minimum number of anode units per

anode string, based on a required weight of
304 lb. and 10 anode strings is computed
as follows:
Number of units-- 304/(10 x 1) - 30.4;
say 31 units per string.
Since the internal task surfaces are un-
coated,, aimaximun structure-io-electrolyte
* voltage is not a limiting factor. However,
since it is desired to hold the anode current
at or below the manufacturers recommezeded
discharge rate of 0.02S amps per anode for
this type anode, 15.2-AMP - 61 anodes
10 DmiSans
per string. This number of anodes per string
is not practical for the bowl since the dis -
tance between the anode hanger and the bottom
of tank is onl 28 feet. Table 32, Technical

127
 mcd HC3C nodes *shows
kta omay
the maxim recesmded current discharge
I per @A*" for varios -type suedes to In-
sure tea year sulm life. Using, type
k smodel, 3 suedes per string-will be required.
The manufacturer does net recoimd mr
tha 2 typ sueodes per string assembly be-
cause of their fragile nature. Therefore, the
bsst choice of suede for the si suede
strings is type C or type CDD. Type CDO is
recommeuded becamse the lead-wire connect ion
will bie protected longer by the thicker wall
of the enlarged cads. Two type CDD smedes
per string will provide a curreut capacity of
2 Imus x 10 striugs a 20 sups. These auedes
will be spaced as shown in figure 57.

TABLE 32
Technical Dota -Commonly Used HSCBCI Mnodes
Anode Wegt Anode Max Max Current
Type.. Size (Lfis)-- Discharle (amps) Deasit, aps~t
FW* 1 l/8"9O.D. x 1 0.025 0.1
3/40I .D. x 9"#
FC* 1 1/2"1 x 9"1 4 0.07S 0.25-
G-2 2"O.D. x 1 1/4 5 0.100 0.25
1.1. x 9",
3*, 1 x 60"0 12 0.50 0.36

C 1 1/2" *x60"1 -25 1.06.50

CDD* 1 1/2"1 x 60"1 26 1.00 0.50
Me 2"0 x 60"1 60 2.5, 0.9
SM 4 1/2 x 60 220, 10.0 1.8
*Each end enlarged with woed op(ning for wire.
*For elevated fresh water tank.
SFor distributed system in ground trench.
# Not more than 2 anodes per assembkly.

12I
 St

OF TAIM.

2 ---

xmgo (3 nom2m

AMOK ELEWFIIGUR
STE E AN

AN="G~f FR KLEX=S1 WTA

 . Anode current density is computed as
r follows
Output W.__15.2 = 0.3 amp./sq.ft..
2 1 10 x 2
.(j) Resistance, of' main anodes.
R .1log D/a

where -,

P w 4000 ohm-cm.
D-56 ft.
L = 2 x S :ft. - 10 ft-.
a - 44 x 0.275 = 12.1 ft. (0.275 --
equivalent diameter factor from -urve
Figure 53).
R - 0.012 x 4000 log 56/12 .1
R - 48 log
10
R - 3.19 ohm.

However, the L/d ratio of twelve 1-1/2-in.

diam. x 9-in. long-anodes in tandem is less
than 100 and thus the fringe fa7ctor must be
used.
L/d a 2 x 60/1.5
Lid - 80'100
The fringe factor from curve Figure 54
corresponding to this L/d ratio is 0.95

R (adjusted) = 3.19 x 0.95

R = 3.03 ohms

(k) Stub anodes. In the design of an elevated

water tank, the need for stub anodes must be
Justified. The main anode radius has been
calculated to be 22 ft.. Main anodes are
spaced to provide approximately the same
distance from the sides and the bottom of the
tank. The main anode s will protect a length
along the tank bottom equal to 1-1/2 times
the spacing of the anode from the bottom.

Figure 57 shows the anode suspension ar-

rangement for the tank ,under consLderation.
Thus, it, can be seen that stub anoders are re-
quired for thts design. Ten stub anodes are
arranged equidistant apart on a circumference

130

. - - -I- I
 having a radius of 8 ft. in a mannenr illus-
tratedin Figxre_ 56. For smiler diameter
tarkz, stub anodes may not be required.
(1)- Current division -between main and stub anodes.
1. Area of tank bottom protected by stub
anodes (Figure 57)i
2, 2
As -'(r2 - rl 2 )
where
r2 = 13 ft. (radius of protected segment)
r.
I - 2.5 ft. (radius of riser)
A3 i3-.i4l6 (*t - 2.52)
As = 3.1416 x 163
As = S12,1 sq. ft.
2. Maximum current for stub anodes.
Is = 2.0 x S12I
is_= 1024 ma. or 1.02 aup
3. Maximum carrent for tank bowl = 15.2 amp.
4. Maximum current for main anodes.
Im = 15.2 r 1.02
Im = 14.2 amp.
(m) Rectifier voltage rating.
1. Electrical conductor to main anodes.
Wire size #2 AWG, 0.159 ohm/l00 ft.,
estimated length 200 ft.
200
(R) x .159 = .032 ohm

2. Voltage drop in main anode feeder.

E IR
where
I =14.2 amp.
R = .032 ohm
E = 14.2 x .032
E = 0.45-volts.

131
 3. Voltage drop througjh main anodes.
E - IR
r where

I - 14.2 amp.
R * 3.03 ohms
Ba 14.2 x 3.03
E -43.0 volts.
4. Total voltage drop in main anode circuit.

ET * 0.45 + 43.0
ET * 43.45 or 4S volts

Use a multiplying factor :of 1.5, or 67.5 volts.

5. The nearest commercially available recti-
fier meeting the above requirement is a
single phase, 80-volt unit.
(n) Selection of stub anodes. Since it is desirable
to use as small an- anode as possible without
exceeding the manufacturers recommended rate,
type FC, HSCBCI anode measuring 1 1/2" x 9" will
be tried. One anode-per string will be used as
shown in figure 57. Anode current density is
computed as follows.

Output - 1.02/(10 x .03) a 0.34 amp. per sq, ft.

Since this exceeds the recommended Imax ahod
current density (table 32), type B anode isi the
best choice

(o) Resistance of stub anodes.

R "0"01?eO lot D/a
L

where

o 4000 ohm-cm
D - 56 ft.
L-5 ft.
a a 16 x 0.275 4.4 ft.
I - 0.012 x-4000 log 56/4.4
5
R a 48 lol 12.73

R - 48 x 1.105

R 10'.0S ohms
132
KL/d i 0/1 60,
Fi -factor fra.. curve- Figue f 0.65
&AM~std) 10.0o8X 16.865 .57T ohm-
(p) Voltage drop instab akmedo circuit.
1. cosductor to stub anodes.
- Electrical,
ire size 02 Ago* .15O ohimsfl0 ft,$,
estited4 lsogth 200 ft.
(R) a- (200/1000), x 15 .032 ohtm
2. Voltage. drop. in- stub-amoe. feeder .
E *IR

where
1' 1102 Map.
R *.032 ohs
E a1.02 ir .032
E .033 'volt.
3. 'Votage drop in anode suspension,
conductors.* Estimated length 50 ft.,
#2 AMG, A1S91 ohms(11000! ft.*
(R) a (50/1000) x .159 a 4008 ohm
E a IR
where
I a 1.02/10 a 0.102 amp.
R - 4008 ohm
E 1.02 x .008
E negligible.
4.

where,
Voltage drop through- stub anodes.
E IR 1
-1 ampn
R 857 ohmks
8:
E 1.02 x 8.50
E *8.74 volts

103
 5. Total voltage drop in stub anode circuit.
ET'= .033 + 8.74
ET =8.77 volts
6. Since the stub anode voltage is below the
45 volts calculated for the main tank
anode circuit, the necessary current adjust-
ment can be accomplished through a variable
resistor in the stub anode circuit.

(q) Stub anode circuit variable resistor.

1. Criteria for variable resistor.

- The resistor should be capable of carrying
maximum anode circuit current and have suf-
ficient resistance to reduce anode current
by one-half when full rectifier voltage is
applied to the anode circuit.
2. Stub anode circuit data.
Rectifier output, go volts
Anode current, 1.02 amp.
Anode resistance, 8.57 ohm,;.

3. Variable resistor rating.

R = E/I

where
E = 80 volts
I = 1.02/Z or 0.51 amv.
R 80/0.51
R = 156.9 ohms
Ohmic value of resistor,
156.9 - 8.57 a 148.3 ohms
Wattage rating of resistor,
(1.022 x148.3 =154.2 watts

The nearest com~nercially available resis-

tor size meeting the above requirements is
a 175-watt, 200-ohm, 1-amp. resistor.

(r) Resistance of riser anodes. In order to

obtain the maximum desired current in the
riser (3.62 amp.), the resistance limit is
calculated as follows:

R = E/I

134
 E 43.45 volts
3.62 amp.
R" 12.0 ohms.
(s) Riser anode design.
1. Type iW (1 1/8" x 9") string type anodes
cannot be used in the riser because the
maxima anode current discharge of 0.025
amps per anode would be exceeded. The
best choice of anode for flexible riser
string is type G-2 (2" x 9") high silicon
Cas iron anode.
2. Number of units required.
R = 0.01;e loz[ n/d

L a 0.012 log[ D/d

R

where
T a 4000 ohm-ca.
D S ft.
d =2 in or .166 ft.
R a 12 ohms
L m 0.012 x 4000 log 5/0.166
12
L =48 x log[ 30.1

L * 48 x 1.479
12
L * 5.92 ft.
Number of units = S. 2XI0.75 - 7.9
or 8 umits

In order to obtain proper current ,distribution

in the riser pipe, the anode units should not
be placed too far apart. It is generally con-
sidered that each anode unit will protect a
length along the riser pipe equal to 1-1/2 times
the spacing of the anode from the riser pipe wall.

Riser height - 115 ft.

Spacing (center of anode to tank wall) a 2.5 ft.
Length of riser protected by one anode a
1.5 x 2.5 = 3.75 ft.

135
I
Number or units required = 115/3.75 = 30.7 or
31 units.

3., Anode resistance based on the use of 31

anode units.
M 0.012log D/d

where
f 4000 ohm-cm.
D - 5 ft.
d - 3 in. or 0.1" ft.
L - 31 x 9 in. - 279 in or 23.25 ft.
R
R -= 0.012
4 g x 4000 log 5/0;1"

R = .1

R - 3.05 ohms.
L/d ratio for the riser anode string is
279/2 or 139.5; thus no fringe factor cor-
rection is applied.
(t) Voltage drop in riser anode circuit.

1. Electrical conductor to riser anodes. Wire

size, #2 AWG .159 ohms/1000 ft., estimated
length 200 ft.
(R) = 200/1000 x .159 = .032 ohm.
2. Voltage drop in riser anode feeder.

E = IR
where
I = 3.62 amp.
R = .032 ohm
E 3.62 x .032
E = .116 volt.
3. Voltage drop in riser anode suspension
cables. Wire size #2 AWG, .159 olhm/1000 ft.,
estimated length 130 ft.
(R) = 130/1000 x .159 = .02 ohm
E = IR

136

*1
 where
I - 3.62/ - 1.81 amp. average
R - .02 ohm
E - 1.81 x .02
E - 04 volt.
4. Voltage drop through riser anodes.
E -IR
where

1 m3.62 amp.
R ohms
E : x 3.05
E " 11.04 volts.

5. Total voltage drop in riser anode circuit.

ET = .116 + .04 + 11.04
ET w 11.20 volts.

(u) Riser anode circuit variable resistor.

1. Criteria for variable resistor are the same
as given for stub anode resistor.
2. Riser anode circuit data.

Rectifier output, 80 volts

Anode current, 3.62 amp.
Anod2. r,,ltsace a 3.05 + .032 * .02 - 3.10 ohms

3. Variable resistor rating.

P = E/i
where
E = 80 volts
I = 3.62/2 = 1.81 amp.
R = 80/1.81
R = 44.2 ohms.
Ohmic valuE, of reststor =
44.2 - 3.10 =41.1 ohms.
Watta e rating of resisto- =
(.622 x 41.1 -- S38.6 watts.

137
 The mearest comercially available resistor
size'seeting the above requirements is a'
7S0-watt, SO-ohm, 3.87 amp. resistor.
This rbeostat is ten inches in diameter and
Three inches in depth and fairly expensive.
This rheostat will not fit into most recti-
fier cases. In addition, the power consumled
by the rheostat is considerable. This power
creats substantial heat that may damage com-
poneats within the rectifier case unless
adequate ventilation is provided. The pro-
blems associated with using a large rheostat
can be eliminated by using a seperate recti-
fier for the riser anodes. Although initial
cost may be slightly high, power savings will
be substantial and danqe by heat will be
avoided.
(v) Sizing rectifier for riser.
1. Requirements.
0DC current output a 3.62 ap
Anode circuit resistance - 3.10 ohms.
DC voltage required - IR a 3.62 x 3.10
ER a 11.22 volts.
2. Rectifier rating. Standard ratings for a
rectifier in this size class is 18 volt, 4
amp.
(w) Rectifier rating for bowl.
1. DC side. Voltage output as previously de-
terined', 80 Volts. Current rating is 15.2 amp.
The nearest commercially available rectifier
meeting the above requireaents is a 80 volt,
16 a"p.
(x) Wire sizes and types.
All positive feeder and suspension cables
(rectifier to anodes) shall be #2 AWG, HMWPE
insulated copper cable. To aboid complication,
the negative rectifier -able (rectifier to
structure) shall be of the same size and type
(Figure 58).
(y) Discussion.

138
 flan W

Three Electrical Cor&cm

(hbelfive) in CoAdt

x3 tWeon owLo

NeaieWelded

Figure 58
ELEVATED STEEL WATER TANK SHOWING
A RECTFIER AND ANODE ARRANGEMENT

139
3. This design points out the disadvantages of
achieving corrosion control through cath-
odic-protection without the aid of a pro-
tective coating. When the interior of a
tank is coated, the current requirement is
reduced from SO to 80 percent.- On ikrge
tanks without coating, larger size and more
ex isive \snodes, wir sad rectifier units
-00tbeiused. In addition. the power COD-
smed by the uncoated tank is far greater.
These additional costs will usualy exceed
the cost Of a quality coating system over
a ten year period. Corrosion above the
water line of z water storage tank is usu-
ally severe because of the corrosive nature
of condensation. For this reason, protective
coatings must be used above the water line
on both large and small water storage tanks
to mitigate ,corrosion.
2. For further assistance and guidance in the
design of cathodic protection systems for
elevated cold water storage tanks, see
Figures 59 and 60.
3. HSCBCI was selected for this particular
design purely for illustrative prupioses.
It does not mean that this material is
superior to other types of anode material.
Other acceptable anode materials include
aluminum and platinized titanium.
4. For this design, silicon cells should be
specified for the rectifier protecting the
bowl and selenium cells should be specified
for the rectifier protecting the riser.
Silicon cells operate more efficiently at
high DC ,output voltages than selenium cells
do but requi-Te elaborate surge and overload
protection. This protection is not economical
in the low power consuming units. A guide
for selection of rectifying cells is as follows:
Use silicon cells for single phase rectifiers
operated above 72 volts DC or three phase
rectifiers operated above 90 volts DC. Use,
newer non-aging selenium for single phase
rectifiers, operated below 72 volts DC' or
three phase rectifiers operated below 90
volts DC.

140
 b. Elevated Water Tank (Where Ice is Expected).
Impressed current cathodic protectioa is designed for an
elevated water tank shown ii Fiure 61. The tank is already
built , and zrremt requirement tests have been made. Anodes
will not be*iuspended from tank roof because heavy ice (up to
2-feet thick) covers the water surface during winter. The
weight of this ice could.not be tolerated on anode cables,
so another method is employed. BUtton anodes wiUl be oit-ed
oA the floor of the tank and Lightweight platinised titanium
anodes will be suspended in the riser from the tank bottom.

1/2" Bit and Extra Lor" Tan oo

r(Golva..Lock Wsr

HandHole Cover Sholl~be Mode 1-1/4" x.,I1" Galvanized

of Sam Gauge Material as, Roof 0 - Sap iron
Easily Removable and Swr;Wntype Insulving
fotvded with WeatheC o Clqvi -nd ;i.,
Gaet" Wire opeClip

Provide 6" Diameter ._--#2, HMWPE.Cable

Hand Hole Accessible A
to Anode Hanger and
Finished with a Smooth
Edge

Figure 59
HAND HOLE AND ANODE SUSPENSION DETAIL FOR ELEVATED WATER TANK

1~1
I
Slouglag Type Irmsdting

rre bp Clip
02, MWE

4SCI Anode AnoU~ed

S Tndm, 416* Spacing
in

FigU%" 60
RISER ANODE SUSPENSION DETAIL FOR ELEVATED WATER TANK

(1) Design Data

(a) Tank height (from ground 37 ft.
to bottom of bowl
b Tank diameter 24 ft.
c High water level in tank 34.5 ft.
d Overall depth of tank 34.5 ft.
e Vertica! 'she-ll 'heIght 22.5 ft.
*f' Riser pipe diameter 4 ft.
g Shape of tank Semicircular bottom
h All internal surfaces uncoated
1i Current required for
protection bowl, - 7.0 amperes
riser - 1.0 ampere
(J) Electrical power available 120/240 VAC
single-phase
11 Tcank is subject to freezing
Design life 15 years
} Water resistivity 4000 ohm-cm.
n)Button type HSCBCI anodes
are used for tank
(o) Riser anodes are platinized titanium wire.

142
 12'

48 Riser Pipe

Figure 61
DIMENSIONS: ELEVATED STEEL WATER TANK

143
 (2) Computations; b
i ( ') Mnimu. weight 017 button anode material
~required for tank.

I W ,.YSI

where
Y 15 yr.
S 1.0 lb/amp.-yr.
1 7.o amp.
E 0.50
W !x
15 1.0 X-7 .0

W 210 1b.

(b) Number of tank anodes.

Button anodes weigh 55 lbs.

N =210 3.82 (usc4 anodes)

(c) Minimum weight of riser anode material

required for riser.
YSI

where
Y = 15 yr.
S = 1.32 x 10-5 lb./amp-yr.
I = 1.0 amp.
E = 0.50
w = 15 x 1.32 x 10-5 x 1.o

W = 3.96 'xio-11lb.
(d) Number of riser anodes.
Platinized titanium wire 0.1-in. dia., 3 ft.
long, with .001-in. thick platinum over
titanium will be used for each anode. The
weight of platinum on each anode is
8.8 x 1O-5 lbs.

N = 3.96_ x 10-4= 4.5 (use 5 anodes)

8.8 x 10-5
 i lWiho Am&ul Lwallin,

TeakCppr w

Tpe Anode Wie to Came

III
Splice-in Epoxy Resin
A~p~p Installd
stud PoIeyle n*

StelPate, Weld to End of Angle

Angle flat. Polyethylene

steel Mate
Cable-to-Anode Connection,
Brazed and Coated with Epoxy

Tk 1 0Pipe-Welded to Angle
* Water-Tight Seal

u Ao Anode Cable
Anle Mounting
"utton
Figure 62
CATHODIC PROTECTION FOR TANKS USING
RIGID-MOUNTED BUTTON-TYPE ANODES

1115
, 145
 (e) Location of anodes f(Figure 62)
Button anodes are mounted on base of tank
at a distance of 1/4.the tank diameter
(6 ft.)-from the center. They are mounted
on metal angles and plates welded to the tank
bottom; polyethylene insulation is,required
to separate anode from metal mounting.
Riser anodes are suspended in the center of
the riser pipe, spliced to a No. 4 cable.
The top anode is placed 1 ft. from the tank
base. The remaining four anodes are spaced
at 4 ft. intervals..
Each button anode has its own Nq 8, 7-strand!
copper cable (HMWE) run in conduit to a re-
sistor box mounted at eye level on a tank leg.
The riser anode's one No.. 4, 7-strand cable
is run in conduit to the resistor box. If
required to obtain proper current output, a
resistor will be installed in the riser anode
circuit at the time of rectifier sizing. The
rectifier will be sized once the anodesare
installed, and mounted at eye level adjacent
to the- resistor box.
c. Aircraft Multiple Hydrant Refueling System.
Galvanic cathodic protection is designed for a standard air-
ciiaft hydrant -refueling system shown in Figure 63. This
design is for a system not yet installed.
(1) Design data. -

(a) Average soil resistivity, 5000 ohm-cm.

'b) Design for 90% coating efficiency, based on
experience.
(,c Design for 15-yr. life.
d Design for I ma./sq. ft. of bare pipe after
polarization.
Magnesium packaged type anodes will be used.
System is adequately insulated from foreign
, structures.
(g) All pipe was mill-coated with hot applied
*coal-tar enamel and wrapped with asbestos
felt. Coating was tested over the ,trench for
holidays, and defects were corrected. Coat-
ing is assumed better than 99.5% perfect at
installation.-
-I
(2) Computations. Refer to Figure 63 and

Table 22.

146
 6w Coated Hymt16

'2 Hydrant Refueling 9

Outlets

9-Lb. Pbckoged,
High-urront
Magnesium 960W

Volvo 30 DefuelingHeadeor

IDo' 18'-
* F )90 I
* a" Refueling Header 6" Defueling'Return .
Pump and Control House -~1010 Supply Line
Figure- 63,
GALVANIC ANODE CATHODIC PROTECTION
FOR HYDRANT REFUELING SYSTEM

474
(a) Total outside area of POL piping serving the
hydant refueling area.

Pipe Size Pipe Length Pipi Area, sq.ft./ft.

in. ft. (Table
3 (defueling 2 x 293 = 586 586 x .916 m 538
header)
6 (defueling 90 90 x 1.734 ; 156
return)
8 (refueling 2 x 293 - 586 586 x 2.258 - 1,321
header)
10 (supply 90 90 x 2.82 = 254
line)
6 (hyd:?ant
laterals) 3-x 960 = 2880 2880 xl.734 4,991
Total area of iVOL pipe in sq. ft. 7,260
(b) Area of bare pipe based on 90% coating
efficiency.
A = 7260 x 0.1
A 726 sq.ft.
(c) Maximum current required based on 1 ma./sq.
ft. of bare pipe.
I = 1.0 x 726
I = 726 ma. or 0.73 amp.
(d) Minimum weight of anode material.
W YSI

where
Y = 15 yrs.
S = 8.8 lb./amp.-yr.
E = 0.50
I = 0.73 amp.
V = 15 x 8.8
0.50
x 0.73
W = 193 lb.

l i6,
 It should be noted that the 193 lb. arrived
at above is based upon an output current of
0.73 amp. for the full designed life of the
cathodic protection system, 15 years.
Strictly speaking, this is not the case be-
cause the current outpot following a new
installation ts much less due; to the high
coating efficiency. The average current
requirement at first may be ai low as 0.015
ma./sq. ft. of pipe.
(e) Current output of a single 9-lb. packaeged,
"high current" magnesium anode.

C = 120,000
f = 0.71
y = 1.00
i = 5000 ohm-cm.
i = 120,000 x 0.71 x 1.00
5000
i = 17.0 milliamperes
Since the structure Js well-coated, the
anode spacing is relatively great. There-
fore the "Multiplying Factor for Magnesium
.Anode Groups" is not used.
(V) N mb~er' of a -id (n-ij.-J

n.,

where
I = 726 milliamperes
i = 17.0 milliamperes

n = 42.7 (use 43 anodes).

(g) Anode distribution.

1. Area of pipe protected by one anode.

A = 7260/43
A = 169 sq.ft.

149
 2. Division of anodes.
Laterals 4991/169 .30 anodes
Header 1859/169 - anodes
Supply and
return lines 410/169 - 2 anodes
d. Steel Gas Main. Impressed current cathodic pro-
tection is desizned for the 6-in. welded gas main shown in
Figure 64. This pipeline Is not constrmcted, so measure-
ments may not be made.
(1) Design data.

al Average soil resistivity, 2000 ohm-cm.

b Pipe size, 6-in. OD.
c Pipe length, 6800 ft.
d Design for 15-Yr. life.
e Design for 2-ma./sq.ft. of bare pipe.
fl Design for 90% coating efficiency, based on
experience.
(g) The pipeline will be isolated from the pump-
house with an insulating joint on the main
line inside the pumphouse.
(h) HSCBCI anodes will be used with carbonaceous
backfill.
(i) The pIpe is coated with hot-applied coal-tar
enamel and holiday-checked before installa-
tion.
Anode bed shall not exceed 2 ohms.
volts, single phase, from a nearby overhead
distribution .system.

(2) Computations.

(a) Outside area of gas main.

Pipe size - 6 in.

Pipe length - 6800 ft.
Pipe area - 6800 x 1.731 = 11,800 sq.ft.
(b) Area of bare pipe to be cathodically pro-
tected based upon 90Z coatinr efficiency.

A = 11,800 x 0.1
A = 1180 sq.ft.

(c) Protective& current required based upon 2 ma./

sq.ft. of bare metal.

I = 1180 x 2
T = 2 60 ma. or 2.36 amp.

150

....
.- ..
,.....
. ....
..
..... ....
... ....
.'" 5 .= - . .... .. ... . . . . . . .. ...
 Tank

Fowrr Dia. x600 Lono

CasbonWAceW Sack*I I

Single Mmas, 115-Volt Ac Rectifier,

Rated at-B Amp., 8 Volts D.C. Mount -
Rectiier on lMbe Adjacent to Electrical

Distribution System

Insulating Joint

Figure 64
CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEM FOR GAS MIN
 (d) Ground Bed Design.
1. Anode x 84 2in.),
10 in,. size, in. X LJ in.20 (backfilled
spaced feet apart.

2. Resistance of a single anole to earth.

RV W K
where

)0= 2000 ohm-cm.

L = 7.0 ft.
K = 0.0189 (from Table 7-211)
Rv - 200 X . ol89/7.o
Rv = 5.4 ohms.
3. Number of anodes required. It was stated
in the design data that the anode bed re-
sistance is not to exceed 2 ohms. Anode
size used Is 2-in diam. x 60 in. long with
carbonaCeous backfill having over-all di-
mensions of 10-in. diam. x 84 in. long and
spaced 20 ft. apart.
R = Rv +

where
-;R =2 ohms
Ry = 5.110 ohms
) = 2000 ohi-eir.
S = 20 ft.
P, a function of n (Table 25), and n,
the number of anodes, will be determined
by trial and error.
Rearranging the equation for n,

n Rv
n R
t ()Of P)/30
n : 10

n = _ 5. 40
2 -I00 P

152
iA
 Try n - 4 anodes, I,
P =.0028
4. j, 5.4o

4 - 5.40
4 3.15 (close)
Try n - 3 anodes,
P = .00289
3 5.40

3 3.16
This-is closest possible. In order to: keep
total resistance below 2.0 ohms, use 4
anodes.

4. Actual resistance.

R = 1/4(5.40) + 2000 (0283)

A = 1.35 + 0.28
R = 1.63 < 2 6hms.
-
utx
d-T -wM hb of toa e Tor, grouid d.

Weight per anode unit, 60 lb.

(size 1 in. x 60 in.)
2. Total weight = x 6o= 24o lb.
(g) Theoretical life of anode bed.
W = YSI

Rea2ranging gives
y =IE

153
 where
v 240 lb.
S 1.0 lb./amp.-yr.
E 0.50
2.36 amp.
Y 2 X5 = 50.9 yeas.
1.0 X 2.36,50, Yas
It should be noted the expected ground bed
life greatly exceeds the design requirement
of 15 -ears. This is ,brought about -by the
additional anode material required to estab-
lish a .2-ohm ground bed.
(h) Resistance of DC circuit.
1. Groundbed-to-soVI resistance, 2.0 o.ns maX'.
2. Resistance of groundbed feeder conductor.
(Length 500 ft., type DUPE, size #2 AWG).
Conductor resistance
- 0'.159 ohm/1000 ft.
R = 500/1000 x0O.159
R = .07.9
3. Total resistance of DC circuit.

(i) Rectifier rating.

1. Minimum current requirement, 2.36 amp.
2. Ciruit resistance, 2.08 ohms.
3. Voltage rating.
E = IR

where

I = 2 36 amp.
R = 2.08 ohms
E = 2.36 x 2.08
E = 4.9 or 5.0 volts.
To allow for rectifier atring. film forma-
tions, and seasonal chan es in the soil
resistivity, it is constierei good practice
to use a multiplying factor of 1.5 to

-5
 establish the rectifier voltage rating.
E = 5.0 x 1.5 - 8.o volts.
4. Thie commercial size rectifier meeti.ng the
above requirements is 115-volt, single
phase, selenium, full wave bridge type unit
having a DC output 6f 8 amp. and 8 volts.

(y) Rectifier location. Mount rectifier at eye

level on a separate pole adjacent to an exist-
ing overhead electrical distribution system.

e. Heating Distribution System. Impressed current

cathodic protection is designed for a well-coated buried
heating distribution system shown in Figure 65. The dis-
tribution system has not yet been installed, so current
requirements, etc. can not be made. Rectifier size need not
be calculated, because it will be sized in the field after
installation of'anodes.
(1) Design data.
)Average soil resistivity, 1000 ohm-cm.
b) Design for 80% coating efficiency, based on
experience.
(c) Design for 4 ma./sq.ft. of bare metal heating
conduits.
(d) Groundbed resistance shall not exceed 1.5
ohms.
(e) Graphite anode -s wil be Installed with

(f) Design for 15-yr. life.

(gInsulating joints will be provided on both
steam and condensate lines at the first
flange connection inside of all buildings.
-(h,) ALI conduit will be metallically bonded to-
gether in each manhole.
(i) All conduit is precoated at the facto-cy and
at no time is it holiday-checked.
(0) Single phase electric power is available at
120/240 volts from administration building.
(2) Computations.

(a) Total outside area of conduit. Since the

gauge of the metal from which conduit is
fabricated ranges between 14 and 126, the out-
side diameter of the pipe is cons'Idered to be
the same as the inside diameter.

155
1 U,

4-0

CV)

-33-

z
$ LU

LU

- u

*i

Th0
 I
1. Steam conduit.

Conduit Size Conduit Length

Conduit Area
'sq,, ft./
Area of
Conduit.
in. _ ft. lin. ft. sq. ft.

14 1700 3.66 6,220

1 1525 2.624000
Total area of steam conduit 13,760
2. Condensate return conduit.
Conduit Area Area of
Conduit Size Conduitft.Length sq. ft./ Conduit
in., lin. ft. sq. ft.
8 1700 2.1 3-P570
6 2650 1.57 4,16o
Total area of condensate return conduit 7,730
Total outside area of all conduit 21,490
(b) Area of bare pipe to be cathodically
protected based .upon 80% coating efficiency.
A = 21,490 x 0.2
A , ~ ~ - -. . t
= 4 q o *e

(c) Maximum protective current required based

upon 4 ma./sq.ft. of bare metal.
1 4300 x 4
I 17,200 ma. or 17.2 amp.
(d) Maximum weight of anode material for 15
years life.
1. Graphite anodes are used.
2. Average deterioration rate of graphite is
2.0 lb./amp.-yr-.

3. Maximum weight of anode material required.

W YSI

15p7

Jiu
 [~J
where

Y -15 yr.
S w-2.0 lb./amp.-yr.
I = 17-.2 amp.
E 0.50
w 15,x2.0 x 17,2
W - 1032 lb.

(3) Ground bed design.

(a) Anode size, 3 in. x 60 in., (backfilled 10"
x 84") weighing 25 lb. per anode unit.
(b) Resistance of a single anode to earth.
Rv 9K

where
= 1000 ohm-cm.
L = 7,0 ft.
K = 0.0189
Rv = 1000 x .0189
7.0-
- -~-70
- rsia

(c) Number of anodes required.

The low resistance (2,,70 ohms) of a single

anode and the large weight of anode material
required (1032 lb.) for a 15-year life
indicates that the controlling factor is
amount of anode material, not groundbed re-
sistance. The minimum number of anodes
required is

N = 1032/25 = 41.3 or 41 anodes.

These are arranged in a distributed ground-
bed as shown in Figure 65 based on the
following estimates.
(d) Anode distribution.

1. Area of conduit in sections 1 through 6o,

158
Sectlon Length (ft.) Suxrface.Area (sq.ft.)
1 1700 3560 + 6220 - 9780
2 500 780+ 1310=2090
3 1125 177P + 3540 -5310
4 350 550 + 920 110
56 400
275 630 720 160
430 ++ 1050- 1150
2., Area of conduit protected by one anode.

A 21 48o/41
A -524 sq.ft./anode
3. Division of anodes.
Section 1 9780/524 =1 anodes
Section 2 2090/524 =4 anodes
Section 3 5310/524 = 10 anodes
Section 4 1470/5211 = 3 anodes
Section 5 1680/524 M 3 anodes
Section 6 1150/524 = 2 anodes
(4) Rectifier Location. Locate rectifier in front
of administration building as shown. Rectifier
will be sized after anodes are installed.
f. Gas Distribution System. Galvanic cathodic pro-
tection is to be designed for a gas distribution system in,
-_a-housing area -shown in Fiaure 66.

I'
(1) Design data.
'
bD/
Average soil resistivity,'4500 ohm-cm.
Design for 90% coating efficiency, based
on experience.
(C Design for 15-yr-life.
Design for 2 ma./sq.ft. 6f bare pipe,
e) Packaged type magnesium anodes will be
used.
(f) Insulating couplings are used on all
service taps. The mains are electrically
isolated from all other metal structures
in the area.
(g) All pipe was precoated at the factory and
wrapped with asbestos felt. The coating
was tested over the trench for holidays
and'defects corrected. The coating is
considered to be better than 99i5% perfect
at the time of installation.

159
 C.

-1 -zto
DLU .iz'

BoumemoIutrn Ave.a
0

160
 Pipe Areai

Pipe Size Pipe Length sq. ft./ Area. of Pipe

in. ft.. lin. ft; sq. ft.
3 800 0.916 735
2 1600 0.623 1000
1-1/2 2400 0. 1195
1245
1
3/4 3600
4500 0.03
0.275 124o -
-

Total area of pipe in square feet 5415

(b) Area of bare pipe to be cathodlcally pro-
tected based upon 90% coating efficiency..
A = 54-15 x 0.1
A = 542 sq. ft.

(c) Maximum protective current required based

upon 2 ma./sq. ft. of bare metal.
I = 2 x 512
I = 1084 ma. or 1.084 amp.
.(d-) Wei'ght of anode material required based upon
maximum current requirement and 15-yr. life.,
W _YSI

where
Y =15 years
S = 8.8 lb./amp-year
I = 1.084 amp.
E = 0.50
W = 15 x 8.8 x 1.084,

W = 286 lbs.
It should be noted that 286 lb. is based on
an output current of 0.85 amp. for the full
design life of 'the cathodic protection system,
15 years. Strictly speaking, this is not the
true condition, because current output follow-
ing a new installation is much less due to the
high coating efficiency. The average cur,ent
requirement at first may be as low as 0.03
ma./sq.ft. of pipe area. *

161
 (. )-Current output of a single 17-lb. standard
,pa.kaged rtkneslum-anoi.c to ground.

where
C - 120,000
f - 1.00
S -1.00
.
= 4500 o.m -&'
i = 120,000 x 1.00 x 1.00

I 26.7 milliamperes
Since the structuI4 is well-coated, the anode
spacing is relatively great. Therefore the
"Multiplying Factor Ior Mai'aesium Anode GoeZYup)"
is not used.

(f) Number of anodes (n).

I
n =T

where
i = 1084 milliamperes
I = 26.7 milliamperes
n I084
n i.6 (!xsse 411 anod'es)

(g), Anode distroutloni,

1. Area of pipe protected by one anode.

A - 5415/41
A = 133 sq.ft./anode
2. Divisioir of anodes.
Anode
Pipe Size Pipe Area Pipe Length Numbei of Sbacinc
in. sq. ft,.ft. Anodes ft.,

3 735 800 6 135

2 1000 16oo 8 200
-1-1/2 1195 24OO 9 3006
19 240040
1245 31o0 400
Total numbor of anodeo '11
 'P. Black Iron, Hot Water Stor4ige Tank. reesed
current cathodic protection is designed for the Interior or
a bla k _ron, hot .ater 3tor.age tank shown in Figure 67.
(!) Design data..
(a) Tank capacity, 1000 gal.
-Tank dimensions, 16-in. diam. by 12 Ct. long.
C Tank is sonted horizontal]w.
3 Water resistivity is 8600 _,_-cm. with a pH
value of 8.7.
(e) Tank interior surface is bare and water tem-
perature Is m.tntatned at 180F.
(f) Design fo, maximm current density of 5

h
(i
ig
m./sq.ft.
Design life, 5 Yr.
Use HSCBCI anodes.
Alternating current Is available at 115 volts,
single phase.
(2) Computations.
(a) Interior area of tank.
AT -26'r 2 * w'dL

where
-= 1.92 ft.
j = 3.83 ft.
L = 12 ft.
AT w 2 x 3.1416 x (t 92)2 + 3.1416 x 3.83 x 12
AT - 167.5 sq. ft.
(b) Maximum protective current required.
I - 167.5 x 5
I = 858 ma. or 0.84 amp.
(c) Minimum weight of anode aterial for 5-yr. lif
life.

where
Y = 5 yr.
S = 1.0 lb./amp.-yr.
I = 0.84 amp.
E = 0.50
W 5 x 1.0
0.50 x 0.84
w =8.4 lb.
.I163
 Siue go.
CATHODOC~~~~~~~~~
LC ROECIO
O O1 AE TRgE*K
mp

(e)~~Fiw Re-tnc67ands

id im by 9-/
in. r n~ eCu-Lhn. 4 b.e.
apl 1icain. on fto
or.5 banprpr-

R = 0. 012 xP86og lo 830.2

d = 1-12 In lor 30.127 "*

-1 103.2 x log 37
 R =10 .5 ohm
This re-2stance must be corrected by the
fringe factor since the _are short anodes.
The fringe factor is 0.4 from curve in
Figure 54 ror an I/d - 9/1.5 - 6.
R - 102.5 x o.48
R - 49.2 ohwr.
(f) Rectifier rating.

1. E -IR

where I - 0.84 amp.

R - 49.2 ohms
E -o.84 x 49.2
E - 41.3 volts

2. To allow for rectifier a:ing and film

formation, it is considered good practice
to use a 1.5 multiplying factor.

E - 1.5 x 41.3 - 62.0 volts.

3. The nearest commercially available recti-

fier size meeting the above requirements
is a 60-volt, 4-amp., single phase unit.
(g) Rectifier location. Locate the rectifier ad-
Jacent to tank for the following reasons:
1. Usually cheaper to install.
2. Easier to maintain.
3. Keeps DC voltage drop to a minimum.
(h) DC circuit conductors.
1, Extexrnal to tank: use #2,1W'1PE.
2. Interior of tank: use #8, 14WPE. No
stressing or bending of the cable should
be permitted.

h. Underground Steel Storage Tank. Galvanic cathodic

protection is desi gned for an underground steel storage tank
shown in Figure 68 -The tank is already installed and
current requirements tests have been made.

, ..165 _
(1) Design data.
~a fTank diam~eter 12 ft.
Tarnk length 40 ft.
, Design for 80% coating efficiency,
based on experience.
(d) Dislip for 15-year lire.
*e_ Current requirements 0.7 amp.
Packaged, 1,7-lb. standard, wajnesium
aaodes will be used.
(g) The tank is adequately insulated
fr.om ,'or-eirn .3tr1etures.
(2) Computations.
(a) Minimum weight of anodes required foo tank.
W =YSI

where
Y = 15 yr.
S = 8.8 lb./amp.-yr.
I = 00.77 ap
E = 0.50
W = 15 0.50
x 8.8 x 0.7

w .= 184.8 lb.
(b) Number of magnesium anodes
_ 184.8
-8418
= = 10.8 (,ise 12 anodes for
- synunetry).
Anodes are placed as shown ii Figure 68.

.'
 A 40'

Jmdj~pokmSkt.Ta*.k-

J_ I

Secion A-A

Figure 66
GALVANIC ANODE CATHODIC PROTECTION
OF UNDERGROUND STEEL STORAGE TANK
 9 CORROSION C ORDINATING COM4ITTEE PARTICIPATION.
Corrosion coordinating committees have been organized to In-
clude areas of concentrated underground struICtureS. Anyone
designing and/or installing cathodic protection is expected
to notify the committee in his area even though iidividual
operating companies have been notified.

Coordinating committees are "clearinghouses" of information

on operating cathodic protection, stray currents, and gen-
eral corrosion problems. Membership Is representative of
all interested parties owning or operating underground struc-
tures. The committees have no authority to enforce proced-
ures or regulations, but they do establish notification pro-
.edures, assist with testing schedules, and maintain records
of conditions in their areas. Membership is voluntary and
usually no cost is involved. Regular meetings are usually
heli three or four times per year. Some cormnIttees have
monthly meetings.

Almost every metropolitan area of the United States and

Canada now has a Coordinating Cormittee. Some of these
cover entire states, or sections of states, to s.1" local
needs. Most committees are affiliated with the NatV.vaI
Association of Corrosion Engineers. A list of these, in-
;luding name- and addresses of current officers, can be ob-
tained from NACE Headquarters, Houston.

10 INSTALLATION AND CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES.

Corrosion control must be justifiable, and also applied
in the most economic manner. When all factors have been
analyzed, total money to be spent on corrosion control
is determined and broken down into specific allotments
(coatings, cathodic prote.ction, etc.). For example,,
little or nothing spent on coatings will mean high
protective cu2rent requirements later on, if cathodic pro-
tection is to be used. In fact, the ratio of current re-
quirements of a bare pipeline to those of a well-coated one
is between 50 and 100 to one. Therefore, the corrosion
engineer should be as much conierned with coating, insulat-
ing joints, casing insulation, and test stations as witl)i
cathodic protection.

Foi this reason, phases of both structure and cathodic pro-

tecuion installation are discussed here. Operational plan-
ning of construction can be as important as design itself.
Money saved through concentration on details of construction
practices vIll be evident in initial costs, longer life, and
lower operating costs.

10.1 Coating Application (Pipeline). One a. ea of great

concern to thE corrosion engineer during construction is
application of the specified protect-ve ,oathnw.
 In many Instances applioatidn is as- or more important than
Ii materials used. This discussion covers imp)ortant consider-
~ations in coating application,, with the e;,phasis on pipe-
lines. Coating application for other buried or submerged
structures fOllOW3 similar guidelines.

Ohen discussing coating application, it is very difficult

to generalize. The many coating mat6rials available
require a variety of application specifications. Not-applied
tars in conjunction with fiberglass and/or asbestos wrappers
are in general usabe for major construction projects
where pipelines of 6" and larger are laid. These may
be applied in the mill, yard, or over the ditch. If €oal
tar is used, it is important that the grade of this "mat-
erial best suited for a particular job is available along
with its compatible primer. As soon as coating material
for a project begins to arrive, this should-be verified
since it is still not too late to make adjustmnts.,

10.1.1 Over-the,-Ditch Coating. Although location of

coating application (stationary plant or over-the-ditch)is
generally selected long before equipment is assembled for
the Job, a sudden change in weather conditions, right-of-
way location, or delay in starting may make a change, even
at this late date, well worth consideration. Over-the-
ditch application is best used if the following conditions
prevail: a. Long sections of
welded pipe (few road cross-
ings and foreign line crossings).
b. A reasonably accessible, level, and firm
terrain along the right-of-way.
c. Mild weather conditions.
If any or all of these conditions appear to place satisfac-
tory coating performance in Jeopardy, mill-coating (usually
performed indoors under ideal conditions) beorconsidered.
yard-coating
9
should
(performed either indoors or out)

Structures with over-the-ditch applied coating may be

lowered Into the ditch directly behind the coating machine,
or "skidded up" until the enamel has hardened and been elec-
trically inspected. This decision depends upon:
a. Time required for coating material to "set up",
which in turn depends somewhat upon atmospheric temperature.
b. Condition of ditch (is "cleaning outif
necessary?).
c. Type holiday detector used.
If it seems practical to lower directly into the ditch, the
advantages of less handling, no skid marks to patch, and a
better chance of having the coating inspector on hand to
inspect ditch condition are worth remembering.
 To insure coating per-
formance, it is important to electrically inspect ("Jeep")
every length of coated pipe prior to backfilling. All holi-
days and breaks detected in this way must be repaired, by a
method similar to field application of coating. The effect-
iveness of a well-applied, good-quality coating can be
greatly hind .ed by damage done by handling, and not detect-
ed and repaired.

10.1.2 Stationary Plant (Mill or Yard*. -Pipe coating

application at a stationary plant (yard or mill) is good
practice when over-the-ditch coating would be ruled out for
rc3sons mentioned, where pipe size is prohibitive, or where
a mrterial is used which cannot be applied in the field,
such as asphalt mastic, special weighted coatings, or some
epoxies.

Several additional advantages of stationary application are:

a. Shot or grit blast machines not practical for
over-the-ditch work can be used to clean pipe.
b. Closer control of materials and equipment is
possible.
c. Final inspection is easier because materials
and equipment are not spread over several miles of right-
f-way. (However, several inspections are generally re-
quired: upon coating at mill (or yard), upon unloading at
the site, and over-the-ditch.)

The greatest difficulty with yard- or millcoated pipe lies

with inspection of field patches. This Includes repair of
"skid marks", field welds, and shipping or handling damage.
It is desirable to again use the electric holiday detector
after pipe has been welded tofether and is ready to "lower
in". However, it should be remembered that this device does
not always indicate coating to steel surfaoe bond trouble.

Various materials and "short-cut" methods are available

specifically for coating field loints. It is important to
select a material compatible with (if not the same as) ihe
plant-applied coating. Of course, a dry, clean an,j/or
primed surface is needed, as with any coating procedure.

The coating inspector should not depend too heavily upon

the electric holiday derector. In addition, visual inspec-
tion of the coating material as it flows, occasional bond
checks, continuous observation of coating thickness, and a
view of lowering in operations should be maintained at all
times. Also, the following should be watched as earefiil.y
as the actual coating application: cleanin,, and primiu o,
 Voi-pmert conditlo-i and cleanliness, and material storage
aZ'J hodlln. . In eneral, any material haphazardly-applied
will 4ive poor performance while even a marginal one may
serve exceptionally well when properly used.

10.2 Casing Installatioa.

Although casings should not be used over carrier pipes,
they are sometimes required LY co4em, laws, or physical
conditions. Where casings are used, they should be un-
coated, and casing insulators, cradles, and end seals
should be ca:cefully inspected and electrically
tested.

In addition to problems discussed in earlier sections, some

precautions which inspectors should be aware of and/or could
be incorporated in the contractor's specifications are as
follows:
1. Keep casings, bell holes, and "false ditch"
pumped out until carrier pipe has been installed in casing
and annular space is Sealed.
2. Be sure casing has been "swabbed" before car-
rier"pipe is placed inside so that the possibility of coat-
ing damage from foreign material will be minimized.
3. As a further precaution against coating damage,
rock shield or an extra thickness of coating can be applied
to the carrier pipe between, spacers.
4. Casing to pipe resistance should be measured.
At bes this could mean observations both before and after
road section"'is tied into line. At least it could mean a
welding generator "test".)

Needless to say, it is advantageous to install test wires on

casing and adJac-nt carrier pipe so that periodic internal
resistance tests can be made.

10.3 Foreign Pipeline and Drainage Crossings. It is

usually standard practice for a newly constructed pipeline
to pass under an older structure unless the latter is unusu-
ally deep. This is of some advantage to the party laying
the new line in that maintenance wor' on the old line will
not disturb the new one (coating damage, etc.). However, ii;
is probably more a matter of courtesy because, in this way,
the operator there first has-the easiest access. Although
not always poss-ible in the more congested areas, one should
strive for a structure-to-structure clearance of from 18" to
2'. Contacts between two structures should be avoided at
almost any cost.

When a pipeline or other construction project is underway,

it is good practice to contact the owner of any structures
which will be crossed, or could later become involved in

I. M7
....
mutual corrosion problems. This should be done well in ad-
vance of the time work forces actually arrive at the area,
so that:
1. Arrangements can be made to install test leads
on the lines.
2. Special coating applications, to increase inter-
nal resistance between structures, can to planned.
3. A general knowledge of any special problems
peculiar to an ar'ea can be gained, and cooperative solutions
sought.

Field drainage tile is a problem in some sections of the

-ountry - the flatlands of the Midwest, etc. The usual
method of replacing displaced sections of tile across a pipe-
line ditch employs metal "tile supports". Here it is import-
ant to allow clearance between these suppoirts and the line,
s, that even after settling,, contant is not possible. This
usually means that the pipeline ditch be deep enough, and
that inspectors do not miss any drainage lines. While the
uItch is being cut, close inspection shoul be maitained,
and location of all field drainage recorded and marked. If
some lines are -missed completely, it may be necessary to
lower long sections of the pipeline later on. This is only
another opportunity for coating damage. If it is not pos-
sible to lower the line because of other obstructions,
"catch basins" are sometimes build around pipelines. This
s generally undesirable because moisture, silt, etc. can
"'lsilv collect here.

10.4 Insulating Joints. Insulating material in the

form of gaskets, sleeves, washers, special threaded coup-
lings, unions, etc. is available for almost every size
and type pipe connection in common usage today. This
discussion will be limited to flange type joint. However,
regardless of what type is needed to do a particular job,
the engineer should always remember that his installation
is most satisfactory when:
1. The material can be assembled in as 'foolproof"
a manner as possible.
2. It is assembled so that suitable tests can be
made to ascertain its effectiveness.

In considering the flange type insulating Joint, three sug-

gestions to help achieve the above are:
1. Assemble the pair of flanges with insulating
material inserted before welding either into the pipeline.
(A short "spool" can be welaed to each flange'.) This mini-
mizes the change of damaging ;tisulating material by prying
or driving flange components together. It also lessens the
chance of dirt or moisture dama-e since in-shop assembly is
possible. At the same time, it is possible to oet a positive
test across the inoula'lnf, ,ioint wnilr it Is et 'mpl,,'1'lv
lated' fr om i,,'outI I . (H,,:; .;Oaro :;h,,. t , ) I 1-' 1 ; ,, , i ,
 ,' ood.)
2. Use insulating washers on both ends of studs
and sleeves which cover the studs rrom washer to washer.
Ths practice wakes possible a positive test or resistance
betw-en car.h Individual stud and, its flanfen after the insu-
iatin- Joint assembly has been welded into, the pipeliie.
(It must always be assumed that internal resistance between
two sectioh3 of buried ppe is extremely low compared with
infinitely high resistance through good insulating. material.)
Also., with this type assembly, the chances of a faulty Joint
when it is impossible or impractical to test are lessened.
3. Box coat insulating Joint with coating material
(2"minimum flange toI outer edge or coating thicknmess.) This.
metlod or coating is somewhat- expensive. However, It mini-
mizes the possibility O6f voids between flange faces,. studs,
etc., and is .faitly good insurance the the assembly bottom
is covered.

W.hen coating insulating Joints, it is also important to re-

member that Water, mud, dirt, etc. must be kept away from
the insulating Joint until it is finally coated. If the
Joint is, shop-assembled, it is helpful to,Wrap tape around
it during handling,

One number 12 -test lead is attached to the line on each side

of insulating flanges. Two nmber 4 leads (one on each side
of joint) will make future resistance bonding a simple
matter, and make it possible to test internal resistance
between the two sections of line without inclusion of test
lead resistance.

If an- insulating- Joint is installed in a bare pipeline, it

is more effective when the pipe on each side of it is coated.
One recommended ruio-of thumb for this is 100 pipe diameters
on each side of the joint.

When installing insulating joints, the 6ngineer should

always look for the unexpected which will render the entire
installation ineft'ective. Scraps of metal, or any other
conductor, can provide a short circuit across the flanges.
Test leads connected to opposite sides of the Joit coid
be in contact. If the joint is placed in the yard of a ter-
Minsl, pump station, or compressor station, a "bypass"
around it can be made up of fenes, gauge lines, conduit
runs, water lines, etc. It Is somewhat risky ,to insCall and
rely on the integrity of insulating material in Valve-
flanges. When ,maintenance crews remove valves for repair,
insulating material ay hot be replaced at all or only after
it has absorbed moisture or become dtmaged. A-16o the :com-
mon pressure -lcakge around valves may be somewhat hazardous
In the of potential gra dient across an 'insulating
Ipresenc
joint.
When insulating aterial is installied -in ring joint flanges,
foreign material can become lodged between flange faces in
the space between insulating ring and inside pipe wall.
(it is conceivaile that mucit of thi s dArt, etc. iiS forced
into the space during scraper runs.) If foreign material
involved is conductive, the insulating joint will become in-
effective. This can be controlled by placing a flat gasket
'in the space between flanges.

10.5 Test -Stations. While teat stations connected to a

pipeline for future use in electrical measurements might
be considered strictly part of the cathodic protection syS-
tem, they are easily installed during construction of the
structure to 'be protected. Therefore,. their installation
shall be considered a part of that phase.
Varlous configurations of test stations can be installed.
Most of these are basically test leads (usually No. f2 insu-
lated copper wires) thermit-welded to the structure and
terminated in a junction box or condulet for easy access.
In some cases, No. 4 insulated copper cables (for future
bonding) are included. Wire insulation is color coded to
designate its position on the structure.
AJ.i test lead locations -are usually Felected -prior to
•.it:ii' tion and incorporated in structure design, it is
',esary or desirable to move some of them, or to add
t' .a.l ones. Selection of test lead locators is impor-
T.St
.hat peolodic repetitive
,rrt - , where it is
• . . leads shculd always be ins/talled
t" u oe-o ee'ro
y', i/olta'r. an Vor current readings will be taken. This
"'.uld be , eessy in detection oP stray current, galvarzc,
,r cathodic intcrference effects, coatl', conductance tests,
,.nJ 1athodic p,_otection effectveness tests. Test stations
are also d-sirable where inveinal resistance te:sts are peri-
odically required: at foreign structure crossing;s or orox!-
mity points, insulating joints, and cased sections of pipe-
lines. Practical. considerations for positionnr test leads

1. Possible development or future use of land.

2. Future road or run.,ay construction and repair.
3. Convenience and acce"ib " llty.

.o'1l i;est stations (test access holes) contain no test leads

and are a means of contacting ,he electrolyte through black-
top or conprete for structure-to-electoly.Le potential meas-
,,r;.mnents. They must be lnstall,.d at th, elev-ttlon or ,in-
,.lieI paveno,,t In tio area. Caro nIwst be tinli*0 that II ly
L, I'LV t(,1i0 Iy 0ovoMe] c'vel' ,',l1'i11." pt 1''." 01' 0OI1SA;L, UC-
1' t VI V
lon operations.
 10.6 Cathodic Prbtectionuulpmnt. Insta llation con-
Pdrations for Yagesium and HCBCI anode systems are rgw
l
here.

1, .6,._1 Ranhosium Anodr's. Instajllation or :jf mt,1i,,:1.l

anode (01iuL' ,) tlui:ly lI-5 ::ts of plae In tnrat,
vertically In an auered 'hb0e (3 to 101feet from the :Lruv-
ture to be protected), placing the anode lead wire in a
trench, and connecting wire to protected structure. The top
-of the anode must be at least 3 feet 'be)low grade. 'The top
also must be at least as deep as the protected structure,.
Permission install
right-of-wayto (not magnesium anodes
on government along
property) is a pipeline
moot often o"-
ered by the original pipeline easement. However, It is usu-
ally advisable to contact property owners before beginning
work, and to exert every effort toward reduction of properttj
dainages which must always be paid. (These can -be minimnized
through use of hand labor.)
The vertical hole in which a magnesium anode is placed will
accommodate most of the common size packaged units if it i0
10" in diameter. For pipelines, if anodes are placed on
alternate sides, protebtive current dlstribution over the
structure surface Is generally somewhat imp.Poved, and rmutuavtl
interference effects minimized. Occasionally, a layer of
solid stone will be encouitered. Here, it may be ne..essary
to plazce anodes horizontally :3o that anode bottom is at
'least as deep as structure bottom (Figure 70). Anode-to-
structure separation of 2 feet is recommended. If condlit-
Ions along the ri,'ht-of-way obstruct working area o. limit
anode-to-structure distance, anodes can be installed horizun-
tally (Figure 71) under the pipe (using an "extra dcep'
augered hole so that sufficient anodE-to-struoture dista ,.
will be obtained). This is also rorth consideration when
anodes are to be istalled on pipelines which are likely to V
be 'looped" (Possibility of construction damage will bQ re-
duced),. An aided bonus here Is the more permanent moisture
generally found at the rreater depth.

Galvarnic anodes protectin- underground storaze tanks a.e

placed in augered holes about 5 feet from the t-.nk surCace.
(Or pssibly under the tank.) Holes should be approxmatelt!
5 feet deep.
Each anode ma.y be attached to, the protected stLut'ouc e ]-, -
viduallVt, or several anodes may be connected to-,,-'uh on a'
header wire (usually No. 10i scl,.d) which is :'n turn con-
nected back to the pip throuigh a test station. Itf a -ro,.p
is connected tog£ether, the number of pipe t.onr . ti'cns is ve-
ducd, and sometinie. less excavation is require:d. Howrer,
any accidental break in the header wire dii,-conie,!ts several
anodes. Chances of this can be reduced If' he -1r cables avc.
'4
 4_

kinr 6,w~
VRTCA WN~t
dNoS

JI

connected In ~at both ends, of' a pipeline, tan~k, etc. 1"his is

also usef'ul for stream crossinea and other locations where
it is dif'ficult or impractical to make a_connection to tihe
structure, even though usual practic3 mi- be the direct con-
necton of' individual anodes.
Damage to the cloth bag of' prepackaged galvanic ar,.cdes re-
L suiting in loss of' b~ckfill will seriouslyr reduce the effect-
hole as it i~s being backf'ilied, with earth. Pullinti on anode
leads to place the connection with the anode in tefision can-
not be tolerated as it may damage the crucial anode lead
- onnection. Lowering a packaged ansode into the hole by
-ensof'
the lead wire- iks also potent'a-lly4 darragtnq.i Anode
leads should not contact sharp edges of tools -and obneac--
*tions.
B!ackr1llibg holes for- anodbs is done with fine soil free of'
lebris such as stono, brickbats, etc. (Sand should not be
tisod.) Work mu st bo done carefully to a~YAinjury-to
aunodes and cabios. Soil is modrately oompa ,-tel in~ si*x-1.nc;,
layers by handi to the top of the holes. Particular -care
 W - flat

A""k 'MAW"N'-M
S~~e~~lltombi@a L-.Nevei ipw R ,, I.
Hir Own Pipe Sot ±'m

HOMIIZONTALM NESI AOD INSTALLATION

WHU OWWCT3NS ARE 84COUNUD

must be taken in placing and tamping soil around anodes to

assure complete and intimate contact free from voids be-
tween anodes and backfill.

The most generally used method of connecting anode wil,(z {,-i

steel surfaces is the thermit weld. It is important tu ,,:'
a sleeve of the correct size over the wire. Fitire (2
a cross-section of a thermit mold with charre in place.
-Connections should be coated. Cold-applied mastics ar.:
often used for this, and one convenient method of appli:a-
tion is by filling paper cups with coating rpaterlal, an]
then pressing them (inverted) over the welds. Molded pla.,-
i'n:: .
tic shields are also avail ble tQ cover these conneir,-
-hen splicing anode wires ,together or connectIng them to
header cables, therrmit welds, soldered U-bolts, or ,,pr,,,-
I
sion connectors Can be used. 'Here, the connection riold b,:,
first covered with electrical putty, then plastic tape. ":
finally sealing tompound,

[7 17
 I
K
All 6*

m
N
2
-u

L~.q I
j 1
4
11am

I
H ,si~ I 8~
w

-- -- -- - - L
I~
p.' I a

A..~-.Zi 0

"-C
U,

'Jo
oc

178
 ~I

11
* I!
I

iI

' Figure 72
I THElMIT WELD MOWD ANlD CHARGE

179 1 1
At least 2% of OW alvane vod.- installatlo nt In
the aetURl hMdllft of matertal, and earthork. Thi must
be #Mft-ftlly 0.lamed, 11' a jot, Is to I.- done
titoriet~ently.,
and prW.-rty demaes kept to a w ti . The type a1 'prn-
tity or mechanized equipfmt, and Ia)unt of labor best. ed
for Installation is detexmined by economics of cont vs.
spe@3*1 right-of-way conditions (seesalbilIty, etc.), wid
property owwers' or base personnel's attitude toward a pi'o-
Sect, Ifbase personnel ae, In general, hostile towtard .. x-
eavatlon, fence cutting and the movement of heavy m,,.lntzd I -d

quipmnt through their area will certainly be prohlbtted or

m expensive. Pand labor, in conjunction with swill
bl per tools, my be the solution. Tf lwns ayl
clttvated fields cover a large percentage or the work area,
the same is true. In "open" sections, ruged terrain and
soil types m dictate the best constzinetlon prmetlce. It
is often advantageous to wait until arter certntn oropa am-
harvested before installing anodes.

Power-driven earth augers vary in size vW capacity fto

small hand-carrled, two-man-operated, chain-saw-attachment
type, to large, six-wheel-drive, tru,k-mounted uritts. The
same is true for ditching machines and backhoes. 1oever,
there Is seldom need for larger ditching machines imless
spel installation procedures are required. (Normally, a
"eep"-mounted machine is large enotgh for cable trenching.)
The usual backhoe might be mounted on a "Jeep" or farm
tractor. If this equipment is to be used only oo'casionally,
leasing what is needed for each particular Job may be most
economical.

When anode holes are augered, occasional "caving in" and

"quick sand" will be encountered. If the holes are "cased",
installation can be accomplished at -some 1ocation., where it
would otherwise be impossible. In other instances, greater
depths can be reached and the material positioned better
when casing is used. Common stovepipe Is readtly available
and reasonably priced for this use.
Care snould be taken in i-",eting anodep and couinetini win-s F
to a depth below possible disturbance. In cultivated lan,,t,
this will normally be in the neighborhood 617 211" mitimum.
In some instances, it is most economical to punch or auger
a small hole through the section of earth located between
the bell hole and the augered anode hole.
When backfilling packaged galvanic anod-is, it is good prac-
tice to fill the fine augered "chips" around the anod, it-
self. This should lessen the chances of voids around it,
and therefore give faster cuirent output resilts. When
working in lawns. water added as the soil is backfilled and
care in replacing carefilly cut sod, will minimize dainagoes.
In open fields, marmon boards or tractor blades can be be,:o.

t. 180
 foracklling. Ir t&p work is done by hand, soil can be
aInto the ditches and boles with potato hoes.
After ali earthwor" has been completed, and one or two soak-
* Ing rains have penetrated the ground (several weeks later),
the bai'kf.tll Irun-i all trencheiu and holes ::hould 1M. ,.leui.,!
up and leveled off. Since this is actually the completion
of the Job, it In also a good time to settle any outstandin-
damage claims property omers may have submitted.
Namgesium anodes are available in almost any size or shape.
Many am also obtainable in the packaged form. (A omplet-
unit, reay to Install - with lead wire attaChed ant s.t-
rounded by especially prepared backfill material.) Th..*td-
vantages oi these should always be carefully welhcd aitu1n',
any special size anodes which might require rield asembJy
and/or backfill. Currently, packaged anodes are widely iv:'c*I
for underground applications.

If it is necessary to store pakaged anodes out oi" doou. ,

they should be kept skidded up, and under a wat,.-r'pL,o" -:ve*!.
When unloaded, they should be piled with that si." vn bot.ow:
which had been on top during shipment. (Thin helps ke,,p I;h.,
anodim centered in the backfill material.) As anodes are
hauled out to the right-of-way and "strung", they shouti b
kept away from livestock. (Farm animals will tear open ih-
bags and eat the contents, if given an opportunity.) When
-loth bags containing backfill around packared anodes ar,.
broken, and this material lost, pure gypsum wht'!h is famil-
iarly known to the building trade as moulding plaster" -'u.
be eubstituted with satisfactory results.

If bare magnesium anodes are used, a pa,-kage, or :ontaln-.

for backfill material, may be improvised. Howevpr, tener'l Iy
the material is mixed in the field and poured into the hol.."
at the time the anodes are installed. Standard -,alvanic
anode backfill containing bentonite and 7.ypsum will swell
-when wet and shrink when dry, thus reducIn. anode output bU-
cause of poor soil contact. For this reason packaged anol
and anode backfill should always be installed dry and thr..
soil tamped around and over the installed anode to l.nsu,
tight contact with the surrounding soil.
Magnesium and zinc ribbon is usually installed without bach-
fill. It can be plAced in a trench or "plowed io" tnd con-
nected to the structure at specified intervals.
It should be remembered that the main advantaje (,, bu,.kfill
around a magnesium anodr is the ;-ain in -urrent output.
Therefore, in the lower resistance soils, this in-k,,rial Ut.
unnecessar,. Bare anodks of some forms can be drivn.

SiI
Aloo, mz t "atlable
:, i: in the form of rols which can
I;( welded Lo-.:,her. Backfill should always be tised with

1:).6.2 impressed Current Instal *,,tionvt, '!.he Installa-

itol or i-essped current allhri" pro'". (using recti-
c-an be divided into five phaset" ;hlch °.re:
a. Site seleeton, r ght-of-iawy pr,--urement, and
tion wth power companies.
v. s:.rthwork - instaliing oundb ,, buried
S00,:a, and poles.
c. Underground connections.
d. Mounting and connecting rectifiers.
c, Clean-up and damage settlement.
.:hn consid,.rin,, possible rectifier sites, after current re-
;(Oienents and general area have been dcided, it is good
.,..'1.sc to diligently search the area f,r foreitn burisi
• "i,tAC,.ls All operators of buried strucures should alsoi
• reota-td to be certain that nonc a.re overlooked. If -a
*

•ord~natiiC iminrittoe is active, any proposal should be

i1on:ussed before its members. Preliminary: tests, using a.
,.)coa.-y rroiundbed, to determine effects on other buried
!t,.uctures rray be necessary. Power availability must be
-.pt tr. mind at all times. If an extension to existin- ser-
L
1. lines is necessary, one should determine whether or not
Av ovw.-t. company will pay any or all the cost. This .may
t.atr deviation froma optimum location, or additional expen-

t,-ntative site is being selected, the ease of secur- I

to, r' _ht-oi-way should receive serious consideration before
pla-21ng thr! rectifie-r on a drawing. It is isually easier to
obi-ata1, a -rroundbod easement alon; a prc..erty line road, or
t! a .*wampy wasteland than in the center of a cultivated
.ield. Tracts of land likely to be subdivided in the near
H
iiture should be given special :-o ton or avoidEJ on-
'"t
1' easemes.,.- are difficult to obtai' a. /or soil resistivity

extremely hi ,h, a "deep well" type

foreign st.'uctures are numerous.

.dbed ray be consid-
r'odr Distributed groundbeds have been ased in areas where
Ir some stebes, it is nec-
essary to obtain an easement from both 'he township or
1
counity, as well as the property owner, when an installation
Iles within the bounds of a road rl;fht-of-way. It is ,ood
lilea to havf- drawl.igs for one or two alternate r,it f. in-
.,tallation sites available 'or eaoh locraI !oil. T_11 'n
:h n be Viiriulshid tlic right-cf-way agcnit on h' l !."' Crip,
l i~y:tv .lb" him several r.,cpvat .:all.,

opt on"
" opt ol bu.si::,* Tb,' ,. b,'
,.:
"anl "bv~
b: "dohb;.,, 1:-,u.'",
t-, pr-n .rt •

1S2
 ... : ... -- , ~Xz OSa ,.f one ct- tsr':
payrer.;i madle, rhe easement; ~cm:
~r '.enti7e, o~erccr~anls can b--
~ ~e
p310.7!. 71at-Oe1ntS Of~ zecvi-t. avallablity obtazh:..
- ~
.. ... ~ t r he "fi"vnn up" of eaet.

Afior ;,asertnts hatie been purchaszed and artnem.untA; !x.U*

~:~.Ccnoanies, eax'thwork (=-ially the u=tjor 'hc~*
"n--!el t:1.t1h 1r.pre-sd e~rrn installac!ln) can beln
Sthi-. earu'hwork phase Is construed as ins tallatiton c*
-o-%rbai. complete ith all burie.. connect ts- cable..

ln:'t.-an calvan!.c anodes and therore z'equirvn (ieep-r

holes (117 viertloal) or longer ones (if horizontal) Alic.
mrzs dit 'hing for -.onneating cables in required. Power
a-4eZ's suitable fo drilling vertical anode holes to the 9f
to12 depths usually required are Sometiw-s lif'ticalt to,
l:2ate. Lon;x-hal~dled hani1 tools stz:h as post hole auF-!",
,ht. pt.pe e-Et nsioais, pole 11ne diff5ing bars, podt hole zii7g-
gers, $poons, spades, and wooden ta=mpers are iiserul as au-
11taz7 equ!.pment or as'a means of' d~ing the entire Jlob bi
The gaphite or '!iSCBCI ground anoles used are uas:tally sur-
roundlel by carboonaceons backiill wa-.erial. When theee
are not pa:!ka zed .-.ith thei.r backfi12., one construzt ior, pr-cl -I
len is gettini the baokfil1 in plaie. This material mcan
v.amped in, if" the hole is dr:. A 2.c:!-hanhler) woorion tv
~2~as pol"-e line zrews itse, "s sui:-able 'or roipar.:tir--
f1: elow v-.eti~a1 ano-1,.3. if' larze diairetec' holes (12"1
15)are augered, this tool Ic alsz suirable for- tamiLi
av-:!nl the anod-s. In sm-aller diane'ser holes. a. 2" pole. Y*!1'-
"~r:best If aaie.ed holesi are iwaer-filled, 1it !3h~
tc "In them'out before nsts.1in;~ anodes. ?{oweer', --er
h:!: s 3houl j.%. allOwed to 'Thettle?" overni-ht. 'Vhttr,
isne, i.t will b~e found that the carbonaceeo' rnateoi1ial
-:ends inso t~he hlole, maki.:_, it necessar,! to -add-i ore.
shsc-Ad rediAe the chances of' backfl2. vol-Is, which cotl-1
s-a!, in anode fail-ire. The backfill should be Uildt.
abaoie the anoles to with-'- a few irnzhes of ' ;.rac, uni.. :
lcose material such as ;ravel can *-,- placed on top of ! t.
7-his isto allow f'or venting. It is a ,vood idea to tA:,,t
samles from each shipment of' coke *-ree-e backf'ill for P---' -
tlvir~y, parti,.le size, and ash con-:.ent.
' t is necessary to install gr'ound anodes Er. a hortP.!i,
-'T
position be-.ause of' special soil aczritions, a contliviot's
dit~h can be cut. This can then be filled 'r'or, en-l ro. r-i:-
with backfill material, with the aricles centered in it.
If'holes are dif ficalt to auger because of' cavir -l-:i Voil,
stovepipe casing can be used. HIB1EI anodes are alre'

1S3
sometimes installed without backfill, and satisfactory ser-
vice in reported. These can be "Jetted" in, using water
presaure.

"Deep well" type groundbeds require well-drilling equipment,

and special procedures for positioning anodes.

HSCBCI anodes are more fragile than graphite (at least par-
tiilly due to the fact that smaller diameter rods are often
substituted for thicker Graphite anodes). Therefore, they
must be paddcd when hauled. Coke breeze or other carbonac-
eous backfill m-terial ia much easier to use when packaged
in sacks. Even though it costs more when purchased this
way, savings in handling labor, waste, and special equipment
often will be the deciding factor. It should be remembered,
however, that sacks (especially burlap) deteriorate rapidly
when stored with coke breeze in them. Furthermore, there
seems to be no advantage to covering this material if it is
kept outside, but "skidding up" is advisable.

All buried cables and connections should be deep enough be-

low ground (usually 2' minimum) so that the possibility of
damage from farming, etc. will be minimized. It is also
necessary to exercise extreme caution when backfilling in
rocky ground, and in avoiding damage to the cables with tools
arid/or machinery.

Generally, conr,. 'Uions in the buried wiring of a rectifier

installation , asj; be made at:
1. &,ipeline to negative return lead.
2. Header wire to each individual anode lead.
3 Any point where cable size changes.

As previously mentioned in the magnesium anode discussion,

cables and lead wires can be Joined by thermit weld, solder,
U-bolt, or compression connectors although thermit weld is
preferred.

Where a pole-mounted rectifier is to be used, it is usually

economical to install the rectifier pole and the pipeline
negative return lead at the same time the other earthwork is
done. A 25" pole, heavy enough to support the size recti-
fier used, is usually sufficient. However, more height will
be required if the distance to the closest power company
pole is unusually great. This should be determined before
beginning construction, so that pole extensions will not be
necessary. If the direction from which service drops will
come is known at that time, guy anchors and cables can also
be installed.
a. HSCBCI Anodes.
Cylindrical HSCBCI anodes may be installed horizontally or
vertically. Type "K" (Button) anodes are bolted to the pro-
tected structure. Groundbed anodes (buried in soil) may be

183A
 Z urrotuided by e.ither carbonaceous or soil backfill. Wher,
;"Lckr1II is uei, the ditch or hole is first excavated.
I
Th, . :inodcs are centered in the excavat ton. while backfill
Is .*t.ef'illy taunod around them. In some types of soil,
:'1. h ts swampy areas and quicksand, it ma:y not be possible
-o -s:- ,carbonaceous backfill. Packaged anodes containIng
tarbo,.a-,eous backfill imy then be used and the complete pack-
00.. e(':node s-urroanded by backfill) placed In an excavation.
,"duct"or- "naae" anodes are oftc-i, pulled Into empty
,. -. au tz. ],, this way,, they are in position to supply
.. o-ite piot .ction to buried cable sheaths in adjacent

I
.... CI anodcs must be handled with care becau3e they are
"..remely brittle. They must not be throen, ropped or
iled. The anode-to-cable connection Is critical. Pullin!.
-,nod e ads to place this .onnection in tension !annot be
b.. t Anode leads and ':nnectin- caLles _-annot be
,'
,ilwed to contat sharp edges of tools cr obstruc tions.
" connections or seals which seem to b,,-= damaged should not
i .e used before consulting
(1) Vertical Soil the supplieLo.
Installations. Foi- typiz-al in-

;.:0lation, a vertical hole 10" in diameter is Loxed into

ohp soil. For 60" anodes this should be at least nine or
-n feet deep. Backfill (soil nr carbonaceous material) is
Se'n !ar.-ftilly placed around centered anodes, and tamped in
Iz-. .-' layers. This material can be filled into the tops
he holes if rlIht-of -way conditions permit. :f not, a
ii.-: inwhes of top soil may be placed over anodcs.

i P.-.er
"..tnodle equipme.nt
holes. or hand tools can be used to auger vertical

A long-handlod wooden tamper, such as used by pole line

-rows, is suitable for compacting fill around vertical
t:,v'es if holes are not more than 10' to 12' c--ep. In
.:maller dianmeter holes, a 2" pole works best .'or ampin,.

iugered holes are water-filled, it is helpful to pump

iiem out before installing anodes. However, the backfill
S.u b- mixed into a slurry with water and poured in. Wet
holes should be allowed to settle ovcrni,"ht. When -his is
t.,,c, th- ;arbonacoous material (usually coke) descends into
.n', hole, maklin; Lt necessary to add more. This should re-
:i, ;Lh possibility of backfill voids. It is ,ood practice
to test samples from each shipment of coke breeze backfill,
i,, Iv .sure that It meets speci!'i .ations. (Resistivity can
L.- 1.,etel in a ,;oll box. )

l "n-i1.ocit.v wattvr-jetting mthod 0,11- introducin_, anodes

'ntu the eround has been used. This metho:l is most aiapt-
Mi], 1;o :.and null, but it hao also been :;uccessfullr applied
,, n', h ii,(wr, cwrpat sol 1 co.nta il n. kA.a., 'ti I -.halc.

li
rlypical vertleaI ariode Uistallation In soil is shamin
Fisure 73. This method, using anodes, Is pre-
nokaged
ferrei fe most installations. However, In swampy areas and
quicksani where It my be Imossible to use backfill, pack-
aged anoles ray be useS (Plure 74).
(2) Horizontal Soil Installations. S anodt-s
are often installed horiZontally even though anode-to-noli
resistance is somewhat higher In this position (Figure 75).
In this manner they can be placed In a low-resistance soil,
and/or rock formations can be avoided. Strings of "duct"
anodes whenbe ducts
systems can placed
areinnot
trenches to form
available for distributed
them. anode

If horizontal anodes are spaced fairly close (approximately

5' to 10'), the entire trench may be filled -Its earbonace-
ous backfill. When trenching for distributed anodes, all
connecting cables and anodes should be buried at least two
feet below grade so as to minimize physict.1 damage, Treated
boards or concrete slabs are sometimes placed over cables
for furth3r protection. Trenches can be cut somewhat deeper
at anode locations to allow extra space for carbonaceous
backfill (if used).
Horizontal metal pipes, or porous tile ducts can be instal-
led t'nder large tank bottoms or other structires plat- in
contact ith soil. This is easiest to do during construct- "
ion of the structure. Then anodes can be pulled throu ;h at
any time in the future.
Backfill (soil or carbonaceous material) should be car.fulL[-
tamped around anodes. If soil is used, every effort should
be made to obtain a low-resistivity grade of uniform quality.
(3) Deep Anode Installation. Anodes which are
placed fifty feet or deeper below the earth's .urface are
commonly called "Deep groundbeds". A complete deep anode-
installation can be made on a plot of ground no large than
five feet square. For typical installation, see Figures
76 and 77.
A six-inch hole is recommended, and either rotary or cable
tool drilling rig ray be used. Drilling with a cable iuoo]
usually takes longer than the rotary drill. However, ihc
rotary drill, with the drilling mud used, usually resuits-
in a cleaner and drier hole. The more available and e onom-
ical means should be selected, however. Because deep well
groundbeds are usually less than 300 feet deep, most local
water well drillers are capable of drilling the well.
A dry hole is not needed, so no more casing than absolut-zAy
necessary to prevent caving during installation should be
used. Deep metal casinr;s will transmit protective Uu'xPi:t
to the surface. The resultant surface discha,;- will iul!-
ify many advantagec of the deep well groundbed. If it In

165
 rem or Soil

-wEGro e elSmff
Lscwi Inuaf HMWF

Conductor
I
Na. It, 7-Strand Copper Amde

€"-"Eps:y EncapkAion

B--Ikkfill Karlnameous or Soi)

5'10* *

* 0'Aod: High-Silicone Chromium-

Beaoring, Cat Iron (2"x 60" with
3* Enlarged Ends)

12"

Figure 73
TYPICAL VERTICAL INSTALLATION - HSCBCI ANODE

• !8I
Exhstior Suil Snckfill

'OAId Cespe A"*&

Hff
Lecv'-1f WAF wsAon

Soil backfill, Not-Sund,

Ans~ H~iSilionStones or Debris (wfere possible)

80 LightwalI Tubin,

'PhWood or Metd I
Tubing, Crimped I
10"
Figure 74
TYPICAL VERTICAL INSTALLATION FOR
IMPRESSED CURRENT PACKAGED ANODE

107
 *1 '

r0

.31-
cnn

CC

UU

u E ~ ~ L

IA

It '"a

V 0

H _ 18
necessary to extend the casing beyond fifty feet below the
surface, every, effort should be made to pull at. ieast the
top fifty feet of the casing out. If this is not possible,
the casing above the anode string can be coated to reduce
current discharge. Plastic casing can also be used for this
upper portion. Finally, prior to the installation of the
anodes., the casing ,-n be separated at the fifty-foot lev,-.
with dasing-,cutters or dynamite. When the well is ready,
the drilling rig is used to lower in the anode string.
Type 1 HSCBCI anode, 2" X 60" with enlarged heads and epoxy
cap, is
most suitable for deep groundbeds. Because of the
inaccessibility of the anodes, individual anode leads shoull
extend to the surface. Thus, difficulty with one lead or
anode connection
groundbed., Whein would not ten
more -than lead Anodes
to failure of thethe
are used, entire
wirei
bundle becomes rather bulky. In this case, not more than
two anodes may be spliced to a single header. TO reduce the
number of wires, No-. 8, stranded copper wire with HMWPE inst-
lation is suggested.
Anodes should not be sUspended from lead wires as prolonged
stress may lead to difficulties. Instead, anodes should b,
fastened to a 1" support pipe as shown in Figure 77 usin]
steel banding or large hose clamps. Not more than three
anodes should be attached to eadh section of support pipe.
Sections are Joined together with pipe unions.
Gases liberated by electrolysis -of the electrolyte in the
groundbed should be vented. They form an insulatingbarrier
and decrease anode current output. Gas blocking results In
a gradually increasing resistance that eventually can cause
the groundbed to become ineffective.

One or more plastic vent pipes from the bottom anodc to t-he
surface will aid in dissipating gases to the atmosphere. A
combined vent and support pipe system is shown in Figures
76 and 77. This method of support is only temporary i.n
nature (the metal section will corrode) and therefore 'an be
used only with backfill. For a permanent type support-vent
pipe system that can be used in backfill or water-filLed
deep groundbeds, the total system of brackets and pipe
should be made of plastic.

Before lowering ahodes, the well should be bailed as dir as

possible to facilitate backfilling. Anode sections ar'" low-
ered in one at a time. Anodes must be lined up when o erie,
are Joined. Wires and the plastic tubing should be taped to
each succeeding section to prevent fouling. Plastic tibinp
must not become bent or kinked. When the last an-dc sectl oi
is ready for lowering, wires and tubing sho'ild be budled
and bound with tape at five-foot intervals. Thn complotco
anode string is then lowered down the well by one of t;o

189
 FbI ~-Mwit ructre

U~vd os Vent Strutur

box

Lead Wires in Conduit

I ii! vithlGravel

"Ell and-2" NiPPle AIPPded re

Cables or Use Pieces w. R4"bbr HU"~

I'Plastic Pipe for Vesnt

7.. L. o
Ca~iBreee Peforated 3V4" Steal Pipe
Eno,,sj Water for /le Holes. Drilled Every 6"

20V (See Figure I77)

150'

'7)

tAnode
- (See Figure
20'
Le .dCouI es
Friction loped to Pipe
J L

(See Figure )
4" W.-Iding Cap.
Atd. Wt. to -.uide
Anode. S--rincDE N D
Figure 76

IMPRESSED CURRENT SYSTEM

190
 - M'tic
j1 Sipa Slipped Onto 3/414 Hipoe.
Ured with4 Soinle Steel SA.

,i OS con ec n4 .
, con ect

Fbrfmued 3/ 4" 1ipHoc'k ~

Iroti t
-dean, astM
1/4* Wes Every-**

No. s, 7-Strdnd Copper V1 '

Anode Cable Friction Taped
to Pipe

Binding Anodes to Flpe

3" crap.Pipe Welded

to Side of 3/4" Pipe, 1'6"
to Support Anodes

4" Weldinj, CoP Std. Wt.

Pipe to Guide Anode

a) b) * 1

DEEP WELL - ANODE 'DETAILS

 -- C

mithods:.
1. Jaoiits. o' " pipe are attached to the string
and the entire aosembly lowered. After th'x striing Ias
reached bottom, the lowerir-w pipe is removed Joint by Joint..
To Insure.- r-nioval of the loweing pipe from the anode 9tr'ing,
the eonn,+ction should be made with a left-hand thread or a
hand- iht! ri.ht-hand thread.
2. it is also possible to attaeh a pulley to the
top of the ano-- string and lower -the strinZ with the dril-
ler's bo.le cable. Clothesline is then attaThed to the end
"i' the oab!-,, and the cable retrieved. The l.o-r-..rpipe, -"
honew -P, matkes it possIblc to turn or manipulate the anoie
tr-in :, ?hould it become fouled on the way down.
--
ickfll nu is recOmmended to lower anodi. to rroundf Vesis-
,.P. A dlurry of flake grvaphite has proven the most w r
V.ter in the hole will not aff,7,t b-.llinZ because
.'.!1 t'. will snttle throike the water and urt ,.and the
r
A
,.olri. About a cup of liquid hou-chold AeterPent should bc
i,.itxed with tht slurrPy to increase the wetr.in aUction. If I
.'*?]fill is inixed in a slizhtly elevated rank,,- i. may easily
be piped into. the too of the hole.
Thmwll head my ,terminate above or below ground. For above
',ounr. termination. four feet of casing should protrude above
I
iw-. tirface.. A vented cap should be screwe4 onto the top of
r -ifl ., for access. Anode leads should terminate in a
the
,; top of I;he well head. For below ground termina-
, oi, place a steel cap over the well to prevent earth sett!-
i,, auove it. Anode leads should be run thrcu ;h an under-
* .tt,. conduit to a terminal box at some *,onvenient location.
1%, tall the rectif.er is close a:? possible to the well head.
orlotc n, utility pglu .tn be loc.tul next to it; if necessary,
tb& t.ectifitr can be installed on thr. well head itself. An
i.ioulated copper -:able is then run from the po-11tive tor:inal
,. the rectifier to- the anode lead terminal box..
(it) Marine, Water Tank, and Process Equipment 1
-nIetallation. In most marine, water tank and process equip-
nr .it installations, HSCTCI anodes ae suspended- in the solu-I
tilon at some distanc., from the *,athodioall,: proteo.ted struc-
tteo. However, button anodus are bolted onto the plates of
zr-tal. Here it is necessary to appl: coatin; and/or a dielec-
Vrti. pad between anode and structure metal.

Suspendel anodes should never be supported by conneetin,

3ables; a nylon rope or net ba: is saggested.
b. Cables. Every effort must be mad- to avoid damage
t,- cable insulatlon. Small breaks will result In early fail-.
i:.,-( when positive cable is suspended or buried in elc.ctro-
lyte. When cables are placed in tren, hes, sand o- soft
':irth paddingit should be provld(c.' to p.tnlmizo the Thance of
Jnsit'lation .amai.r' by 'oL*ks and/or otl., d o's.

'192
 barled cables and connections ust be placed deep enough
below giide so thbat the ponsibility of ritage from cointru'-
Sfatink-r,. erct., will be miaimized wo feet In usually'
zsatisfactory Further protectioni tromu piyical davri m to
buried cables can be provided by placing treated-boardi, or
concretei sdibe over and/or around them,
Insulated cables,, suspended lb water or chemicals, murt We
0aovIded with brackets to prevent we failiire or insdla-
F tion due to movement. 'They mustt 3ecurely fastened In
turbulent areas, and kept out or Llow streamt where trash
-could foul them.
a.Rectifiers. Rettflers can. %beattached to poles,
with thz'odgh b6lts for lare units, and -lag scrovit; for
smiller ones. Units must be installed -to standar'ds or
local power companies and/or electrical inboectorue. It 1,
best'to get informtion on this before beginning to wire ire
a ukit., Meter sockets are usually furnished by the power
coftany, but nufst be --iiL-ed in. by the electrician connecting 2
the rectifier. Sometimes the power company wires down t~m
pole to the meter socket, and in other cases to the top of
the pole only. In some localities,, all wiriing must be con-
tained In conduit, -while -exposed- wiring is- permissible- in
others.. The. following are advantages to uqing conduit whi th
poinst toward long life and trouble-free operation:
(1) Posibility of damage from vandalism or animals
minimized.
(2) -Safety - reduceo the changes, of children beint,
hurt- when tampering with exposed wires, and provides con-
nection to ground for switch boxes, meter case,, and rectU-
fier case.
cale(3) Reduced possibi-lity of weathering damage to
cbeinsulation.
"jLight wall"' conduit is easy to bend in the f1ield anti 1-rei
satisfactory service. A separated Ius-.ed nwitch at tho'A.C.
inlet 'side of the rectifier should also be inlcluded, ror*.
additional overload and fault protection. (See Figure 7,
showing rectifier, fused switl~h and clettric me-ter.)
:When installai..-on work has becit complotcd at a r~ectii1~tv
site, it ri5 important to thoroughly clean up jthe area.,
* Trash must be removed, backfill Opmoothed up, loose stoneC

I
removed, etc. It is good practice to "mound up" loose
backfill soil over trenches,, If It has not been tamped.
Most of the fill will then settle back down into' the-ditch.
It is helpful to contact proper~ty owners upon completion,
to be-certaii they are satisfied with the appearance of the
job. Final cle~an-up will be necessary after the soil has
settled. Any damage claims should also be paid at the save
time.
 Figure 78
POLE-MOUlUTED RECTIFIER AND FUSED SWITCH
 S,-hedulln:- rectirlzr In:tallation is importait, speially
where larFr' numbers of rectifiers are involved. Wher polo-
~~ ~ ied a3 soon as lozzble Mlc
isa!.
easement payinents have been made, a Crew of three to fout*
men sets out to install ,rectifier poles and nejative reutu.,
leads. This has the dual advantage of beginnIng work.on
the property owners t land while their agreement and reim-'
bursement is still fresh in mind, and also pinpointlnC, th6
location for power company personnel so that they may
promptly proceed with any nenessary or unforeseen probiens.
After poles -have been set, 'the same drew now ntrenithen,-?.
by additional manpower, tools, and/or other- eqiiipmnt ma.
begin installation of groundbedu With their asociated
-cables and connections., One crew should: be able to -om-
plete a 25 to 35 anode rorutidbcd'In a working day. Upoii
completion of SrOundbe-dS, -test of pipe-to-roundb, d r'c!;-
tance wil mae4-it possible to size rectifiers a'd have
theM shipped promptly. At this time, power companieb can
also be given a --asonably accurate estimate of the electrI-
cal load.
Upon receipt of rectifier units, a crew of two -or three men
can mout and connect rectifiers. If large .ectifier units
are belng used, It may be best to divide this work betwe,a'n
two Groaps of people - one of which simply hangs units on,
the poles, while the other actually does the electrical
work.
Typical installations are shown in Figures 79 and 80.
Pole-! , .Irectifiers are also typical of those mounted j
on bull. S walls. In less stable areas and/or for extrir..-
ly he.' units,, floor-mounted (oz. slab-mounted) rectifiers
may be used. A diagram of a mounting slab is ,,iven in
rFigure 8AL
10.7 Bonds Between Structures. In almost "in catho lc
protection 7system, It is necessary to make conne :tions b.-
tween isolated structures. These may be:
1. Sections of line vviarated by insulating jotntF.
2. Completely separate piping systems.
3. Separate pipelines, or piping systems, conneeted
to a common cathodic -protection unit.
The basic components of such bonds should bo:
1. Cables from structures involved.
2. Resistor for the control of current flow (ir
cables have a lower resistance value than that required for
current drainage).
3. Calibrated shunt, ammeter, or other eurrent flow
measuring deVice.

195
 Fusedole

Rectifier

- Galvunized W eat~pOo

Control' Enclosure (Optional)

Ground Wi re, Insul

from Neutral in,
-Switch,

IL isting Grade

'I14

Negative Cable, to Ibsitive Coble, to Rectifier

Rectifier Negative in Conduit Pbsitive in Conduit
Figure 791
TYPICAL POLE OR WALL MOUNTED RECTIFIER

LI
 A.C. 1npu

FusedySwitch
jD.C. O tu

JAII

RECTIFIER
Side (Front)

tj*=
fJunct So fsitive Leads to Anodes
ota doPoetdStutrs(ee to FiGure', 7-81 for
Mounting on Concro-;Ie Pbd)
Figur w5
FLOOR-MOUNTED RECTIFIERt

197
 1 Ulr
L

7
1-i
No. 6 Insulte

d" Concrete Slab

o" Sand or Gravel

Ground Rod 3/4" x 8'

Note: r
Galvanized Seel'o
L andW to
Stainless Steel *

Suit Rectifier 81
Hiure
RECTIFIER CONCRETE PAD

IE
 Wlh.eni instal-l!iig bonds, it is advantae'aus to use cablcsn
'heavier than the-nUmber 10 through, i commonly empioyed as
tes leads, even though resistance or, current-carryitqrg
capacity may not be critical. This because larger size
cables are less susceptible to physical damage during exca-
vat-1on ilnd othf- -r uting, maintenance. Also,, they are usu-
ally ve±'y important factors in 4aintaining, protective poten-
tials,. while at the same tim6- not numrouiq4s enough to noti-c-
ably affect installation costs. 'No. 4 cables are re-com-
mended. for military, use. Bonding cables should always be
marked immediately, as they are installed, to avoid confu-
sion and unfiicessary testing later on. This
can' be done by color coding, metal tags attached to the
wires, marks on the test box panel, or combinations of these.

Components of a bond test station are generally installed

in a weathertight, galvanized box mounted conveniently abov-
ground (with Joint lock, if required). This may be Wall-
or -pole-mounted as -with a-rectifier. Typically, a 4" cedar
post 6 feet long (2 feet below grade, Itfeet above) is used
for a mounting pole where no convenient wall, fence post,
etc. is available. This provides relatively convenient
access, when. required. Where such a bond station is imprae
tical or not allowed, such as in a farmer's field, the bond
test comoonents can be installed in a cur'b box buried 18"
below grade. This provides limited access, since it must
be- located and dug up whenever testing is required.

11I MAINTENANCE. All corrosion control systems must be-

maintained. This established cost goes with them and should
be accepted as such. If maintenance is neglected, the use;
fulness of any corrosion control system will soon end.
Part of maintenance is replacement and repair of coatings,
electrical components, anodes, chemical feeders, etc.

In corrosion prevention, another facet of maintenance mu;dt

be considered. This is the fact that the corrosion environ-
ment of most facilities changes over the years, generally
slowly but occasionally radically and rapidly. Factor:;
which commonly change are addition of new structures, itrr-
ation of existing ones, and chemical composition of' the
electrolyte.

* Maintenance is especially important in cathodic protectlon

systems. These electrical systems require the same care
as any other electrical installation. Their 6ffectiveness
is especially responsive to alterations or additions to
structures in the area. These structures may shield or
channel protective current flow.

199
 maintaining cathodic protection systems is
A guide f.'o,
AFM-1885-5 " "Maintenance and Op6irtion of Cathcddic Protection
systems'" "( Hovember 1965).. :An. effetdive maintenance sched-
tile should be establlshed' for all cathodic protection instal-
latlfotns, based o, this manual. A rPeommended schedule,
after the Initlal' installao n- check., atA six-month inspec-
Uions,. Ss:
I. -Keep a record of all rectifier outputs
(volt3, amperes) monthly, and report any varia-
tions because these mayr ind!tcate system mal-
functions.
2. Once a:. e r, ,base personnel should make a cathodic
protection bate survey, taking structure-to-
blectrolyte and any other necessary measurements
(eas. current output of galvanic anodes).
Rectifiers should be adjusted as needed at this
time.

2;

Ii

20

'
 REFERENCES
. omanoff., Melvin, "Underground Corrosion", National
Bureau of Standards Circular 579, April, 197.
2. Mearns, R.B., "Some Recent Developments in the Study of'
Cathodic Protection", Gas, December, 1947.
3. Romanoff, Melvin, "Corrosion of Steel Pilings in Soils"
Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standarddr,
Vol. 66a, No. 3, July-September, 1952.
4. Sudrabin, L.P., "Foundation Piling Corrosion, Mechanisms
and Cathodic Protection", Materials Protection, OctobocL,
1963. .
5. DeMarco, R.C., "Protection of Undergroand Steel in-a
-h1i,- -Corirosive Area", aterials Protection, February,

6. Romanoff, Melvin, "Exterior Corrosion of Cast Iron Pipe",

Journal AlTWA, 56:1129, September, 19611.
7. Sherer, C.M. and K.J. Granbois, "Study of AC Currents
and Their Effect or, tead-Cable Sheath Corrosion",
Fay, 1955.Institute of Electrical Engineers Transactions,
American I
8. Johns-on, W.A., "Pipe Line Leaks Are Not In:'litabl.,",
Petroleum Engineer, August, 1953.
9. Wagner, John, "Cathodic Protection and Corrosion Contirol
for Utilities in Urban Areas", Proceedings of the Twe]i'th
Annual Appalachian Underground Corrosion Short Course,
1967. (Technical Bulletin No. 86, Engr. Exp.. Sta.,
West Virginia University.)

10. Obrecht, M.F. and L.L. Quill, "How Temperature, Velocliy

of Potable Water Affect Corrosion of Copper and its
Alloys", Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, 1960 and
April, 19M1.

11. Kuhn, R.J., "Casings Promote Corrosion at Crossini;s

Instead of Providing Protection", Oil and Gas, Journa , .
December, 1970.
12. Trouard, S.E., "A Corrosion Engineer Lookso at the
Problem of Pipelines Crossing Railroads and Highways",

A.S.C.E. Committee Meeting, February, 1960.

201 "

-. . . . .,
 REFERENCES

;. ~l~jQv~Aw~.(ifrj' S'-ien. uo Federal Cons truectioln

~~.~T.n',iI i'.hnl :al Roport tic. 117,. Publication 11)4t,
I i:,F. ~1 Tvestiiatlon of Urzd.2rround Heating

-. iant'.r, 'A.D. and C.H. Horton, "Cathodie. Protection

C kv Cpoes!on % Underwater Enci i-wering, 1ovembe~.,I

.~~~ ~:i.EF... 1 'tose Film Wrap az Cast Iron Pipe

Vritti.~~',Jour-nal AlrA, Vol. 56, Mar;:h,196.
P1-,*1*-A' p Mar'3ilp (thle work-s of),.

~ U ,C.~I.., "EfTeretlve Use of' Holtiay Deteotors"..

Pc'win~sof thie 16th Annual Appala-10tan Undcrgrouiid
C'AIPOSini Shoru Course, 1.971, T-7--hni. -al BLIu-ll 11o. i

"Rit1i.c.- qr--v1:,e Manual t , Good-All Electri., In2.,

rTlIdur, S , tal, ?EeItrochenical Deteriorat.-on ofl

Craphit .~arJ Th-ii Ir~on Anodeu in Sodium-Chiloride
E!
'ttlyc,
~ 1 CorsoVl L, No. 2~, (Feb. 1958),,

I).aQue, P. L. and H-.R. Copson, Corrosion Resittance or

Mictal~s -aI l Alloyjs, Reinhold PuBlishing Company, Rew
york, 1905'$ P.601
2;it':rat
* from£'n Engl.,4wnrd idustrie.', Inc.
1-12. T.,fqnkji*an, D.A., "ApplL.2aion of' Cathodic P,--o t e t ion"
Ivh.tc-rials Proteotion, Vol. 11, No. 11, November, 1972.

2C2
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
-Bondurant, D.L., ed., Proceedings of- the Annual Applachian
Underaound Corrosion Short Course, west Virinia University
Bulletin No. 103 (171M, 9 (197).
Bogart, L.G. Vande, "Combating Corrosion in Industrial
Process Piping", Technical Paper No. 408, Crane Company,
Chicago, May, 1939.
Brasunas, A.de S. , NACE.Basic Corrosion Course, Natioual
Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, 1970.
Bryan, Wm.T., ed.,, Designing Imressed Current Cathodic
Prctection Systems with Durco Anodes, The -riron Company,
Inc., 1970.

G
Godard, H.P., et al., The Corrosion of Light Metals, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 19b.

LaQue, F.L., "Corrosion Testing", AmericanSociety for

Testing Materials, Proceedings, VoT 51, 1951.
Lea, P.M., The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, Chemical
Rubber Publishing Company, Inc., New York,, 1971.
Mudd, 0).C,., "Control of Pipe Line Corrosion", Corro.ion,
Vol. ., No. 4. December, 19 45, Pp. 192-218, VoT. 2,Io,. 1,
March, !0L6, pp. 25-58.
Parker, Marshall E., "Fundamentals of Corrosion Survys"%
The Petroleum Engineer, Vol. 27, No. 3, March, 1955, pp.
D22-2.
Parker, Marshall E.., Pipe Line Corrosion and Cathodic
Protection; a Field Manual, Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston, Texas, 1954.
Peabody, A.W., Control of Pipeline Corrosion, National
Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, 1970.
Shepard, E.R. and H.J. Graeser, Jr., "Design of Anode Sy;t. ins
for Cathodic Protection of Underground and Walter Submerged
Metallic Structures", Corrosion, Vol. 6, No. 11, November,
1950, pp. 360-75.

Shrier, L.L., Corrosion, Vols. I & II, John WVI.ey & Sons,
New York, 1963.

20
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Siknko, N.Jf. %nd R.A. Plan, Chemistry, Nv'-Graw,-Hi11 Book
Company, lvi.,9 New York, 196W
Speller, Frard: IJ., Corrosion: Causes and .PrevF.ntiori, 3d ed...
M'cGiaw-Hill B3ook Company, Inu., 'few York, 1951, -p. 686.
.1ine Eelitr , D. Eatth Conduction Effe-t.3 in Transmission
Syrstemns, D.Vi +ostranil Company, Inc., ~ YorKc, 19719 ,,*

'11ip2i, H.H., Coirvosoz and Corrosion Control, John Wiley &

Sons, Inn~., Ncow York, 1946i.
"Ifhllt, H..H., Cwf,vos1QrIn Handbook, Ztohn Wdlt,.y and SunsIv,
*Ycik, 19'437
U.S. D.ipartment of' tho Army, Corps oi' En, '.neers, Ro~k Island
Distrtct, "Cathodic Protect.tdn Inve'stigain CI1l orks
Tiivestigation 311, Marah, 1954.
UJ.S. Deparumiicrt o'~ the~ Teavy, B~L*au of Y-;rvis and Dc.,ks,
"Corrosion Prev-.:ntlon", T-rachni,-al Publi,.arion, TNAVDOCKS,
TP-PW-'10, Decpmber, 1956
~n~VikL.H., Ehm?nts of' Materials Science, Addison-
oleiy Publl,,hitij. Company, Rt'adling, Masrsa:!h stts,. 1964.

204
 APPENDIX A.
GLOSSARY OF CORROSION TEM
(*Definitions from NACE Standard RP-01-69)
A The taking up of one substance at the surface
ofanter. The tendency of all solids to condense upon
their surfaces a layer of any gas or solute wbich contact
such solids.

Aeration cell o ell) An electrolytic cell in which

aWdifference in oxygen concentration at the electrodes ex-
ists, producing corrosion.
AMbtics. Materials subject to attack by both acid and
alki to nironments. Aluminum, zinc, and lead, commonly
used in construction, are examples.
A&erobig. Free of air or uncombined oxygen; an aerobic
bacteria are those which do not use oxygen in their life
cycle.
Ajue
& A negatively charged ion which migrates toward the
anodeunder influence of a potential gradient.
* An electrode at which oxidation of its surface or
some component of the solution is occurring. Antonym:cathode.
*Bell bole. An excavation to expose a buried structure.
Catbode. An electrode at which reduction of its surface or
some component of the solution is occurring. Antonym:anode
Catodi osion Corrosion resulting from a cathodic
con o a structure, usually caused by the reaction of
alkaline products of electrolysis with an ampboteric metal.
*Cathodic Protection. A technique to prevent the corrosion
of a metal surface by making that surface the cathode of an
electrochemical cell.
gai.± A positively charged ion of an electrolyte which
igrates toward the cathode under the influence of a po-
tential gradient.

2C5
Concentration cell. An electrolytic cell in which a dif-
ference in electr-oyte concentration exibts between anode
and cathode, producing corrosion.

*Continuity bond. A metallic connection that provides

eectrical continuity.
*Corrosion. The deterioration of a raterial, usually a
metal, because of a reaction with its environmezt.
*Current density. The current per unit area.

*Electrical isolation. The condition of being electrically

soparated from other metallic structures or the environment.
*Elt.tro-osmotic effect. Passage of a charged particle
tFrougl a membrane under the influence of a voltage. Soil
niay act as the membrane.
*Electrode potential. The potential of an electrode as
measured against a reference electrode. The electrode po-
tential does not include any loss of potential in the sol-
ution due to current passing to or from hbe electrodes, i.e.
it represents the reversible work required to move a unit
obarge from the electrode surface througb the solution to
The refcrence electrode.

Electrolyte. A chemical substance or mixt,,re, usually

liquid, containing ions that migrate in an electric field.
Examples are soil and seawater.

Electromotive force series (EMF series). A list of ele-

ments arranged according to their standard electrode po-
tentials the sign being positive for elements having
potentials that are cathodic to hydrogen and negative for
those elements having potentials that are anodic to hydro-
gen.

*Foreign structure, Any structure that is not intended as

a part or the system of interest.

*Galvanic anode. A metal which, because of its relative

position in the galvanic series, provides sacrificial pro-
tection to metal or metals that are more noble in the ser-
i,:s, when coupled in an electrolyte. These anodes are he
current source in one type of cathodic protection.

2U%6
Galvanic cll, A corrosion cell in wbicb anode and catb-
ode are dissimilar conductors, producing corrosion because
of their innate difference in potential.

*Galvanic series A list of metals and alloys arranged

according to tbeir relative potentials in a given environ-
ment.

ie A discontinuity of coating that exposes the met-

ace to the environment.

&ydroen overvoltOMOO Voltage characteristic for each met-

al-environment combination above which hydrogen gas is lib-
erated.

Impressed current. Direct current supplied by a power

source external tothe electrode system.

_Isulting goatins aystem All components comprising the

protective coating the sum of which provides effective
electrical insulation of the coated structure.

*Interfere ne bond. A metallic connection designed to con-

trol electrical current interchange between metallic sys-
tems.

Ion- Electrically charged atom or molecule.

O d The voltage across a resistance in accordance

witb Ob's Law.

*Line current, The direct current flowing on a pipeline.

Local action, Corrosion caused by local cells on a metal

surface.

Mill scale The heavy oxide layer formed during hot fabri-
cation oreat-treatment of metals. The term is applied
chiefly to iron and steel.

o Concentration of a solution expressed as the

number gram molecules of the dissolved substance per
1000 grams of solvent.
OH. A measure of hydrogen ion activity defined by pH
10o (1/aH+) where aRH hydrogen ion activity - molal
concentration of hydrogen ions multiplied by the mean ion
activity coefficient (. 1 for simplified calculations).

N~7
Polarization, The de'.iaticon from the openi circuit potent-
=Iso~faneectrode hesulting frolL the passage of current.
*Rflrncee~trodeL A device whose open circuit potent-
=nin contat under similar conditions of measurement.
*Reverse-current switchs A device that prevents the rever-
sal. of 31re77t current tbrough a metallic conductor.
*Strasy current Current flowing through paths other than
77e intended circuit.
*Stray current corr~sion. Corrosion resulting from direct
curent flow through paths other than the it~tended circuit.
*Structure-to-.eleet~ e ot (also st.ructure-to-soil
otetiT~~ipet'o-sOe poltn al). The voltage differ-
nce between a buried metallic structure and the electrom-
r:
lyte which is measured with a reference electrode in con-
tact with the electrolyte.
*Structure-to-structur Voltalge. (also structure-to-strucb-
iire poetal). The difference in voltage between metallic
structures in a common electrolyte.
'Jolt-ap~uo An electromotive force, or a difference in elec-
,YodfepoTentials expressed in volts.

_9ja
 Title *9 Transportation
Chapter 14tesardoiis Mterials Rgpalations- 1oard, Depart.
snt of Tiftes rtation.
(Docket No. OP dt., 192.4)
Part 1924rasportation of Natural eM other gas b~y pipe-
ui: Minimum 'Federal safety stAnards
[Subpart, 1-Rliquirements for
192.51 Sope. Corrosion Control

This subpart prescribes minimum requirements for tbe. pro-

tection of mtallic pipeline* 'from external, internal, end
satmospbric; corrosion.
192-.453 General.
Each operator sball establish procedures to implement the
requirements of tbis subpart. These procedures, inicluding
those for the design, installation,, operation and miainaten-
ance of cathodic protection systems, must be carried out by,
or under the direction of, a person qualified by experi-
ence azid training in pipeline corrosion cor rol methods.
192.455 External corrosion control: buried or submerged
pipelines installed after July 31, 1971.
(a) Except as provided in paragraphs (b) and (c) of this
* section, each buried or submerged pipeline installed after -

July-31, 1971 must be protected against external corrosion,

including the following:
* (1) It must have an external protective coating meeting
the requirements of 192.46.
(2) It aust have a cathodic protection system desigrned to
protect the pipeline in its entirety in accordaice wi~th tbi's
subpart, installed,.and placed in operation within one year
after completion of construction.
(b) An operator need not comkply With paragraph (a) of
this section, if the operator can demonstrate by tests, in-
ventigation, or experience in the area of application, in-

2J*7
 eludinig, as a minimum, soil resistivity messuregaritg and
tests for corosion accelerating bacteria, tbt a coTOS'.
ive environmenat does not exist. Howver, within 6-umnths
after an installation made- pursuant to the preoeding aen-
I C? te opertori
torioil potential measurements
tests, incloding pipe-
'bliconduct
with regoedt to eithera
continuous reference, electrode, ozr' n electrode -Using close
spacing, not to exceed 20 feet, iuAd si±1 reitiity meal-!
,.remernts at potential profile peak loc tonts -to adequ-
ately evaluate tbe potentia-l profile along tbe entire pipe-
line. If the tests made indicate that -a oorrosiv, con;-
diton exists, the pipeline must be catbodically protected
in accordande wit pargrapb '(e) (2) of this section.
(c)An operator'need notccompiy with paragraph (a) of
;idis section, if the operator 'can demonstrate by tests,
ir-itigation, or experience
or a copper pipe line,
F.L e~ envirofment does
not exist; or
(2) For a temporary pipeli-, --, an operating priod of

--
service not-to exceed 5-yesr- -,4onid installation corro-
sion during the 5-year period of service of'the pipeline
will not be-detrimental to-public mafety.
(d)Notwithstanding tbe- provisions of paragraph, (b) or
%c)of this section, if A-jVipeline is externally coated,
it must be cathodicall , pk~tectid in accordance witb pa-
.zraph: (ai) (2) of this 'section,
(r)Ai.uminum may not be installed in a buried or subserg-
* ad pipelinie if that aluminum is exposed to an envikrment
with a natural pH in ezessA of 8, unless tests or epr
ience indicate its suitability in tbe particular eviron-
* ment involved.
192.457 External corrosion control: buried or submerg-
e~d pipelines installed before August 1, 1971.
(a)Except for buried piping at compressor, regulatorg
end- measurinig stations, each buried'or submerged trans-
mission line installed before August 1, 1971, that ha an
effective external coating must, not later than Augus't 1,
1974, be catbodically protected along the entire area tbat
is effectively coated, in accordance with this subpart.
For the purposes of this subpart, a pipeline does not have
an effective external coating if its catbodic protection
current requirements are substantially the same-as if it
were bare. 'The operator shall make tinsts to determizii the
cathodic protection current requirements.
(b) Except for cast iron or ductile iron, each of the
following buried or submerged pipelines installed before
August 1, 1971, must, not later than August 1, 1976, be
cathodically protected in accordance with this subpart in
areas in which active corrosion is found:

210
 Dare or-eineffectively costed teft- Ulines.
R e pipes at oinwwee
s,
e*-
o , regulator', and
(3) r or oiated distribuUm 11m. 2be operator shab
dever tbe ae ofa ow b electrial sur-
! -4 -ot oor sm
~me'ty, leek listor
brother'A,meen. s, b7 leak detection
(0) e purp
F l of ',tbi* 'bpat, active oorrosieuts
resiut in a o002tioa that is dierln al to public safety.
192,.45 External corrosion control: exau!.nation of bur-
ied pipeline wKben exposed.
wemwver an operator has kmled"e that any portion of a
barled pipelie is exposed, e exposed, portion must be ex-
-sainid for evidence of extrnal corrosion if tbe pipe is
bd'e, or if the coating is deteriorated If extermal cor-
rosion.is found, remedial action must be taken to the ex--
text required by 192.83 and the applicable paragraphs of
X92.4859 192.4M, or 192.4489.
192.-61 External corrosion control: protective coating.,
(a) Each external protective coating, wbetber conductive
o insulating, applied for the pOrpoqe of exterial corro-
sion control maust-
(1 Be applied on a properly prepared surface;
2) Haie sufficient adhesion to the metal surface to
ef resist under-film migration of moisture;
t3~Be sufficiently ductile to resist cracking;
Have sufficient strength to resist damage due to
handling and soil stress; and
(5)Have properties compatible with any supplemental
cathodic protection.
(b) Each external protective coating which is an elect-
rically insulating type must also bave low moisture ab-
sorption and high electrical resistance.
(c) Each external protective coating must be inspected
just prior to lowering the pipe into tbe ditcb and back-
filling, and any damage detrimental to effective corrosion
control must be repaired.
(d) Each external protective coating must-be protected
from damage resulting from adverse ditch conditions or dam-
age
4(e)from supporting blocks.
If coated piope is installed by boring, driving,, or
otber similar method, precautions must be taken to minimize
daae to the coating during installation.
 192;.63- Rternal corrosion control: catbodic protection.
(a) Each cathodic protection system required by this sub-
pert must provide a level of catbodic proteotion tbat come-
plies
in with one or more-of the applicable criteria contained
Appendix D of this subpart. If none of these criteria
is applicable, the cathodic protection system must plovide
a level of cathodic protection at least equal to that pro-
vided by compliance with one or more of these criteria.
(b) If aphoteric metals are included in's buried or sub-
merged pipeline containing a metal of different anodic pot-"
(1) The amphoteric metals must be electrically isolated
from the remainder of the pipeline and catbodically pro-
* ected: -orI
(:) .ie entire buried or submerged pipeline must be cath-
odicalA! protected at a catbodic potential that teets the'
requirements of Appendix D of this part for amphoteric met-
(c) The amount of cathodic protection must be controlled
so as not to damage the protective coating or the pipe.

192.465 External corrosion control: monitoring.

(a) Except where impractical on off-shore pipelines, each
pipeline that is under cathodic protection must be tested
rt least once each calendar year, but with intervals not
ex, ,.ng 15 months, to determine whether the cathodic pro-
tection meets the requirements of 192.463. However, if
tests at those intervals are impractical for separately
protected service lines or short sections of protected
lrmains, not in excess of"100'reet, these service lines and
mains may be surveyed on a sampling basis. At least 10
percent of these protected structures, distributed over the
entire system must be surveyed each calender year, with a
different 10 percent checked each subsequent year, so that
the entire system is tested in each 10-year period.
(b) At intervals not exceeding 2 months, each cathodic
protection rectifier or other impressed current power
source must be inspected to ensure that it is operaiing.
(c) .At intervals not exceeding 2 months, each reverse
current switch, each diode, and each interference bond
whose failure would jeopardize structure protection, must
be electrically checked for proper performance. Each other
interference bond must be checked at least once each calen-
dar year, but with intervals not exceeding 15 months.
(d) Each operator shall take prompt remedial action to
correct any deficiencies indicated by the monitoring.
(e) After the initial evaluation required by paragraphs
kb) and (c) of 192.455 and paragraph (b) of 192.457, each
operator shall, at intervals not exceeding 3 years, reevalu-
ate its unprotected pipelines and cathodically protect them
in accordance with this subpart in ms, in which ti.ve
coroion is -found. fte O m"eabr shill determine the
aieas of active corrosion by electrical 6w or; wbre
electrical survey -is imitioal, IF the study of earos
ion and leak 'histor7 r
bi other means.
, y leek etectionW0s- , or
I
192.467 External corrosion control: electricol isola-
tion.
(a) Each. buried or submerged pipeline must be electric-
ally isolated frdm other underround metallic structures,
unless the pipeline aid the other structures -are electric-
ally interconnected-and catbodically protected as a uingle
unit.
(b) An insulating device mst be installed where electri-
eal isolation of a portion of a pipeline is necessary to
facilitate the application of corrosion control.
(c) Except for unprotected copper inserted in ferrous
pipe, each pipeline must be electrically isolated from
metallic casings that are a part of the underground, system.
However, 4f isolation is not achieved because it is in-
practical,, other measures must be, taken tOminimize c or-
rosion -of the pipeline inside the casing.
(d) Inspection and electrical tests must be made to
assure that electrical isolation is adequate. ,

(e) An insulating device may not be installed in an area

wbere a combustible atmosphere is anticipated unless, pre-
cautions are taken to prevent arcing.
(f) Whoere a pipeline is located in .close proximity to
electrical transmission tower footings, ground cables or
counter-poise, or in otber areas where fault currents or
unusual risk of lightning may be anticipated, it must be
provided with protectio'n against damage due to fault cur-
rents or lightning, and protective measures must also be
taken at insulating devices.

192.469 External corrosion control: test- stations.

Except where impractical on offshore and wet marsh area
pipelines, eacb pipeline under cathodic protection requir-
ed by this subpart must have sufficient test stations or
other contact points for electrical measuremet to deter-
mine the adequacy of cathodic protection.
192.471 External corrosion control: test leads.
(a) Each test lead wire must be connected to the pipe-
line so as to remain mechanically secure and electrically
conductive.
(b)Each test lead wire must be attached to the pipeline
so as to minimize stress concentration on the pipe.,
t
2i3l
 (c) Eacb bared teat lead wir, and bared metallic area at
point of connection to the pipeline must be coated with, an-
electrical insulating materidl compatible withb the pipe
coating and the insulation on the wire.
192.-473 External corrosion control: interference cur-
rents.

(a) After July 31, 1973, each operator whole pipeline

system. is subjected to stray currents sball have in effect
a continuing program to minimize the detrimental effects of
such currehts.
(b) Escb impressed current type cathodic protection sys-
tem or galvanic anode system must be designed and installed
so as to minimize any adverse effects on existing adjacent
underground metallic structures.
192.475 Internal corrosion control: general.
(a) After July 31, 1972, corrosive gas may not be trans-
ported by pipeline, unless the .corrosive effect of the gas,
-on the pioeline has been investigated and steps 'have been
taken to minimize internal corrosion.
(b) Whenever any pipe is removed from a pipeline for any
reason, the internal surface must be irispected for evidence
rf corrosion. If internal corrosion is found-
(!) The adjacent pipe must be investigated to determine
the extent of internal corrosion;
(2) Replacement must be made to the extent required by
Tbe applicable paragraphs of 192.485, 192.487, or 192.489;
and
(3) Steps must be taken to minimize the internal cor-
rosion.
(c) Gas containing more than 0.1 grain of hydrogen su!-
fide per 100 standard cubic feet may not be stored in pipe-
type or bottle-type holders.
192.-477 Internal corrosion control: monitoring.
If corrosive gas is being transported, coupons or otber
suitable means must be used to, determine the effectiveness
of the riteps taken to minimize internal corrosion. After
July 31, 1972, each coupon or other means of monitoring
internal corrosion must 'be checked at intervals not exceed-.
ing 6 months.
192.479 Atmospheric corrosion control: general.
(a) Pipelines installed after July 31, 1971. Each above-
ground pipelines or portion ,of a pipeline installed after
July 31, 1971 that is exposed to the atmosphere must be
cleaned ,and either coated or jacketed with a material suit-

V ?ii4
'1
able for the prevention of atmospheric corrosion. An oper-
ator need not comply with this pargraph, if the operator
can demonstrate by test, investigation or experience in
the area of application, that a coo sive atmosphere does
not exist.
(b) Pipelines installed before August 1, 1971. Not later
than August 1, 1974, each operator having an above-ground
pipeline or portion of a. pipeline installed before August
,1971 that is exposed to the atmosphere, shall-
(1) Determine the areas of atmspheric corrosion on the
pipeline;
(2) If atmospheric corrosion is ,found, take remedial
measures .to the extent required by the applicable para-
graphs of 192.485, 192.487, or 192.489; and
(3) Clean and either coat or Jacket the areas of atmos-
pberic corrosion on the pipeline with a material suitable
for the prevention of atmospheric corrosion.
192.481 Atmospheric coTros.ion control: monitoring.
After meeting the requirements of paragraphs (a) and (b)
of 192.479, each operator sball, at intervals not exceeding
3 years, reevaluate its above-ground pipelines or portions
of pipelines that6 are exposed to the atmosphere and take
remedial action wherever necessary to maintain protection
against atmospheric corrosion.

192.483 Remedial measures: general.

(a) Each segment of metallic pipe that replaces pipe re-
moved from a buried or submerged pipeline because of exter-
nal corrosion must have a properly prepared surface and
must be provided with an external protective coating that
meets the requirements of 192.461.
(b) Each segment of metallic pipe that replaces pipe re-
moved from a buried or submerged pipeline because of exter-
nal corrosion must be cathodically protected in accordance
with this subpart.
(c) Except for cast iron or ductile iron pipe, each seg-
ment of buried or submerged pipe that is required to be re-
paired because of external corrosion must be cathodically
protected in accordance with this subpart.

192.485 Remedial measures: transmission lines.

(a) General corrosion. Each segment of transmission line
pipe with general corrosion and with a remaining wall
thickness less than that required for the maximum allow-
able operating pressure of the pipeline, must be replaced
or the operating pressure reduced commensurate with the
actual remaining wall thickness. However, if the area of

24 5
general corrosion is small, the corroded pipe may be re-
paired. Corrosion pitting :so closely "-uped as to affect
the overall -strength of .the pipe is considered general cor-
(b) Localized corrosion pitting. Each segment of trans-
mission line pipe witb localized corrosion pitting to a do-

Fed,
ree where leakage uigbt result must be replaced or repair-
or the operating pressure must be reduced commensurate
with the strength ofin the
ing wall thickness
pipe, based on the actual remain-
the pits.

192.487 Remedial measures: distribution lines other

than cast iron or ductile iron-lines.
(a%, General corrosion. Except for east iron or ductile
iror pipe, each segment of generally corroded distribution
!3ne pipe with a remaining wall thickness less than that
required for the maximum allowable operating pressure of
zhe pipeline, or a remaining wall thickness less than 30
percent of the nominal wall thickness,,must be replaced.
However, if the area of general coirosion is small, the cor-
roded pipe may be repaired. Corrosi6i :pitting so closely
rouped as to affect the overall strength of the pipe is
considered general corrosion for the purpose of this para-
gra ph.
(b) Localized corrosion pitting. Except for cast iron or
iuctl'lf: iron pipe, eaclu segment of distribution line pipe
with localized corrosion pitting to a degree where leakage
might result mUst be replaced or repaired.

192.489 Remedial measures: cast iron and ductile iron

pipelines.

(a) General graphitization. Each segment of cast iron or

ductile iron pipe on which general grapbitization is found
to a degree where a fracture or any leakage might result,
must be replaced.
(b) Localized graphitization. Each segment of cast iron
or ductile iron pipe on which localized graphitization is
found to' a degree where any leakage might result must be
replaced or repaired, or sealed by internal sealing methods
adequate to prevent or arrest any leakage.

192.491 Corrosion control records.

(a) After July 31, 1972, each operator shall maintain re-
cords or maps to show the location of cathodically protect-
ed -piping,. cathodic protection facilities, other than unre-
corded galvanic anodes installed,before August 1, -1971, and
neighboring structures bonded to the catbodic protection
system.
(b) Eacb of the following records must be retained for as
long as the pipeline remains in service:
i :,it.)
 (1) Each record or sap required by paragmpb (a) of this
section.
(2) Records of each test, suzvey, or inspection required
by this subpart, in sufficient detail to demonstrate the
adequacy of corrosion control miasures or that a corrosive
coldition does not exist. h
Appendix D-Citeria for Catnodic Protection and Determine-
tfl n of Heasurepents
1. Criteria for cathodic protection-A. Steel,, cast iron,
and ductile iron structures.
(1)reference
with A negativeto (cathodic) voltage
a saturated of at least
copper-copper 085half
sulfate volt,
cll. Determination Of this voltage must be made with the
o and IV ofcuurent
tective applied, and in accordance ith sections
tbis appendix.
,(2) A negative (cathodic) voltage shift of at least 300
millivolts. Determination of this voltage shift must be
made :with the protective current applied, and in accordance
with sections II and IV of this appendix. This criterion
of voltage shift applies to structures not in contact witb
metals of different anodic potentials.
(3) A minimum negative (cathodic) polarization voltage
shift of 100 millivolts. This polarization voltage shift
must be determined in accordance with sections III and IV
of this appendix.
(4) A voltage at least as negative (cathodic) as that
originally established at the beginning of the Tafel seg-
ment of the E-log-I curve. This voltage must be measured
in accordance with section IV of this appendix.
(5) A net protective current from the electrolyte into
itbe s-ructure surface as measured by an earth current tech-
nique applied at predetermined current discharge (anodic)
points of the structure.
B. Aluminum structures. (I)Except as provided in sub-
paragraphs (3) and (4) of this paragraph, a minimum negative "
(acathodIvontage shift of 150 millivolts, produced by the
application of protective current. The voltage shift must
be determined in accordance with sections II and IV of this
appendix.
2) Except as provided in subparasraphs (33 and (4) of
this paragraph, a minimum negative rcathodic polarization
voltage shift of 100 millivolts. This polarization volt-
age shift must be determined in accordance with sections
III and IV of this appendix.
(3) Notwithstanding the alternative minimum criteria in
subparagraphs (1) and (2) of this paragraph, aluminum; if
catbodically protected at voltages In sExcess of 1.20 volts
as measured with reference to a copper-copper sulfate half
cell, in accordance with section IV of this appendix, and
compensated for the voltage (IR) drops other than those
across the structure-electrolyte boundary, may suffer cor-
rosion resulting from the build-up of alkali on the metal
surface. A voltage in excess of 1.20 volts may not be used
unless previous test results indicate no appreciable cor-
rosion will occur in the particular environment.
(4) Since alurinum may suffer from corrosion-under-bigh
p4 conditioni, and since application of cathodic protection
tends to increase the pH at the metal surface, careful in-
vestigation .or testing must be made before applying catbodic
protection to stop pitting attack on aluminum structures in
Anvironments with a natural pH in excess of 8.
C. Copper structures. A minimum negative (cathodic) po-
-iiri7tion voltage shift of 100 millivolts. This polariza-
icn ,.oltage shift must be determined in ccordance with
sect-ions III and IV of this appendix.
D. Metals of different anodic potentials. A negative
kcatbodic) voltage, measured in accordance with section IV
of this appendix, equal to that required for the most anod-
ic metal in the system must be maintained. If ampboteric
structures are involved that could be damaged by high alka-
linity covered by subpara gapbs (3) and" (4) of paragraph B
of tbhis section, they must be electrically isolated with
insulating flanges, or the equivalent.
II. Interpretation of voltage measurement. Voltage (IR)
Iror ocber than those across the structure-electrolyte
t.ouzi:ry must be considered for valid interpretation of the
voltage measurement in paragraph A(l) and (2) and paragrapb
B(l) of section 1 of this appendix.
III. Determination of polarization voltage shift. The
polarization voltage shift must be determined by interrupt-
ing the protective current and measuring the polarization
decay. When the current is initially interrupted, an im-
mediate voltage shift occurs. The voltage reading after
the immediate shift must be used as the base reading from
which to measure polarization decay in paragraphs A(3), B
(2), and C of section 1 of this appendix.
IV. Reference half cells. A. Except as provided in paraA
graphs B and C of this section, negative (cathodic) voltage
must be measured between the structure surface and a sat- !
urated copper-copper sulfate half cell contacting the elec-
rolyte.
B. Other standard reference half cells may be substituted
for the saturated copper-copper sulfate half cell. Two
commonly used reference half cells are listed below along
with their voltage equivalent to -0.85 volt as referred to
a saturated copper-copper sulfate half cell:
(1) Saturated KCI calomel half cell: -0.78 volt.
(2) Silver-silver chloride half cell used in sea water:
-0.80 volt.

-
 C. In addition to the standard reference half cells, an
alternate metallic material or structure may be used in

I
place of the saturated copper-copper sulfate half cell if
its potential stability is assured and if its voltage equi-
valent referred to a saturated copper-copper sulfate balf
cell in established.
(FR Doe. 71-9221 Piled 6-29-71; 8:48 ai)

TRANSPORTATION OF LIQUIDS BY PIPELINE

SUBART A .. 'GENERAL
AFFECTED FACILITIES

195,1 Scope.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this section,
this part prescribes rules governing the transportation by
pipeline in interstate and foreign commerce of hazardous
materials that are subject to Parts 172 and 173 of this
chapter, petroleum, and petroleum products.
(b) This part does not apply to-
(1) Transportation of water or any commodity that is
tranported -in. a gaseous state;
(2) Transportation through a pipeline by gravity,
(3) Transportation through pipelines that operate at a
stress level of 20 percent or less of the specified mini-
mum yield strength of the line pipe in the system; and
(' ,Except for Subpart B of this part, transportation of
petroleum in rural areas between a production facility and
the point where the petroleum is received by a carrier.

SUBPART D -- CONSTRUCTION
REQUIRED PROTECTIVE MEASURES

195.236 External corrosion protection.

Each component in the pipeline system must be provided
with protection against external corrosion.
195.238 External coating.

(a) No pipeline system component may be buried unless

that component has an external protective coating that-
(1) Is designed to mitigate corrosion on the buried com-
ponent;, f
(2) Has sufficient adhesion-to-the metal surface to pre-
vent underfilm migration of moisture;
(3) Is Sufficiently ductile to resist cracking;
(4) Has enough strength to resist damage due to handling
and soil stress: and
(5) Supports any supplemental catbodic protoction.
In =additi on, if an insulating-type coating is used it mest
have low moisture absorption and provide high electrical
resistance.
(b) All pipe coating must be inspected J',st prior to low-
ering the pipe into the ditch and any damage discovered I
must be repaired.

195.242 Cathodic protection system.

(a) A cathodic protection system must be installed for
-]1buried facilities to mitigate corrosion deterioration
rbat mieht result in structural failure., A test procedure
must be developed to determine whether adequate catbodic
Drotect ton has been achieved.
(b) A cathodic protection system must be installed not
ater than 1 year after completing the construction.

195.244 Test leads.

(a) Except for offshore pipelines, electrical test leads
used for corrosion control or electrolysis testing must be
installed at intervals frequent enough to obtain electrical
measurements indicating tbe adequacy of the cathodic pro-
Action.
Test leads must be installed as follows:
nough looping or slack must be provided to-prevent
t.st !.--ads from being unduly stressed or broken during back
filling.
(2) Each lead must be attached to the pipe so as to pre-
vent stress concentration on the pipe.
(3) Each lead installed in a conduit must be suitably in-
sulated from the conduit.
SUBPART F -- OPERATION AN]) MAINTENANCE

CATHODIC PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS •

195.414 Cathodic protection.

(a) After March 31, 1973, no carrier may operate a pipe-
line that has an external surface coating material, unless
that pipeline is cathodically protected. This paragraph
does not apply to tank farms and buried pumping station
piping.
(b) Each carrier shall electrically inspect each bare
pipeline before April 1, 1975, to determine any areas in
which its corrosion
active
increase taking place.
establishedismaximum The pressure
operating on anot
carrier may

section of bare pipeline until the section has been so J

electrically inspected. In any areas where active corros-
ion is found, the carrier shall provide cathodic protection.

.k.
Section 195.416 (f) and (;) applies to all corroded"-pi-
that if foud.
farm and buried puMpi .station pipin before April 1,
1973, as to,the need for catbodic protection, and. cathodic
pretietien shall'be provided wbere neeessmry,

195.416 Exteinal icontrol

(a) Each carrier sball, at intervals not exceedin! 12

months, conduct tests on each underpround facility in its
Spipeline Systems that is under cathodic protection to de-
teimine wbeter the protection is adequate,
(b) Each carrier shall maintain the test leads required
for catbodic protection in suet a condition that electrical
-measeuents can be obtained to ensure adequate protection.
(c)Each carrier shall, at intervals not exceeding 2 man-
th inspect each of its cathodic protection rectifiers.
(a) Each carrier shall, at intervals not exceedihg 5
years, electricaloly inspect tbe bare pipe in its pipeline
aem that is not catbodically protected and must study
leak records for that pipe to determine if additional pr.
tection in needed.
(e)Whenever any buried pipe is exposed for any reason,
the carrier shall examine the pipe for evidence of external
corrosion. If the carrier finds that tbere is active cor-
rosion that the surface of the pipe is geneially pitted,
or tht corrosion has caused a leak, it shall investigate
further to determine the extent of the corrosion.
(f)Any pipe that is found to be generally coiroded so
that the remaining wall thickness is less than the mini-
mum thickness required by the pipe specification toleriances
must either be replaced with coated pipe that needs the re-
quirements of this 'art or,, if the area is small, must be
repaired. However, the carier need not replace generally
corroded pipe if the 6perating pressure is reduced to be
commensurate with the limits on operating pressure specif-
ied in tbis subpart, based on the actual remaining wall
thickness.
(g) If isolated corrosion pitting is found, the carrier
shall repiir or replace the pipe unless-
(1) The diameter of the corrosion pits, as measured at the
surface of the pipe, is less than the nominal wall thickness
of the pipe; and
(2) The remaining wall thickness at the bottom of the pits
is at least 70 percent of the nominal wall thickness.
(b)Each carrier shall clean, coat with material suitable
for the prevention pf atmospheric corrosion, and, maintain
 ttstis
th atospere
x~oed o

this protection
tltat for,the
is exposed to each component in its
atooephere, pipelibe system :

INTERNAL CORROSI0N "C0TROL

195.-418 Internal corrosion control.
(a) o carri-.r may transport any comodity that would
corrode tho pipL or other components of its pipeline aye-
t-.m, unless ,it has investigated the corrosive effect of the
commodity on the system and has taken adequate steps to
miti *to corrosion.
(b If torrosion-inhibitors are used to mitigate internal
corrosion the carrier shall use inhibitors in iufficient
•q-jar tity to protect the entire part of the system that the
n-bitors are designed to protect and shall also use cou-
rons or other monitoring equipment to determine theiri
iffectiveness.
(c) The carrier shall, at intervals not exceeding 6 mon-
ths, examine coupons or other types of ,monitoring equipiment
to determine the effectiveness of the inhibitors or the ex-
tent of any corrosion.
(d)- Whenever any pipe is removed from the pipeline for
sAy reason, the carrier must inspect the internal surface
for evidence of corrosion. If the pipe is generally cor-
odei1 su-b that the remaining wall thickness is less tban
D minimum thickness required by the pipe specification
tolerances, the carrier shall investigate adjacent pipe to
do-termine the extent of the corrosion. The corroded pipe
must be replaced with pipe that meets the requirements of
this part.
() Excerpt from Federal 2e ister, October 4, 196 Title
49 - Transportation, Part'!95 Transportation ofLiquids
by Pipeline.

222
 LD C.

StR 1Elaotrode onteitial

Sodium .- +a+,e -2.712

?jlliu W- + 2e0

Almi S,_ . . + eo -1°

basain. -,n + 29_ -105
++ 2 -
= ms- -0.762
Cbvkdum - T1- + 3 - -0.I
GaGiaa . + 3.+
++
FC + 2e"
F -0.440
iron
In + '3o.0,0
e ~++ --. 5
li - 4i- + e
Coblt Go + 2e -0.277

Nickel = i++ + 2e" -0.250

Tin,
I*-Pb
-Sn+ +2e-
44 + 2e-
'Ejrogen , 2R+
Copper
+ 2e
- CU+ + + 2e-
4 -0,136
-0.126
0.000
0.345
j
COPpe; - Cu,+t e - 0522
Mercury Hg +_2e 0.799
Silver - Ag + e 0.0
Palladium - Pd44 +2e 0.83
Mercury -H ++ + 2e 0.854
Platinum = Pt++ + 2e 1.2
Gold = Au+++ +-3e -1.62
Gold Au+ + e 1.68

i 4
223 A .
 APPENIXI) D,
TAB~LE D-1
fALVA:IC- SERIES WITH RESPECT,
TO~ SATTJRATifl CALOMEL EtiCTI'Dk-1
N!'avlJvo Potxntial
;vSarumte'd ao1

1*

041

5)
) -3

1)1
r1;p7o., ~I94v.)2:. ~

L-r0. pr .- ,o ,'.)r, r. 0.527

l:*c, o_ It
*i- : I .. I 7 ? -t - .2

v1.~- (t -,MV

V.224
 TABIE D1 (Continued)
GALVFANICd SERIE WMT RESPECT
TO 'SATURATEO CALONtLF.1ECTRODF.I

t'i Satmrat'-d Calousol

Nickel W6t1
Stainlt-ss,, ste-!l type '416, 18% Cr,
l'tc' .? to 1
12% 4P, 3%No (attive) o.,18
4Inconel
Staii'Jess stez 1 type 410,
0.17
13% Cr (%passive) rI
Titanium (:onrnerai) 01
Silver i.I
Titanium (hirgh purity from ivdide) d
Stainless stea'l type 3011
18% Cr,8 1 (passlve)oB
Hastellc'y C0.8
lbMonel Q.08
i1% Nit 3% 1-'0 passivel - O*o5

Basedi on
of flow 13
potential. measurements in it~a viatoer;vKoti
., -mperature 25 0 C. (t'!0F.)
13f. per sec.;

225
 TABIE D-2
uALVAiiIC SERfIES UITH RESPECT TO
Z'WT1RTEDCOPER-OPPR SLFAEIEECTRODE 1
ik,,atlve 1.ctential1 to Saturated
Me'tal1 Cop22cr-Copper Suilfate electrode

~4.lfli!Th (At*hd~Sy1.01

o jt!.tpe 430, 1(ep Cr ~ o.64

*x'c 21.
34..18 8,f, ilib 0
Styjpe 410t 13% CrL 0.59
-.1~i- ~ i1 30% Mi 0.56
~t
-~ .. - ~ 20 l Ni + Ca .5

I., 10.47~

'~ni G'~ 0.38 .

ball.- 0.36
- -*Ii + ~'8%T~0.35
*+ -v~e ,-.34
1: t1.i(. W+ 17% orb 0. 29
0.271
'~' i. t;n. ' a6, 1.8% Cr,

1 ~).25

LaI/n I ui(lim~ purity fc,r, .d 07

~e~. -y1O~,/15.o-v,8% Nib
~!ii.. 0.15
2 0.15
a-,0 15
*

IL', n potont.iaI. m~easuwonts in .-,ea iiiater; velocity

'.~ e~s~ ; ern
'',1 ariro 25)C. ((70F).
'~

h ~~~
I~ ;~o~c~ib .-
LdI'valilo poten-
1
~~ i. . 1 k Oil 1,ve141. LL '11J2" -i: It .i 'Ci.LOsLonl in
at- *. iWernd
Ae L
-woual, th spc' Ilytm .p)tis.The values
1w-
at' F. 1w e1)'rl< )6' y*Ja. 1. Jti- tc ;hla r-

226
 APPZPU So
TVICAL-OOVj
U"Er TMI -F 'U

2.PCA GOVeninUGUL!I

Materials for pipe and, ccmpomn smust,1be-.

(a,) Able toimintain the structural integrity of the
Pipeline under temperature and other ekviroineeal condit-
ions that-may be-anticipated;
(b, Obeicafly compatible withb a! as- that. they- trana-.
powt" antith a otermterial
, inh pipeline with which J
()Qualified in accordance with the applicable reqjuire-
mseats of -this 'subpart.
3. Steel Pipe.,
(a') Now steel pipe is qualified fri use under thibpart
(1) it was manufactured in actordance with a listed spec.?
ifloation; i
(2tIt meets the requirements of paksgrapbs II- thrtough
Il-D of this parts, or'
(3) It in used in adccrdance with paragraph (c) or ()I
of this section.
(b) Used steel pipe is qualified for use under this pert
(1) It was manufactured in accordance vitb a listed
specification and it meets the requirements of paragraph
Il-C of this-part;
(2) It meets the requirements-of II-A tbrough I- of
tbis pert.
(3) It~'has been, used' in an eltist U- line of the same -or
'b~ger pressure, ind meets the. r eqirements 6~f piasah I
ofe a
thns accordance with paragaph (c) of this
'section.
sulIting, it a hoop stres of less than 6,000 p.s.io where no
close coiling or close beiing is to be done, if viisual ex'-

221 '
aination indicates that the pipe is in good condition and
that i~t Is free of split seoamq and other defects tbat would
cause, leakage., If it is to be welded, steel pipe. that baa
not been manufactured to a listid spbeification must also
paps the iieldability, tests prescribed in paragraph II-B of
this-part.
(d) Steel pipe tbat bae not been&previously used may be
used as- repilacement, pipe, in 'a se6ment-of -pipeline,it it
hias beenmanufactured prior to:November 12: 1970, in aicor-
dance with tbe same ~specification- asW the pipe- used'in con-
structing that segment of pipeline.
Ce) New steel -pipe tbst -baae 'beeu cold expanded, ta
comply with the maiidatory providgions of API 'Standard 5LX.,
Cp st Iron or Ductile Iron Pipe.
(ja) N~ew cast 'iron, or new ductile iron pipe, is qialified-
for use under this part if it fa
bnmnfctured in aco-
ordance wiih a listed'spe~ificiation.
(b) Used cast iron or used ductile irozi pipe ii quali-
Lied for use under this part if inspection -shows that- the
isounidt and allows6 the makeup of tighbt joiiti and-
1l) It has been removed from an ,existing pipeline that
operated at the'same or higher pressure;, or
(2) It was manufactured in -accordauce wifth -alse ise
specif_4 cation.
?astiz- Pipe.
5,
(a) Vew plastic-pipe is qualified, for use under tbis
part if--
(1): it is manufactured in accordance with a list spec-
ification;, and
(2) 'Itis resistant to chemicals with whicb contact may
be anticipated.
(b) Used plastic pipe is qualified for use under this.
part if-.-
(1) It meets the requirements of a listed specification;
be)antis esisan to chemicals with wbich. contact may

(4 t has been used only in natural gas service;

I31
Its dimensions are stki~ within the tolerances of
the specification to which it was manufactured; and,
i
(5) It is free of visible defects.
6.. Copper Pipe.-I
Copper pipe is qualified for use under this part if it
bas 'been manufactured in accordance with a listed specifi-
Cation.
7. Qualification of ?ipe.
 I. Listed Pi S fiatio . Nmbe*s in-perentbeses

API 5L-Steel pnd in pi (1, 1970).

API 5LS--Steel pip (1967, 1 97
AN1 5X-Steel pipe (1967, 19 0)
ASMq A06--Steel pipe (1965, 1968).
AS! A106--Steel pipe (196, 1968).
ASM A13--Steel pipe (196, 1968
AS! A135-Steel pipe (19614, 19w).
AST! A155-Steel pipe (1965, 1968).
ASM A211--Steel and iron pipe (1963, 1968).
ASM A333--Steel pipe (1964, 1967).
AS!' A77-Cast iron pipe (1966).
ASM A81--Steel pipe (1966 1968).
ASTM A539--Steel tubing (195) .
ANSI A21.3--Cast iron pipe (1953).
ANSI A21.7--Cast iron pipe (19623.
ANSI A21.9--Cast iron pipe (1962
ANSI A21.52-Ductile iron pipe (1965).
ASM A72--wrought iron pipe (1964T, 1968).
lASTM
B42-Copper pipe (1962 1966).
ASTM B68-Copper tubing (1965, 1968).
ASTM B.--Copper tubing (1965 1968).
ASlM B88--Copper tubing (19663.
ASTM B251-Copper pipe and tubing (1966, 1968).
ASTM D2513--Thermoplastic pipe and tubing, (1966T, 1968).
ASTM D2517-Thermosetting plastic pipe and tubing (1966T,
1967).
II. Steel pipe of unknown or unlisted specification.
A. Bending Properties. For pipe 2 inches or less in dis-
meter, a length of pipe must be cold bent through at least
90 degrees around a cylindrical mandrel that has a diameter
12 times the diameter of the pipe, without developing
Cracks at any portion and without opening the longitudinal
weld.
For pipe more than 2 inches in diameter, the pipe must
meet the requirements of the flattening tests set forth in
ASTM A53, except that the number of tests must be at least
equal to the minimum required in paragraph II-D of this
appendix to determine yield strength.

B. Weldability.. A girth weld must be made in the pipe

by a welder who is qualified under Subpart E of this part.
The weld must be made under the most severe conditions un-
der which welding will be allowed in the field and by means
of the same procedure that will be used in the field. On
pipe more than 4 inches in diameter, at least one test weld

-229

- ThL~&A
,must be made for each 100- lengths of pipe.i On p-ipe A in..
cbes or less in diameter, at learnt' one test -wlimat be
made for each 40O0 lengths of Ib.Te veld must be teot-

iietin acodsc wibA Standard 11011. If ib equira-.

bee tatiis resby raigeounda edstrafihtk ear

*n
mananse.an-roeeinpi theo sten t otiohnes of
I). Po Deries. If.he esls od eri. 0 ofThe M
ofp arbe nSo nole n, esuinm e d steghmy ae
establshed bl erfor.ming-enie r
ests s setP foin
i, itndad5 l etspectiens be
-Thell~tux ted t
selec4ogb
adom ante I Rnumbe *f tsts.l
folletong mstedt
perored
rp
dfeetumib ofbTensile te st-ll itbzest~ueso

D. Tengtbs
,Por
less...If sbetotets each
forto b
pip-nt ar ko ,,,the-miimu length regt -Uyb ae
1s2to0 len~igh. ..... t e ac y
set, oftets f~poreie
be etabisbebyp~rfr' glenhis t ots Tst otan

IC0'egtl0 o ess...... 1 set of tests for each 1

lengths, but not less, than
20 tests.

If the yield-tensile ratio, based on the properties'deter.-

ined by those tests, exceeds 0.85, the pipe may be used
only as provided in 35(c).

230
 APPENDIX F.

CHECK LIST

KNew Construction
I. Meeting with A/E or owner.
A. Description of facilities to be constructed.
1. What is included?
a. Gas
b. Water
c. Buried electrical and grounding-system
* d. Buried communicat-ons or uignal
e. Tanks
f. Piling
S. Bulkheads
b. Building structural members
i. Other
2. Materials to be used and where?
a. Steel
b. Cast Iron
v. Lead
d. Concrete
e. Copper
f. Aluminum
g. Other
3. Construction methods specified.
a. Coatings - Types?
b. Insulation between structures?
c. Are special fills being used?
d. Road and Tilroad casings?
Aii they insulated?
e. Type pipe Joints - weld, flange, dresser, other?
f. Type grounding connecting cables?
,g. Layout of structures (distance between those of
varying materials, etc.)?I
b. Roadways - Will deicing alts leach down into
buried structures?
i. Lawns - Their location. Is it objectionable to
install above grade test stations, etc. in or
near them?
j. Pavement - will
facilities Its location andunder
be-placed type.it? What buried
B. Get complete drawings of all facilities.
1. The following are usually included:
a. Electrical
b. Mechanical
c. Communications
d. Fire Protection
e. Piling
f. Fuel systems

231
 g. Storage tanks
2. Be sure they are the latest.
3. Ask to be kept advised of any changes.
C. Ownership of Facilities.
1. Gas, water, power, telepbone, et, - Whieb a"e to
be included in projectc? Whicb are "utility Wn-
2. Where does utility's ownership and plant's juris-
di"-ion begin?
3. Will the utility install insulation?
D. What life does the owner expect from his facilities?
How many years?
L. What does a corrosion failure cost? (Each type
facility)
r Are any facilities extremely critical? (no failures
of any kind to b, tolerated because of cost or aS-
er'.)
G. Ts direct current being used anywbere in this plant
or nearby?
1. Get complete information on where and why.
2. Wiring diagrams and schematics.
3. Method of grounding..
N. Are any abandoned facilities located in the vicinity?
(Metal pipes, etc. might be used as groundbeds.)
Are they connected or to be connected to anything
-ise?

I. Field Tests
A. Soil Resistivity
If site is uniform, take 5' and 10' (usual depth of
buried structures) readings at suitably spaced grid.
(20' to 100' readings may be required.) Do not ex-
ceed 100' spacing with Vibroground instrument. If
route of piping or structure known, follow route.
Take readings of fill, if any.
B. Soil pH
Take pH at same places resistivity, if soil is moist.
C. Soil Samples and/or Water (steam riser etc.)
Take samples for sulfides and sulfate ?and pH) at re-
presentative grid locations. (Min. = 6)
D. Stray Currents
Using 2 copper sulfate cells, take soil potential
profile reading in a rosette pattern as necessary.
III. Consulting
A. Contact Corrosion/Maintenance Engineers of operators
I
in area.
1. Oil Transmission Pipelines
2. Gas Transmission Pipelines
3. Gas Distribution Company
4. Telephone Company

232
 5. Water Department
6. Electrical Power Company
7. Manufacturing Plants in area
8. Coirosion Coordinating Comittee
9. Railroad (do nearby railroads have signal systems?
Electrical Propision- AC or DC?)
B. Data to get ftwm those contacted in A.
1. Failure and o-brrpson experience.
2. It catbodic. protection being used?
Rectifier locations?
o3.Personnel to contact for coordination tests-
names, addresses and telephone numbers.
4. Place and time of Coordinating Comittee meeting.
5. In stray current a problem? Its source?
What structures have been affected?
6. Are deicing sIts used in streets?
7. Are underground structures coated?
Wbicb ones?
T~rpe Coating?
Get drawings and/or other location information on
8.
all structures in the area.
Mark tbose otected and 'locations of rectifiers.
9. Are other nw facilities planned for this area?
Utilities, pipelines, etc.
10. Will these new facilities be coated and/or cathod-
ically protected?
11. Is it objectionable to use impressed current cath-
odic protection?
Existing Structures
1. Meeting with A/E or owner.
A. Find out what facilities are to be covered by this
investigation. Also get data on -all others in area.
1., Look for the following:
a. Gas
b. Water
c. Buried electrical and grounding system
d. Buried-communications or signal
e. Tanks
f. Piling
g. Bulhheads
h. Building structural members
i. Other
2. What materials have been used and where?
a. Steel
b. Cast iron
c. Lead
d. Concrete
e. Copper

233
 f. Aluminum
g.Other -
3. Construction 66tbods-used.
s. 'Coatings - TJ,,?
b. Insulation between itructures?
e. Are special fills being used?
'd. Road and riilroad casinga?
Are they insulated?
e. T pe pipe joints - weld, flange, dresser, otber?
f. Type grounding connecting cables?
Layout of structures (distance between those of
varying materials, etc.)?
b. Roadways - Will deicing salts leach down into
buried structures?
Lawns - Their location. Is it objectionable to
install above grade test stavions, etc. in or
near them?
j. Pavement - Its location and type. What buried
facilities will be placed under it?
k. Have test wires been installed on buried struc-
tures?
I. Idere can connections to buried structures be
made? Exposed-valves, sections of pipe, etc.
2. Get complete drawings of all facilities.
1. The following are usually included:
Electrical
Mechanical
c. Communications
d. Fire protection
e. Piling
f. Fueil systems
g. Storage tanks
2. Be sure they are the latest.
7. Ask to be kept advised of any changes.
4. Test station locations.
5. Test station wiring diagrams.
6. Insulation joint locations.
7. Insulation joint types.
C. Ownership of Facilities.
1. Gas, water, power, telephone, etc. -Which are to be
included in project?
Which are "utility owned"?
2. Where does utility's ownership end and plant's
jurisdiction begin?
3. Will the utility install insulation?
4. Are utility companies using cathodic protection?
5. Have the utility company's made any tests or in-
vestigations on the systems covered by this survey?
D. What life does the owner expect from his facilities?
flow many years?

234
 1,. What does a corrosion failure cost? (Xach type
7. Are any facilities extremely critical? (I!* failures
#fi kind to 'be, tolerated because of goat or be-
G. Nav any corrosion failures been expekienood?

2. When (dates)?
3. Vbere?' (Mark On drawings)
#. What was their appearance,?
NNave other failurts occurred?
(iuveStigste to be sure they were not really 'cr-
L Is direct current being used anywbere in tbis plaut-
or nearby?,
I 1. Get complete information on where and why.
'2. Wiring diagrams and soemtics.
3. ethod of grounding!
J. Are any abandoned facilities'located in tbe vicinity?4
(Metal Vipen, etc. ight be used as groundbeds.) Are
tbey connected or to be connected to anything else?
K. Are additional facilities planned? (Iimediate or
long range)- If so-* get information.
1. ?ype and methods of construction.,
2. Probable location.
3. How itill they be connected to existing facilities?
4, Will direct current be uped?
11,I Field Tests
A. Soil Resistivity
If-site is uniform, take 5' and 10' (usual depth
of buried-structures) readings at suitably spaced
grid, (20' and 100' readings may be required.) Do
not exceed 100' spacing with Vibroground instrment..
If route of piping or structure known, follow route.
Take readings of fill, if any.,
B. soil PH
Take pH at same places resistivity, if soil is moist.
C. Soil Samples and/or Water (steam riser etc.)
Take samples for sulfides and. sUlfate Zand pH) at
representative grid locations. (M5in. a6)
D. Structure-to-Soil Voltage (at descretion of engineer).
1. Thorough test of bare structure requires one over
structure 'and one on each side every 25.
2. Coated Structure-less frequent.,,
E. I.R, Drop (get at least one onevery structure.)
1. Always test external circuit resistance.
2. Correct readings if necessary.
'3. Be sure to indicate polarity of all readings.
P. Voltage betweeit structures. Test voltage between all
tetallic structures. (Be sure to indicate polarity

235
 -of eacb readii,)
G. Insulatint Joint- Test resistance of a11 known and-
look for others.
1. Use four connectionz-(two on each side of joint)
witb D. C. Method. A
.0 Mechanical' pipe Joi'-ts.
L, Test each piping system to find if mec wnal
Joints exist.
2. Test representative number of mechanical joints to
determine quantitative resistance per joint.'
35. Be sure to use four point :contact metbod witb di-
rect current..
I. Electrical and codmunications cables in duct.
i. All, electrical tests at each manbole.,
a. As in D, E, end F (above),.
L. Be sure to test voltage between all cables in
multiple run duct systems.
2. Visually inspect a11 hardware in each manhole.
a. Brackets
b. Bonds ofcbe
c. Condition of cables
d. Not6 material of each component and its condition
e. Note fastening methods and insulation between
compobnnt_ - -
J. St:ay Cudient Investigation
16 Stray currents will be indicated by abnormal struc-
ture-to-soil voltages and/or IR drop. (Either
steady or fluctuating.)
2. If stray current is suspected, investigate:
9. Any possible source of direct current in area.
b. Operating cathodic protection.
Have its
3. lish on any turned
affe ct source
suspected off and on to estab-
structure. ,'
4. Get additional IR end voltage readings to estab-
lish circui;.
K. Current reauirement tests (for cathodic protection).
At least cursory current requirement tests should
usually be conducted if there is any chance of using
cathodic protection at the site.
1. Test using artificial groundbed for both magnesium
anode and impressed current design.
2. Extent of testing will be determined by scope of
work laid out by client. (Is all design data to be
included witl, this survey?)
L. Existing cathodic protection.
1. Visually inspect all equipment.
2. Test to determine protection being afforded and
possible interference to other structures.
3,. Get operating record.
4. Find out when installed and turned on.
M. Miscellaneous - Note any other corrosion problems.
(chemical, water, atmospheric, etc.) which could use

236
 ,fuzrtber detailed staft.

*A* 'COtest -all plant perloanel who beow knovtleale of

itrstires being studied ad get all pm-ibi.* ir,-
fermiation from them.
D. Cotact Corrosion/'Waintenmznce Eninftrs or operators
Oil frnmasion Pipeline

f:4*1phn Oopz
6,
-"a Transmission ftpelin..

5.Watei Deparfiaint
Electrical 1-wr Company
7. Hanufacturi!O"Pats in r
8.* -CoVrosion COOr~tinating -Committee
9-Rail*Oa4- (DO nearby railivads bay. signal sBystems?
Electrical PrOpulsion. - AC or DO?)
C. Data tO gst from those contacted-in B..
Pilure adcorrosion experience,,
Fa
2.
1s cathodic protect-lon bi*ng used? Type? Recti-
fier Locations?
3. Personnel to contact for -coordination tests -- names,
addresses and-telephone numbers.
4. Place and tine 'Jocoordinating Committee sting.
5. Is stray current a problem?
Its source?
What structures have been affected?
6. Are deicing salts used in street*?
7. Ave underground structures coated1?
Which ones?
Ty*pe Coatig?
8.Get drawings and/or other -location information on
all structures in the area. Mark those protected
and locations of rectifiers.
9. Are other new facilities planned for this area?
Utilities, pipelines, etc,
10. Will these new facilities be~ coated and/or cathod-
ic~lly protected?
*11. 18 it objectionable to use impressed current cath-
odic-protection.

237
 a,

~. A

s ed.|
eUt-, .actor.
. 42

att, protection f ............................ •4.3

, u......................................... 10.6,29).3)

ahtinum ...... 5.1 3.

anorinu................ 424.2.4

•ibbon 5 1 le(5)

ribbon .. o............. .... 5-1-2n (:0)

rondbed .......................................... 3..

curpi1.v.............o.........................4.3.
impt-essed cur.rent ............ 42

aluminum ......... o.......... ..........

o . .. . ..o. 4 2.4
vast, iron .. .. .. .. ... . . . - . ......... 4.2.2o3

button ..... o..... 0..0 ....... ......... o. .4.2 3a

duct -8 4.2.3a
Installation ........... o...... 10.6.2a

la . .................... .... .o.... o............... 4.2o7

pl-Iat; num ........ ...... ..... .. ............. o. ..... 4o2.5

1e miu
rt .. oo ... o . .. oeeoo
. .....
ee ee .o
. . o..o. 4. 6
 ParWaph

locatio., to avoid interferene ................... 3.1.1

packaged44O*4~@4**4# .............................

B,
Backf iU1, arnoft 7-5

alvanic ane ......... 7.5.2

i. iresed current anode ..................... 4.3.4, 7.5.1

MA~~e aim Aniodes **.******.*.... 5.1.1d

zinc anodes ...... 5.1.2d

recoiace si.. ........... ... .. ... ....... 7.

Beirsste d .e.. 7.5.2

Ourrent 3.1.2

drainage ............ 3.1.2

installation ... 107

resistance '3.1.2

wires ................................ 7.7.2b

Breakdown volt age ................ .................. 4.2o6

Cable ......... o.......o....o...........o............ 4.3.1, 7.7

connection to structure ................ 4.3.1

econoinic wire size ........... .... " 7.7.3

impressed cuirrent cathodic protection ............. 7.7.2d

239
 K. .

I.nstallat.ion ... 10:6.2b

Insulation .............. a... .c.......... 7.7.1

rpcli fier positive .a . ... .. 1, 7.7

4..1.....

anales ... ............ ............ 4i-A+2.2.3

criteria for cathodic protection of ............... 2.4.2

1
hh dic -vrotection
Ci enjs0q-(;tts
o . ..... ................. 1-.2
i.

To ....... 5...................... 2

JIscription ........ , .. 1

design .......... ........

eyxpples of .... . . ...... 8

ie weasurennts for 7.2.3

.. ples of systems ..................... .... 6

galvarLic ...................... ...... .. 1.2.2,.5

advantages of .................................a.5 .3
vs. impressed current ...-. ...... ............... 1.2
gasoline service station .............................. 6

hyvdrant refueling system ............................. 6

*hydraulic elevators .............. .......... I........ 6

ihwrzu
sed current ........................... 1.2.2, 4

advantages of".. ...................................... 4.4

installation .................................... 10.6.2

malantenance .................................. ...... 11

IIIIlip],e, low output ifts ........................... 4

4.4.3

2,40
 opflwwa,tObOm cooler . ~ ... ****. 0****.* 6

• tank spors ,- 6
senig tor .................. .................... 3

t~ai ft
*.e... taio . .....
*.* .. **000r*.**e* 6
) Coatints
* applicationi .... *... ... ... . .... ... .. .~0.*** 10.1.1

Couplng, reitac ........ 3-1.

. 32
disbonding .... *......*... .*****..***.....**

Coke breeze .......... ........ 000........*............... . 3,

Copper, criteria for cathodic protection of ...... ... 2.4.4

Corrosion coordinating committee 9...............C

Couonzi ... istance.. ......... .. *......... ....... 2

Current3.:

autrut, galvanic anode...................... ............. 7.4.3

e0D

DeeD anodes ...... ............................ 3.1, 4.4.1

Current 7.2.2
Deterioration rates anode ..................................

Distributed groundbed ..................... ............ ....... 4.h.2

 Paragraph LI
EpoiW encapsulation .............................. .2A3b.
Equipotential lines ................................. 3.1
-G

Gas distribution system ........

**. **.......... ........ 8
Gas main ............................ .. ... . . . ..

Graphite, anodes ..... .2.1

O,, sum ......... . ....... ~ ~ ,,eo * o o e o o-o o
-ooo~o ? 5.2
H

Ialf-cell ........................... (see Reference Electrode)

Heating distribution system ............................. .. 8

Holiday detectors ................... ...... . ....... 10.1.1
Hydrant refuel.ing system .............................. 8

, 'ngen, embrittlement ............................... 3.2

I
Installation, cathodic protection .... ......... 10

bonds ......................... ............ ....... N .7

cables .... .............. ........ 10.6.2b
cast iron anodes ......................... 10.6.2bj

deen anode ................................... l0.6.2a(3)

impressed current .............................. 10o.6.2

insulating flange ..... ......................... 10.4

magnesium anode ................................ 10.6.1

nipeLine casings .................................. 10.2

test access holes ................................. 10.5

test station ...................................... 10.5

242
 Paragraph
Insulation, flange .0.

Interference .... .......................... >. 1

mitiglocation ................................... 1.1.

Kelvin's Law o........... .......................... 7.3

Lead anodes ......................................... 4.2.7

N

Magnesium anode ..................................... 5.1.1

)aintenance o.

NACE Standard o ........................ ... 2.4, 2.4.1

P
PH . o. . . .o. . . . . .. . . 0 0 - . . . .o - 3.3

Pipe

casings ........................................... 10.2

crossings ........................................... 10.3

surface area ... o.................... ................. 7.1

Platinum, anodes ....................... ................ .4o2.5

Potential structure-to-electrolyte ..... . ..........

* .. 2.h
R

Rectifiers ... ................... 4........*............ 4.1.1

circuits ... .............. ......... .......... .. o.. 4.l.lb

constant current ............. .1. 0 *............... . 4.1.lc(l)

efficiency ..............
. .... .............. 1.a2)

elements ................ 4..la(2)

.............................
filters .... ..... -... 41.1d(4)
installaton.............. .................................. 1.
10.6.2c

203
 Paragraph
Reference electrode, silver-silver chloride 4.2.6
19.;i stan- -i

anode-to-elctrolute ............ 7.2.1-, 7.4 7.-4-1, 7.4.2

t,,la] ,.athodic protection circuit ................... 7.2.1

lsi.s '.,st- .o ............. . . . . . ............. .. .. ..- 3.3
,, . .. . .I... . ............ ... . .6.2

AC ............... **.... *..** 4.l-la(2)

vaLhodi e protection ................. 3.

,oaril....................................... 4.1.4
"Q i n!li d . ... ...... 00 0 .l .l a(2 ), 4 .l
.ld (7 )

rSIices3, :abh: .......... .................. .. 7.8

...... .......................... .........

*.. ..... . 2.4.2
'-I L'e ... oe • • o .........
e • o .. .. .. . .. .. . 2.4.6ee•o• '

IIi
 Paragraph{
Tu~T

un~.rgroud ................ .. e.e................ 8

wter '.7.4.2b(1), 8

Test access holes ....................................... 10.5

Test stations, installation ............................. 10.5

~~Thermit muld ........... 06.1

Thermoelectric generator .. o ............... ........ 4.1.2

Zinc .......... ..
.... .... .o.....o.....
. . .......
. ..... 5.1.2
7..

i.

. 265 I
!,lil,....5