SMA4803 Guide Combined Learning Units

PREFACE
A warm welcome to the module, Management of Prevention through Design (SMA4803).

We are very excited to share this module with you and looking forward to working with
you.
This study guide serves as an extension to the prescribed book for SMA4803. The
purpose of the study guide is not only to supplement the prescribed book, but to introduce
practical aspects of ensuring safety compliance and excellence in the workplace. We
encourage you to complete all the activities in the study guide and on myUnisa. The
activities will provide you with insight and conceptual skills as well as a new way of
thinking and applying knowledge. It is very important to use the study guide as it will
guide you through the prescribed textbook.
The module will provide you with knowledge and skills related to the principles of the
management of prevention through design within the South African context. This implies
developing skills to identify and manage hazards and risks from a safety perspective.
Aspects of safety management systems, ergonomics, prevention and management of
prevention will be covered in this module. Learning unit 1 will focus on facilitating the
design, implementation and evaluation of a safety management system from a safety
perspective. This include an introduction to the fundamentals of the science of safety,
safety leadership, organisational elements and the working environment.
The following diagram illustrates the main topics and specific learning units of this module:
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LEARNING UNIT 1
The science of safety management systems (SMSs)
Design, implementation and audit of safety management systems regarding
safety leadership and organisational elements
LEARNING UNIT 2
Safe design
Hazard identification, engineering controls and risk reduction
LEARNING UNIT 3
Prevention through ergonomics
Design, implementation and audit of an ergonomic safety programme
LEARNING UNIT 4
Managing prevention through the workplace environment conditions
Design, implementation and audit of a good housekeeping programme
LEARNING UNIT 5
Prevention through recording and reporting
Design, implementation and audit of recording and reporting systems
LEARNING UNIT 6
Job safety analysis (JSA) as part of the safety process
Design, implementation and audit of job safety analysis as part of the safety
process
Figure 1.1: Module structure
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The purpose of the study guide is not only to supplement the prescribed book, but to
introduce practical aspect of safety systems within the workplace. It is very important to
acquire the prescribed textbook for this module. The study guide is based on the following
prescribed textbook, and must be studied in conjunction with it:
McKinnon, RC. 2020. The design, implementation and audit of occupational health and
safety management. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group.
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LEARNING UNIT 1: SCIENCE OF SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Learning outcomes
On completion of this learning unit and chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 in the prescribed
textbook, you should be able to:
1. Define a safety management system (SMS) and elaborate on the key

components of an SMS across industries.
2. Define terminology linked to a safety management system and provide relevant
examples.
3. Contextualise safety management systems for South Africa.
4. Explain the philosophy of safety.
5. Clarify the design of a safety management system and discuss the basic
components of such a system.
6. Critically evaluate the safety management systems of given organisations.
7. Outline the key elements of the management functions during the design and
implementation of a safety management system.
8. Plot and record the implementation of a safety management system.
9. Substantiate the importance of auditing a safety management system and
distinguish between the different types of audits.
Key concepts
Safety management system
Safety hazards
Safety risks
Standards
Legislation
SHEQRS
4
Risk assessment
Plan, do, check, act (PDCA) cycle
1.1 Introduction
Li and Guldenmund (2018) define a safety management system (SMS) as a management
process which include management procedures, elements and activities with the aim of
improving safety performance within an organisation. The SMS will include policy,
objectives, plans, procedures, responsibilities and measurements to manage safety
hazards and risks which form part of any workplace (Thomas, 2012). Thomas (2012)
provides the basic components of a SMS as:
• the identification of safety hazards
• the remedial action to maintain safety performance
• the continuous monitoring and assessment of safety performance
• the continuous improvement of the overall performance of the SMS
Fernández-Muñiz et al (2007) elaborate on the key components of a SMS across

industries as:
• the safety policy, including the organisation’s commitment to safety, the formalising
principles, objectives, strategies and guidelines
• the incentives for employee participation in safety initiatives to promote safe
behaviour and employee involvement in decision processes
• the training and the development of employee competences
• the communication and information exchange regarding risks and risk controls
• the planning and addressing of prevention and emergency response
• the control and review of organisational activities
Valdez Banda et al (2019) claim that a SMS is not only used to assess organisational
safety performance but also to assess the well-being of people, property and natural
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environment. Valdez Banda et al (2019) further explain that a SMS must fulfil the
applicable regulatory standards as well as those standards and aims of the organisation.
Li and Guldenmund (2018) state that organisations differ and that the applicable
standards used in an organisation will affect how the SMS is implemented and how audits
and regulatory compliance are performed by each organisation.
Looking at the above, it is clear that a safety professional needs to know what a SMS
entails and that all SMSs are unique to each organisation and vital across all industries.
The focus of this learning unit and chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 in the prescribed textbook
is on safety management systems overview, including the different terminology used, the
philosophy of safety, the design, implementation and auditing of SMSs and the
management principles that apply to the implementation of SMSs.
1.2 Safety management systems overview in a South African context

In line with the South African Constitution, South Africa has different legislation to protect
the workforce and other individuals present in a workplace. This legislation includes the
Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) Act 85 of 1993; the Mine Health and Safety Act
29 of 1996; the South African Maritime Safety Authority Act 5 of 1998; the National
Railway Safety Regulator Act 16 of 2001; the Civil Aviation Act 13 of 2009 and the
National Road Traffic Act and Regulations Act 93 of 1996. The OHS Act 85 of 1993 directs
industries to comply to regulations and provide a safe and healthy workplace. Non-
compliance with the OHS Act and other safety legislation can have devastating
consequences in the form of accidents, injuries and loss of life. The legislation serves as
a minimum requirement employers and individuals must comply with. In order to make
the legislation more effective, different SMSs have been developed to assist
organisations to implement and comply with the legislation (Nortjè 2019).
Some SMSs have been developed by specific organisations, such as the NOSA Five-
Star 5 system<<Author: Please confirm this. MM>> and the South African Bureau of
Standards that adopted the ISO 45001:2018 as SANS 45001:2018. These are merely
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two most known SMSs used in South Africa. International standards for health and safety
were developed by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), British
Standard for Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems (OHSAS) and
American National Standards Institute (ANSI). As previously explained, every
organisation is unique and can use existing SMSs or develop their own, based on existing
SMSs.
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Activity 1.1 Safety management system terminology
Complete the following crossword puzzle relating to the terminology used in the textbook,
(Chapter 1) and study guide. 7
4 S
5 A 10
F
1 E
T 8
Y 9
6
M A N A G E M E N T
S
Y
S
3 T
E
2 M
Across
1. Risk assessment, inspection, ladder safety and so on.

2. Undesired event that could result in harming people and property damage
3. Legislation
4. American National Standards Institute
5. Collection of planned activities
Down
6. National Occupational Safety Association

7. Unplanned, waste of any resource
8. Physical harm as a result of an accident
9. Accident often called an ________________
10. Detail what must be done, how often must it be done and who must do it
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1.3 The philosophy of safety
Long (2015) explains that philosophy is the study of existence, beliefs and ideas and that
the general approach to the philosophy of safety begins with prevention of accidents and
loss. McKinnon (2020) goes so far in stating that safety is synonymous with injury,
accident, risk and loss.
Unfortunately, this proposition is due to the fact that in any workplace human activity can
lead to accidents and incidents. The notions of “absolute safety”, “safety first” and “zero
harm” are desirable and one should remember that safety is about reducing risks to a
tolerable level. This is certainly not an easy task as safety is also considered an
uncertainty, unreliability, brings change, randomness and the presence of hazards and
risks. McKinnon (2020) therefore suggests that safety and its management is not a
precise science. The nature, design, amount of control and management of safety needs
to be based on sound estimation.
Safety is a management function and is therefore the responsibility of an organisation’s

management. The key factor in SMSs is management leadership and involvement as the
management of an organisation has the authority and ability to create a safe and healthy
workplace (McKinnon, 2020). SMSs provide a framework in guiding management in
controlling potential loss and to set standards. These SMSs will serve as a system’s
approach in preventing loss and will include identifying and controlling health and safety
risks within any type of workplace. It is important for an organisation to determine the type
of SMSs that will serve the uniqueness of the type of organisation. Some organisations
might use integrated SMSs that include environmental management systems, quality
control systems, reliability systems (SHEQRS).
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Discussion 1.1: Safety management systems
Read the article of Group Five’s SHEQ policy, available at:
http://www.g5.co.za/sus_she.php and the SHEQ policy of Mashova Group, available at:
https://www.mashova.com/pdf/sheq_policy.pdf. Identify and compare the SMSs use by
these organisations. How do the SMSs of these organisations relate to the SMSs of your
organisation? Explain your answers to your fellow classmates in the discussion forum on
the myUnisa module site.
1.4 Designing a safety management systems

McKinnon (2020) describes a SMS as a framework of policies, processes, programmes
and procedures, all integrated and functioning as a unit. Also, McKinnon (2020) states
that a SMS is a formalised approach to health and safety management and assist in
identifying and controlling health and safety risks. McKinnon (2020) further suggests that
SMSs are interdependent and may consist of different elements, components, processes
or programmes, depending on the type and size of the organisation. The Health and
Safety Authority (n.d.) provides the following basic components of a SMS:
• Management leadership and organisational commitment

• Hazard identification and assessment
• Hazard control
• Work site inspections
• Worker competency and training
• Incident/accident reporting and investigation
• Emergency planning
• Health and safety programme
The first two components will be covered in this learning unit. You can refresh your
memory about the rest of the components at the following websites:
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• Hazard control – the hierarchy of controls by Druley (2018). Available at:
https://www.safetyandhealthmagazine.com/articles/16790-the-hierarchy-of-
controls
• Work site inspections – effective workplace inspections. Available at:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/prevention/effectiv.html
• Worker competency and training – training and competency. Available at:
https://www.coresafety.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/CORESafety-Handbook-
Module5.pdf
• Incident/accident reporting and investigation – accident/incident investigation
guidance. Available at:
file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/Accident__incident_investigation_guidance_for_
managers%20(1).pdf
• Emergency planning – emergency planning. Available at:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/planning.html
• Health and safety programme – elements of an effective health and safety
program. Available at: https://www.kznhealth.gov.za/occhealth/effective.pdf
1.4.1 Management leadership and organisational commitment

An effective SMS will show an organisation’s leadership and commitment through the
written health and safety policy. The health and safety policy need to comply with the
government legislation and the organisation’s own health and safety standards.
Employees must be encouraged to contribute to the writing of the policy and must be
visual throughout the workplace. Furthermore, the organisation needs to clearly
communicate this policy to new employees, transferred employees and any other
stakeholders, such as contractors (CCOHS, 2015).
The organisational management must demonstrate their support of the organisation’s

health and safety, which can be best accomplished if the management are actively and
positively involved in the health and safety training, meetings, inspections, incident and
accident investigations. It is essential that safety is integrated into all operations and
managed as part of the organisational functions (CCOHS, 2015).
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It is essential that health and safety roles and responsibilities for all levels of employment
is well defined and communicated under legislation and organisational standards. There
must also be clear management expectations and consequences (McKinnon, 2020 &
CCOHS, 2015).
With the implementation of a SMS, the first activity is to achieve desired results, which
include the design, maintenance, timelines and determining milestones (McKinnon,
2020). McKinnon (2020) provides the following key elements with the design and
implementation of a SMS:
Table 1.1: Key elements of the management functions during the design and
implementation of a SMS
Key elements Management function
• A planning tool – assisting management to:
 cope with future uncertainty
 use past data and analysis of trends
 use past trends to predict future safety performance
 form a picture of how the SMS will impact the opportunity
to reduce risk in the future
Safety forecasting • Is a predictive activity to estimate the probability,
frequency and severity of accidents that may happen in
future.
• Forecasting tools include:
 risk assessment
 critical task identification
 task risk assessment
• Allocation of financial and other resources to achieve
safety objectives of organisation’s policy statement.
Safety budgeting • Include allocation of fund for:
 repairs, machine guarding and other safety upgrades
 training costs
• Objectives determine what safety results are desired by
Setting safety objectives organisation.
• Should be upstream objectives
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• Implementation may take up to five years but depends on
what system and programmes the organisation has in
place.
Time related • Objectives are time related and include complete
implementation over time.
• Implementation must be a step-by-step process to avoid
resistance to change.
• Safety policies serve as a deliberate system of principles,
providing guidance and achieving planned outcomes.
Setting safety policies • Serves as implementation procedures, processes or
protocol.
and standards
• All SMSs must have a written policy, standard, procedure,
or programme and must establish the organisation’s
SMS.
• Time frames for the implementation of the SMS and will
Safety scheduling include activity scheduling, for example safety inspection
and training dates
• Based on risk assessment when risks are ranked and
Establishing safety
critical tasks identified.
procedures • Needs to be written procedures, monitored, reviewed and
updated on a periodic time frame.
(Source: McKinnon, 2020 – adapted by author)
1.4.2 Hazard identification and assessment

The management of safety hazards require an understanding of hazards in order to
identify, evaluate, control and assess them. The identification of hazards is a proactive
process in reducing loss. Hazard identification involves determining what parts of an
activity, system or project constitute a hazard. Hazard identification is an ongoing,
systematic process throughout the life cycle of a system, but is especially vital at the
conceptual and design phases of a system (van Loggerenberg, 2019).
McKinnon (2020) explains that different safety hazard identification methods can be used
to identify hazards in a workplace. Risk assessment of the identified hazards will assist in
determining the potential probability, frequency and severity of loss. Risk assessment is
therefore one of the key elements in a health and safety management system (McKinnon,
2020).
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McKinnon (2020) propose the following steps in the risk assessment process and how
each step is linked to the risk management process (Figure 1.2):
Risk assessment Risk management process
Hazard • Identify all pure risks in workplace and connected to

identification operations
Risk analysis • Thorough analysis of the risk (consider: frequency,

probability and severity of consequences
Risk
• Implement the best techniques for risk reduction
evaluation
Risk control • Deal with risk where possible
Re- • Monitor and re-evaluate continuously

assessment
Figure 1.2: Link between risk assessment and risk management process
1.5 Implementation of a safety management system

The implementation of a SMS may take years and an organisation needs to establish the
status of existing health and safety controls, identify the standards, systems, processes
and reviews of the existing SMSs. This can be done by a baseline audit where given
standards such as SANS and/or international standard, such as ISO are used. Legal
compliance audits will also assist in improving an existing SMS. SMS standards are the
written standards, policies, procedures of activities and how often action must be taken.
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SMS standards will include the objectives, set standards of performance, responsibility
and prescribed actions needed. It is important that the legal requirements always serve
as the minimum standards and the ideal is to exceed the minimum legislative
requirements.
Example:
The National Building Regulations (NBR) of South Africa set out the minimum
requirements for stairs and stairways in SANS 10400. The minimum requirements
regarding safety are:
“Any stairway, including any wall, screen, railing or balustrade to such stairway, shall:
(a) be capable of safely sustaining any actions which can reasonably be expected to
occur and in such a manner that any local damage (including cracking) or
deformation do not compromise its functioning;
(b) permit safe movement of persons from floor to floor; and
(c) have dimensions appropriate to its use.”
This means that all the elements relating to stairways and stairs must be properly
designed, referring to and read in conjunction with Part B of the NBR of South Africa
(Janek, 2011).
McKinnon (2020) explains that the implementation of a SMS can be over a long or a short
period. Usually organisations tend to implement a SMS that consist of high-risk elements
later, therefore over a longer period. This may be due to financial constraints; results are
not visible immediately or safety is taking a relative low priority in such organisations. In
general, most organisations start with a short-term objective and relatively inexpensive
implementation. For example, a housekeeping programme, which can be implemented in
a short period, is relatively inexpensive, show immediate results and would have a
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positive effect on employees. Whether an organisation decides to implement a SMS over
a long or short period, its planning is needed.
Health and
safety
objectives
Establish
safety Safety
procedures forecasting
Safety
planning
Safety Safety
budgeting policy
Safety
scheduling
Basic management functions include planning, organising, leading and controlling and
are applied during the planning and implementation of a SMS (McKinnon, 2020).
Figure 1.3: Functions of safety planning

Safety organising includes safety activities, processes and programmes that are
integrated in the normal daily management processes of an organisation and under no
circumstances must a SMS be regarded as a standalone system (McKinnon, 2020).
Safety leading involves an organisation’s management to entrust safety responsibility and

authority to subordinates to manage the health and safety of the organisation. This safety
delegation provides employees the authority to participate in the SMS processes and
programmes, such as the reporting of hazards, participation in safety committees and
inspections. With safety delegation safety relationships are created which will ensure that
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safety is carried out by employees, management support the health and safety initiatives
and objectives of the organisation.
Another important function of safety leading is safety communication. All safety issues
regarding the SMS process must be clearly communicated. It is important to remember
that communication must be two-way, meaning that there must be feedback and not only
information given. A communication system containing the SMS standards, policy and
other information will keep the employees informed and provide them the opportunity to
provide feedback on the SMS (McKinnon, 2020).
The next management function is safety controlling which includes seven steps:
Table 1.2: Steps for safety controlling with implementation of SMS

Steps Safety controlling
• Based on risk assessment done
• Manager list and schedule work to be done for
1. Identification of implementation of SMS
risks and safety • Eliminate high-risk acts and work
work to be done • Based on the nature of the business
• Must be management-led and audit-driven
• Must be applied according to the SMS planning phase
• Measurable management performance
2. Set standards of
• Must be in writing and include SMS elements, processes,
performance
procedures or programmes
measurement
• Must include performance levels
• Delegating safety authority to certain positions
• Creates responsibility and accountability for safety
• Co-ordinate and management of SMS elements,
3. Set standards of processes and programmes to certain departments and
accountability individuals
• Standards dictate who must do what and when to
implement and run the system, for example fire
extinguisher maintenance (floor supervisor for work area)
• Include: safety inspections, workplace conditions, work
activities
4. Measurement • Must include a formal system of measurement for
against standards comparison to the organisational standards and best
practice
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• Results of measurement methods are quantified in the
form of percentage allocated, marks given or ranking
5. Evaluation of established.
conformance • Internal and external safety audits can be used
• Scores will indicate deviation from the prescribed
standards set, compliance to standards achieved
• Corrective action will be determined by amount of
deviation from set standards
• May involve enforcing safety standards and taking action
to regulate and improve used methods
6. Corrective action
• Standards must be established for corrective actions
• May include: better communication, training, feedback on
safety performances, modification of procedures,
standards, programmes and processes
• Employees must get recognition for adherence to
achievements
7. Commendation • Recognition for desired behaviours must be introduced –
e.g. a traveling trophy for good housekeeping and annual
safety award presentations and so on.
A method that can be used to implement and monitor the progress of a SMS is the plan,
do, check, act (PDCA) cycle. The PDCA is interactive process and consists of four stages.
It is focused on continuous improvement of processes, products, services and resolving
problems. The PDCA is used to systematically test a SMS for possible solutions, assess
results and implement SMSs that proof to be effective (McKinnon, 2020).
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Do
Plan
Collect information
Identify and determine
risks Implement the SMS
plan,
Establish objectives,
processes and actions Start SMS processes,
training, set SMS
(SMS design phase)
standards
Act Check
Corrective action to Inspection and
rectify deviation from measurements acainst
planned achievements standards
Processes are Involves monitoring,
amended, modified and inspection, audit,
improved measurement and
Process of continuous review
improvement (SMS inspection, audit,
(SMS action phase) review phase)
Figure 1.3: PDCA cycle used with implementation of SMS

Activity 1.2 Safety management system implementation

It is important that the progress of the implementation of a SMS is plotted and recorded
and the progress measured on a simple 20% to 100% scale. Referring to your own
workplace, answer the following questions and complete the Safety Management System
Implementation Progress Report (Figure 4.1) in the prescribed textbook.
1. Name the SMS you are evaluating.

2. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the SMS safety performance?
3. Is there written documentation for the SMS?
4. List the available documentation.
5. Complete the SMS progress report (Figure 4.1) in the prescribed textbook.
6. To what degree has the standard and requirements been implemented?
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7. What are the underlying problems? (competence, resources, accountability, etc.)
8. Provide your own solution to the barriers of an effective implementation of the
SMS.
1.6 Auditing of a safety management system

McKinnon (2020) defines the auditing of a SMS as the systematic, critical examination of
all SMSs or a part of a SMS. Auditing of a SMS measures the effectiveness and
emphasises the strengths and weaknesses of the SMS. It is a management tool as it
forms part of a successful business and provides a legal framework for compliance to
legislation. An audit serves as the foundation for continuous safety improvement and will
enhance the organisation’s competitive advantage. An audit must be considered as a
positive step as it is an unintended chance to highlight the organisation’s successes and
raises the opportunity to praise the employees for their excellent work. It is essential to
understand that an audit is NOT a safety inspection. An audit measures safety efforts and
injury rates measure safety failures. It is also important to remember that audit must be
objective to eliminate subjective perspectives and it should be based on hard facts
(McKinnon, 2020).
Activity 1.3 Safety management system audits

McKinnon (2020) distinguish between different types of SMS audits. Use your textbook
and other sources to complete the following table:
Type of audit Baseline audit
• Formal and
thorough
• Regulatory
Description of
requirements
audit
are the
minimum
standard
Guidelines • OHSA 18001
used to reflect • ISO
the standards 45001:2018
20
• Experienced
SMS auditor
• Auditor
Who
accompanied
conducts this
by assistant
type of audit?
auditor with
equivalent
knowledge
Timeframe When required
(frequency) and according
for this type to needs of
of audit organisation
1.7 Conclusion
In this learning unit the focus is on a SMS, which is a system that is designed to develop,
plan, measure, analyse and control the safety performance of an organisation. The SMS
serves as a guide for the effective management of the health and safety of the
organisation. Any SMS requires the involvement of the organisation’s management and
employees and since occupational health and safety is a management function the role
of the organisation’s management is vital. It is the management that can bring about
changes as they have the authority to do so. The principles of management need to be
applied with the implementation and maintenance of a SMS and should form part of the
ongoing daily management of the organisation.
The organisation’s management must lead by example, set the standards, show
commitment in the health and safety of the organisation. It is not only legally required for
the employer to provide a healthy and safe work organisation; it is also required that the
health and safety of the organisation is communicated to all the employees and other
stakeholders. The organisation’s management must put extra effort into safety motivation
as employees need to get recognition for their contribution to the health and safety of the
organisation. It must be clearly understood that the health and safety of an organisation
is not only the responsibility of the top management, but the responsibility of every
employee and other stakeholders as well as for any SMS to be effective.
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1.8 Self-assessment questions
1. Define the term “safety management system”.

2. List the safety management systems used in the organisation you work for and
discuss one of them briefly.
3. Read the information regarding the ISO 45001 standard on the following website:
https://www.certificationeurope.com/certification/iso-45001-occupational-health-
safety/#:~:text=ISO%2045001%20is%20an%20International,preventing%20injur
y%20and%20ill%2Dhealth. You are the safety officer in your organisation.
Elaborate on the ISO 45001 standard and provide reasons why your management
should consider implementing it at your workplace.
4. With the implementation of a SMS, certain steps must be used for its safety control.
Identify these steps.
5. Employees are most of the time resilient to accept change. Discuss resistance to
change with the implementation of a new SMS.
6. You are a welder in a manufacturing plant. Due to an increase in the demand on
the products manufactured, welders are taking chances and short cuts during the
welding processes. You are aware of this and decided to use the PDCA model to
find a solution to the problem. Explain the PDCA steps and how you will apply it to
this scenario.
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1.9 Answers to activities
Activity 1.1
7
4
5 10
1
8
9
A
6 N S I L
P R O G R A M S O
F S S
S M S E L E M E N T S
T A
Y D N
3 A I D
M A N A G E M E N T A
2 O A C R
S S G I D
A Y E D S
S E
A C T N
E T
N E A R M I S S
Activity 1.2
The following serves as an example. You should apply your own answers according to
what SMS you are evaluating at your workplace.
1. Name the SMS you are evaluating.

Machine safety – machine guard on wood drill press
2. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the SMS safety performance?
Wood drill press is a power-driven woodworking machine and among the
most dangerous machinery used in the industry. It must be equipped with
essential safety devices. Used for a number of woodworking tasks such as
drilling, sander and so on. All guards should be in place and in good working
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order. The work zone is identified with the appropriate signage. Operators
are trained and have the minimum requirements to operate the machine.
3. Is there written documentation for the SMS?
Yes
4. List the available documentation.
• Safe operating procedure (SOP)
• Equipment maintenance records (EMR)
• Training, induction and experience register of operators
• Organisation health and safety policy
• Incident/accident records
• Safety inspection records
5. Complete the SMS progress report (Figure 4.1) in the prescribed textbook.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
6. To what degree has the standard and requirements been implemented?

Between 60 – 80%
7. What are the underlying problems? (competence, resources, accountability, etc.)
• Competence ̶ training of employees
• Resources and accountability ̶ management engagement and
commitment to safety
8. Provide your own solution to the barriers of an effective implementation of the
SMS.
• New and non-experienced operators must undergo more than
inductive training
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• Management should be more focused on the work done by operators
on the wood drill press and not assume that the hazards and risks
are dealt with. – Should look at ergonomics – for example,
workstation design according to the physical appearance of
operators.
Activity 1.3
Type of
Internal Independent / Compliance
audit Baseline audit
audit external audit audit
• Formal and • Formal • Formal and • Formal audit

thorough and objective to measure
• Regulatory objective • Disclosures compliance
requirements • Auditing are bare facts against local
are the separately • Based on and national
Description minimum from corrections regulatory
of audit standard normal and requirements
employee improvements
function that need to
be done in
future
• OHS Act 85 • OHS Act • OHS Act 85 of • OHS Act 85

Guidelines of 1993 85 of 1993 1993 of 1993
used to • OHSA 18001 • ISO 9001 • Depending on • Depending
reflect the • ISO • ISO 14001 the type of on the type
standards 45001:2018 • OHSAS business of business
18001
• Experienced • Internal • Expert Same as
SMS auditor employee agencies with internal and
• Auditor with well-trained, external
Who accompanied training in experienced auditing
conducts by assistant health lead auditors
this type of auditor with and safety • Technical
audit? equivalent as well as safety experts
knowledge auditing • SMS audit
specialist
Timeframe When required • Every six • Annually • Annually

(frequency) and according months
25
for this to needs of • When
type of organisation required and
audit according to
needs of
organisation
1.10 Recommended reading

Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 in McKinnon, RC. 2020. The design, implementation and
audit of occupational health and safety management. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group.
Bahr, NJ. 2014. System safety engineering and risk assessment: a practical approach.
2nd edition. USA: Taylor and Francis.
26
References
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). 2013. Effective
workplace inspections. Available from:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/prevention/effectiv.html [Accessed on 12 August
2021].
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). 2015. Basic OH&S
program elements. Available from:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/basic.html [Accessed on 06 September
2020].
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). 2017. Effective
workplace inspections. Available from:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/prevention/effectiv.html [Accessed on 12 August
2021].
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). 2019. Emergency
planning. Available from: https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/planning.html
[Accessed on 12 August 2021].
Coresafety. 2012. Training and competence. Available from:

https://www.coresafety.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/CORESafety-Handbook-
Module5.pdf [Accessed on 12 August 2021].
Druley, K. 2018. The hierarchy of controls. Available from:

https://www.safetyandhealthmagazine.com/articles/16790-the-hierarchy-of-controls
27
Fernández-Muñiz, B, Montes-Peón, JM, Vázquez-Ordás, CJ. 2007. Safety management
system: development and validation of a multidimensional scale. Journal of Loss
Prevention in the Process Industries, 20(1):52–68. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2006.10.002.
Janek. 2011. SANS 10400. Available from https://www.sans10400.co.za/stairways/

[Accessed on 08 September 2020].
KZN Health Department. n.d. Elements of an effective health and safety program.
Available from: https://www.kznhealth.gov.za/occhealth/effective.pdf [Accessed on 12
August 2021].
Li, Y & Guldenmund, F. 2018. Safety management systems: A broad overview of the
literature. Safety Science, 103:94-23. DOI:10.1016/j.ssci.2017.11.016.
McKinnon, RC. 2020. The design, implementation and audit of occupational health and
safety management. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group.
Nortjè, N. 2019. History of occupational health and safety in South Africa. Available from:
https://www.saiosh.co.za/news/449742/History-of-Occupational-Health-and-Safety-in-
South-Africa.htm [Accessed on 04 September 2020].
Thomas, MJW. 2012. A systematic review of the effectiveness of safety management

systems. Available from: https://www.atsb.gov.au/media/4053559/xr2011002_final.pdf
Valdez Banda, OA, Goerlandt, F, Salokannel, J & van Gelder, PHAJM. 2019. An initial
evaluation framework for the design and operational use of maritime STAMP-based
safety management systems. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 18:451-476. DOI:
10.1007/s13437-019-00180-0.
28
Van Loggerenberg, F (ed). 2019. Occupational health and safety management. Cape
Town: Juta.
29
LEARNING UNIT 2: SAFE DESIGN
Learning outcomes
On completion of this learning unit and chapters 3, 4, 10 and 13 in the prescribed
1. Explain the concept “safe design”.
2. Investigate the elements and principles of safe design.
3. Examine safety planning by design.
4. Relate working environment conditions to the design of work areas.
5. Apply the concepts of risk reduction through design.
6. Examine the hierarchy of hazard controls with the emphasis on engineering
control.
7. Give a synthesis of HIRA.
8. Interpret and analyse hazard reduction methods.
9. Analyse risk reduction strategies.
Key concepts
Design
Safe design
Hazard identification
Risk assessment
Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993
Hazard identification and risk assessment (HIRA)
Severity (Consequences)
Probability (Likelihood/frequency)
Risk matrix
2.1 Introduction
A workplace consists of structures, machines, substances, products and so on, each

with a lifecycle. The designers of workplace facilities, machinery, products and so on,
therefore need to consider the occupants, operators and end-users, as well as their
health and safety when they create the design.
For more information on safe design, go to the following website with a video clip
(7:15): Safety in design, by Scalar (2019). Available from:
https://scalar.usc.edu/works/design/safety-design.
Unfortunately, the design phase of anything usually lacks the effect the design is going
to have on the occupants, operators and end-users. The ideal would be that safety
forms part of the design processes in the design of anything. Health and safety by
design is a process of managing health and safety risks during lifecycles of structures,
machines, substances, products and so on. Design codes and standards are written
to serve as guidelines for designers when it comes to safety in the workplace
(Worksafe NZ, 2018). The design for safety is not an easy task, for example: an
emergency light that is designed for a stairwell, assist occupants to use the stairwell
with safety in the event of an emergency. Overall, it is a different story for the
installation crew who must install the light and the maintenance staff who must test
and service the light periodically. If the installation and the maintenance of the light
was not considered in the design phase it may pose different hazards and risks.
Architects and engineers (who are considered the main designers) play a vital role
during the design phase to identify and mitigate potential hazards. The new approach
of prevention through design is recommended for continuous safety improvement
(Bhattacharjee, Ghosh & Young-Corbett, 2011).
As said, the ideal would be if safety can start with the design process, unfortunately
this does not always happen and the obligation rests on the organisation to take extra
steps in the prevention of accidents, incidents and occupational illnesses. In this
learning unit, you will learn more about the design of a safety management system,
the elements, components, processes and programmes. The focus will fall on the
principles of safety planning, hazard identification and risk assessment (HIRA)
(chapter 3 of the prescribed book), how the design of the HIRA process and its
implementation plays a role in safe design (chapter 13 of the prescribed book). The
function of safety control (chapter 4 of the prescribed book) and hazard control in a
safety management system (chapter 10 of the prescribed book).
2.2 Elements of safe design
Safe design can be defined as a process where hazard identification and risk
assessment methods are integrating as early as in the design process of a safety
management system. Safe design is therefore all about eliminating or minimising risks
of injury and damage throughout the lifecycle of a system (Safe Work Australia, n.d.).
The design of safety must be considered in the design of buildings, structures,
facilities, hardware, work systems, equipment, workplace layout and configuration,
and products (Worksafe Australia, 2021).
Worksafe NZ (2018) suggests the following benefits if safe design is included in the
planning phase of a system:
• Reduction in work-related ill-health and injuries.

• Reduction of damage to property and environment and the related costs.
• Enhancement of the health, wellbeing and productivity of employees.
• Most effective risk control measure as safe design is all about eliminating
hazards, it is cost effective and manage risks that may appear later in the
lifecycle of the system.
• It will reduce the need for retrofitting, personal protective equipment, health
monitoring, exposure monitoring and maintenance, therefore more cost
effective in the long-run.
• Fulfilment of general legal duties under the Occupational Health and Safety Act
and Regulations.
2.2.1 Principles of safe design
The following principles have an impact on achieving safe design:
1. Persons with Control

Persons with control are usually the decision makers where their decisions will
affect the design of facilities, buildings, processes and products in how
successful their decisions are in promoting health and safety.
2. System lifecycle
The lifecycle of the system from the planning phase to disposal phase and
involves eliminating hazards and minimising risks as early as possible in the
lifecycle.
3. Systematic risk management
The application of hazard identification, risk assessment and risk control
processes to achieve in the design of safety.
4. Safe design knowledge and capability
The designer(s) must have safety knowledge and the capability to be proactive
in the safe design.
5. Information transfer
The effective communication and documentation between everyone involved in
the phases of a lifecycle to transfer information on the design and risk control.
(Hennepin County, 2018)
2.2.2 Process of safe design
Safe design is a systematic process that collaboration between the designer(s) and all
other stakeholders, such as the client, employees, contractors and so on. The
designer(s) must provide information on how health and safety considerations were
incorporated into the design, whose risks were identified through the design process
and how the latter was eliminated or mitigated (Sitesafe, 2019). The safe design
process can be illustrated as follows:
Identify
hazards
SAFE
Review Assess the
controls DESIGN risks
Eliminate
or control
the risks
Figure 2.1: Safe design process
Source: Worksafe Australia, 2021 – adapted and changed
• The first step is identifying hazards which will be relating to all the stages of the
lifecycle of the system, for example hazardous manual handling or violence and
aggression.
• The second step is assessing the risk the identified hazards pose and the
likelihood of causing harm to people, workplace and environment.
• The third step is to implement effective control measures to eliminate the risk
or if elimination is not possible to reduce the risk of harm to an acceptable level,
for example noise reduction and machine guarding.
• The last step is to review the effectiveness of the controls, implemented in the
third step to ensure that the risks will be reduced to an acceptable level.
(Worksafe Australia, 2021)
2.3 Safety planning by design
Safe design begins at the conceptual and planning phase of a system, where the
emphasis is on planning in making the right choices and to eliminate hazards and
mitigate risks. Safety planning must form part of the safety design. A safety plan is a
comprehensive tool that entails a framework for safety practices in a specific activity
or department of an organisation. When a safety plan is designed, the specific action
(job) and department must be considered to provide the necessary information on how
to handle certain situations. Each safety plan will be designed to fit the unique situation
that arise (EHS Insight, 2018) and will include the following in the design process:
• Immediate action to take

• Procedures to secure the area
• Important people to contact regarding incidents
• Methods of communication to alert others about incidents
• Safe handling instructions and application
• Protective gear, such as prescribed personal protective equipment (PPE)
• Evacuation routes
• Reporting and data collection procedures
• Training plans
• Waste or equipment disposal
Blotzer (1999) explains that safety and health begin and belong in the design process
of any product or safety management system as design can reduce exposure to risks,
liability and enhances product or system efficiency. A successful and effective safety
management system of an organisation need leadership, employee engagement and
regular assessment and review, as well as the insurance that risks are dealt with
proportionately and responsibly. For that reason, it is essential that an organisation
consider the following principles when designing a safety plan:
Table 2.1: Principles of safety planning

Leadership (Top
Employee engagement Assessment and review
management)
Visible and active Employee involvement in
Identification and
commitment to health and resolving safety
controlling of safety risks
safety challenges
Employee engagement in Assessing and following
Effective management
achieving health and competent advice (Pro-
structure
safety targets active)
Regular monitoring,
Clear communication Clear communication
reporting and reviewing of
systems (Top to bottom) (Bottom to top)
performance
Integration of health and
safety management with
business decisions
Source: HASpod, 2018 – adapted and changed
These principles will assist in addressing the key areas of safety planning and may
serve as a foundation for safe design.
For the purpose of this learning unit, the safety plan for safe work areas will be
discussed.
2.3.1 Safe design for work areas
The effective and safe design and layout of work areas needs to be first priority for any
designer. The ideal is to reduce risks in the design and construction stage of a work
area. Designers directly influence the health and safety of an organisation’s workforce
and should aim at reducing risks from the start. Verge (2019) suggests that the design
and layout of the work area will determine the health and safety of the workplace and
will determine the flow of operations, and will be part of the safety planning process.
The layout of a work area will affect the efficiency and productivity of the organisation;
therefore, a poor design can be costly and result in wasted time, money and effort and
significantly increase the hazards of the work area. The cost for the poor design and
layout of a work area are significant and may ask for the following:
• to retrofitting and redesign of a hazardous work area

• compensation for injured workers
• insurance levies
• negligence claims
(Source: Verge, 2019)
The benefits of a safe design of a work area include:
• preventing work-related injuries and illnesses

• improving efficiency and usability of the work area
• improving the productivity of employees
• reducing costs
• improving management of production and operational costs
• complying with legislation, regulations and standards
• promoting an innovative way of thinking
(Source: Verge, 2019)

Activity 2.1: Case study
Watch the video: St John of God Hospital Berwick by WorkSafe Australia (2:05).
Available from: https://www.worksafe.vic.gov.au/case-study-st-john-god-hospital-
berwick, and read the article:
1. Discuss the benefits of the design process followed to build this hospital.
2. Name the main role players in the design process of this hospital.
3. Explain how they went about in getting the employees to “buy-in” the design
process.
4. Identify the strategies used to address the key hazards.
Answers will be discussed online on lessons tools.
2.4 Risk reduction through safe design
The definition of safe design clearly stipulates that hazards and risks needs to be
integrated to enhance the health and safety of employees by reducing risks. It is
important to understand the difference and association between a hazard and a risk.
Fit for Work (2016) explains that a hazard is something that can cause harm and a risk
is the chance that any hazard will cause harm. Risk is associated with how much harm
can be caused by a hazard.
To refresh your memory on the difference between a hazard and a risk, watch the
following video: The difference between a hazard and a risk by Holmesglen (2:55).
Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ToaVW4nSdBA
2.4.1 Hazard identification
The Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) Act 85 of 1993 defines a hazard as a
source of or exposure to danger and risk as the probability to injure or damage
something. The OHS Act further states that identifying hazards and evaluating risks
associated with a hazard is mandatory and that employers need to take the necessary
steps to comply with the provisions of the Act. The OHS Act also stipulates that any
person who designs, manufactures, imports, sells or supplies articles to be used at a
workplace must ensure as far as reasonably practicable that those articles are safe
and without risks and comply with the prescribed requirements. McKinnon (2020)
defines a hazard as a situation or behaviour that has potential to cause injury or illness
to people, damage equipment/property or harm the environment.
There are different methods that can be used to identify hazards:
• Hazards arising from unusual jobs

• Identification of accident cause trends
• Analysis of near miss incidents for common root causes
• Workplace inspections
• Checklists that highlight items to look for
• Incident recall sessions
(Source: McKinnon, 2020)
McKinnon (2020) distinguish between two main hazard identification methods,

namely:
Table 2.1: Two main hazard identification methods

Comparative method Fundamental method
Uses: Uses:
• Checklists Tools such as -
• Hazard indices • Hazard and Operability Analysis
• Reviews of historical data techniques (HAZOPS)
• Facilitate inspection and audits • Failure mode and effect analysis
(FMEA)
• Failure mode and criticality analysis
(FMECA)
• Failure logic

To explain hazard identification through design, the following example can be
considered:
Table 2.2: Example of hazard identification through design

Hazard
Problem Risk assessment Safe design
identification
If the air
conditioning units
are installed on the
ground level, the
Installed high on
risk of slip and fall
Air conditioning the double story
is eliminated.
units wall, the risk of slip
Reduces awkward
Installation and and fall are high
positions for
maintenance of air
manual handling.
conditioning units
Reduces
for a double story
maintenance cost
building.
Slip and fall risk
level high if install
Decision makers:
on roof or double Follow regulations
architect, building Ladder
story wall and standards
owner, air
(Installation and
conditioning
maintenance
installer and
Installation of air
maintenance
conditioning units
technician
on the ground
level minimise
High risk level of
Electricity electric shock risk
electric shock
level
Installers and
maintenance
technicians need
to be trained and
take necessary
precautions to
minimise the risk
(Source: Safe work Australia, n.d. – adapted and changed)
2.4.3 Risk assessment
Hazard identification is not enough when it comes to safe design. All the stakeholders
of the design process need to assess the risks associated with the identified hazards.
Risk assessment therefore is the overall process or method used to identify the risk
factors that have the potential to cause harm. These identified risk factors from the
hazards needs to be analysed and evaluated. By analysing and evaluating the risks,
appropriate ways to manage and control it can be determined. It is important to
remember that a hazard that can’t be eliminated, the risk it poses needs to be
controlled (H&SA, n.d.). With a risk assessment, the risks that the identified hazards
pose are assessed to determine the likelihood of harm, such as injury or illnesses and
their severity. When risk assessment is done in the safe design process, the methods
and procedures of specific activities (jobs) and areas will be considered, as well as the
potential exposure of employees. A risk assessment will assess how serious the risks
are and how to manage it through elimination or reduction (H&SA, n.d.).
2.5 Hazard identification and risk assessment (HIRA) process
Hazard identification is the first step in the hazard identification and risk assessment
(HIRA) process (McKinnon, 2020). Emergency Management Ontario (2012) describe
the HIRA process as a risk assessment tool that can be used to assess hazards that
pose the greatest risks in terms of how likely they can occur and how great the
potential impact may be on individuals, property or environment. McKinnon (2020)
further explains that the HIRA process aims at considering the likely future events and
their possible consequences by following the proposed steps:
Step 5
Step 4 Review and

monitor the
Step 3 Record the assessment
findings and and update if
Step 2 Assess risks implement necessary
and control
Step 1 Decide who determine measures
might be control
Identification harmed and measures
of hazards how
Figure 2.2: Steps in the HIRA process
(Source: McKinnon, 2020 – adapted by the author)
Step 1
It is the legal duty of an employer to assess the risk faced by their employees. The
employer must conduct a systematically check for the common classification of
hazards, namely:
• Physical – for example lifting, awkward postures, slips and trips, noise, dust and
machinery.
• Mental – for example workload, working hours, bullying and psychosocial
hazard, such as stress
• Chemical – for example asbestos and cleaning substances
• Biological – for example tuberculosis, hepatitis and other infectious diseases
Step 2
Who is at risk? (Full-time employees, part-time employees, contractors, visitors,
clients, members of the public)
All work locations and situations, the legal requirements, regulations and standards
must be considered.
Step 3
In this step you must assess the risks and take preventive action. The risk must be
reduced to an acceptable level. Remember, not all risks can be removed, and the level
of the risk plays a vital role. The risk levels include high, medium or low.
Step 4
Records of the findings must be in writing and should include details of the hazards
and the action taken to reduce or eliminate the risks. The records must be kept
serving as proof that a risk assessment was carried out and it will also form the basis
for a later review. The risk assessment is a working document and must be
transparent and available for anybody to read.
Step 5
The risk assessment, as a working document, must be continuously reviewed and
updated. This ensures that actions taken are applied and that new working practices,
new machinery or any changes to the work conducted are documented.
(Source: Worksmart, n.d.)
Activity 2.1 Hazard identification and risk assessment (HIRA)
1. Hazards and risks are part of everyday life and need to be understood in
order to control and manage it. Distinguish between hazards and risks.
2. Watch the following video: How sugar is made from sugar beets by
Amalgamated Sugar Company (5:49) https://youtu.be/TDSe-1pdwhY
3. Read the following case study and identify at least three (3) types of hazards
and provide the classification of each.
4. Rate the risk level for each of the hazards named in question 3.
One of the activities involved in processing sugar beet into sugar, involve evaluating
the quality of beet. This process is done by washing the beet with high pressure water
jets in several washers (1:03 – 1:20), before the sugar beet can be sliced and
weighed. The water jets striking on the beet and the rotating cage of each washer, as
well as the hopper causes a continuous noise. This equipment generates a noise level
as high as 107dB. This causes employees working in the direct vicinity of the
equipment and even those working away from the equipment to be irritable because
verbal communication between them were distorted, leading to the reduction of
productivity and an increase in negative human behaviour. Any modifications the
factory considered needed to fit within a very limited space and both the washers and
the hopper which had to be rugged and waterproof. In the end the factory
management decided to implement low-cost modifications such as improved ear
protection for the operators and vibration damping materials.
Source: Health and Safety Executive (HSE), n.d. – adapted and changed
Answers will be online on lessons tools.
2.6 Risk matrix
McKinnon (2020) states that a risk assessment cannot be conducted without a

physical hazard identification inspection, as the risk assessment will be based on the
hazard identification. An on-site inspection needs to be conducted to determine the
physical conditions, the raw products, materials used, processes, machinery and
transportation routes. When the entire site and processes have been inspected, the
exposures to hazards can be performed. Safety inspections can be conducted
internally or externally by the organisation (McKinnon, 2020).
The risks considered in the risk assessment needs to be analysed and evaluated. The
ranking of the risks can be done by using a risk matrix. A risk matrix is a visual diagram
to determine the severity of the risk and whether the risk is sufficiently controlled.
The risk matrix will be explained in more detail in one of the following learning units.
For the purpose of this learning unit, we will only discuss the basics of the risk matrix.
A risk matrix consists of mainly two dimensions, namely severity (consequences) and
probability (likelihood / frequency). Severity in this context refer to in the severity from
the perspective of human life or from the perspective of damage to the facility,
environment, equipment and so on. The severity can be classified for people,
environment, assets and reputation (PEAR). The severity can have an impact on more
than one perspective. Probability refers to the possibility of an event to happen and is
often refer to as the frequency, meaning how many times there is a possibility to
happen (CGE Academy, 2017).
Figure 2.3: Example of a simple risk matrix
(Source: CGE Academy, 2017)
Most risk matrix diagrams consist of the following three areas: (i) the area with a low
probability, indicating in an event the risk is not high; (ii) the area with a medium
probability, indicating in an event, the risk is judged to be monitored, but still controlled
and kept as low as reasonably practicable; and (iii) the area with a high probability in
case of an event and would include severity, indicating that more control measures
should be used to bring the probability or severity of the risk down (CGE Academy,
2017). McKinnon (2020) suggest that employees should be trained to use a simple
risk matrix as this tool will assist in ranking the risks. McKinnon (2020) further suggests
that a risk matrix should form part of the risk reporting system.
Discussion 2.1: Risk assessment
On the discussion forum on the myUnisa module site, name the South African Act that
requires the protection of all people involved in any business and explain your
understanding of this Act and the relationship it has with safety risk assessment.
2.7 Hazard reduction methods
Hazards exist all around us and form part of our everyday life. The control of hazards
in a workplace can be done by a hazard control programme that will provide the
necessary steps to protect employees from exposure to these hazards. Controlling
hazards are not an easy task and will include a risk assessment to evaluate and
prioritise the identified hazards and risks (CCOHS, 2018). The hazards need to be
controlled through reduction methods.
McKinnon (2020) explains that there are five main hazard reduction methods, namely:
• Elimination
 The hazard is completely removed, which will be ideal if it is done in the
design phase, but it is not always possible.
• Substitution
 The hazardous process, substance, chemical is substituted with a safer or
less hazardous one, for example robotics is used in hazardous situations
instead of people or a hazardous chemical is substituted with a less
hazardous one.
 This method is costly and not always feasible as it is an ongoing method.
• Engineering controls
 This method includes the design or modification to equipment, ventilation
systems and processes where engineering can be used to reduce the
source of exposure.
 For example: the barrier between a worker and the hazard will be the
machine guard, which will be part of the design phase of the machine. The
machine guard will be the engineering control.
 Engineering controls are most suitable in controlling hazards as hazard
controls are designed to remove a hazard at the source, meaning that it
prevents the hazard to get to the employee.
 Although engineering controls are initially expensive, in the long run it would
be much more cost effective and feasible for a business.
• Administrative controls
 Administrative controls include controls such as training, schedule times of
exposure and safe work procedure policies for certain task.
 It assists in reducing the duration, frequency and severity of exposure to
hazards and hazardous situations, for example good housekeeping
practices.
• Personal protective equipment (PPE)

 PPE is the final resort when all other controls have been implemented to
reduce hazards.
 PPE will not eliminate or lessen hazards but serves as an additional
reduction of a hazard.
 PPE should not be implemented as the only control for hazard reduction, for
example safety glasses for welding jobs.
2.7.1 Engineering controls
Engineering controls are in most cases more difficult to understand and implement
when we look at the hierarchy of controls. To explain engineering controls from the
concept of the hierarchy of controls, is the closes an organisation can get in eliminating
a hazard without actually eliminating it. Engineering controls are designed to fit in a
specific area. It can be a facility, a piece of equipment, or procedures to reduce a
hazard or the exposure of a hazard to an employee (Simplified Safety, n.d.).
Engineering controls can therefore be defined as a physical modification to a process,
equipment, or installation, aimed at preventing harm to people, environment, and the
equipment or facility (Bullock & Ignacio, 2006). The Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (2015) explain that engineering controls protect workers by removing
hazardous conditions or placing barriers between the employee and the hazard.
Engineering controls are design to minimize interference with employees, productivity
or personal comfort and is therefore more expensive than other controls. Although the
cost of implementing engineering controls is initially high, over the long term it will be
cost saving (Centers for Disease Control, 2015).
Engineering controls are usually implemented to reduce exposure to a chemical or
physical hazard, for example ventilation systems such as a fume hood, sound
dampening materials to reduce noise levels, machine guarding, safety interlocks and
radiation shielding (ILPI, 2021).
Activity 2.3 Hazard reduction
1. Read the article “Hazard prevention & control”, available from:

https://www.michigan.gov/documents/lara/lara_miosha_hazard_prevention_m
sc16_522720_7.pdf
2. A drill press may be a bench-mounted unit or larger self-standing tool. There
are multiple drill presses dedicated to particular working materials such as
wood, metal or plastics. A drill press poses different hazards regardless of the
size. Some of the hazards include:
i) Rotating drill bit – items become entangled in rotating parts, potentially
drawing operator close to wheel/shaft.
ii) Sharp tooling and edges on the workpiece – potential cuts, lacerations,
puncture wounds on operator.
iii) Flying or rotating objects – skin and other bodily injury.
3. Use the information from the article and explain what control reduction methods
you would use to control the hazards mentioned in number 2 above.
2.8 Risk reduction strategies
Some risks are too much to be controlled and the organisation must decide whether
these risks are acceptable or unacceptable. This means that the organisation must
respond to those risks by using different strategies. The general strategies are:
• Risk avoidance
This is the process of avoiding or eliminating a specific threat that is too large
to accept, for example moving of the business to another city, province or
country.
• Risk mitigation
Risk mitigation is the most used strategy by organisations and is the process of
reducing risks by reducing the impact the risk can cause or by reducing the
probability of the risk occurring. This strategy is mostly used when risk control
measures are instituted and the risk cannot be avoided or accepted, for
example implementation of change to a production line.
• Risk acceptance
The consequences of a risk are accepted where the risk exists, and it cannot
be mitigated or changed. If risk acceptance is used, there must be a
contingency plan setting out what would be done if the risk occurs, for example
work with electrical equipment.
• Risk transfer
This strategy is usually used when an organisation decides to transfer the risk
to a third party, for example by insuring it. If the risk occurs, the organisation
paid insurance premiums to an insurance company (third party) that will cover
the financial consequences of the risk.
(Source: SolveXia, 2019)
2.9 Conclusion
This learning unit emphasised safety by design and covers chapter 3, 4, 10 and 13 of
the prescribed textbook. Health and safety by design is a process of risk management
and needs to comply with design codes and standards when it comes to the health
and safety of an organisation. The ideal is for safety to start in the design process as
it will prevent accidents, incidents and occupational illnesses through the management
of hazards and risks. It is vital for designers, such as architects and engineers, as well
as all individuals involved in a business to understand the difference between hazards
and risks. The difference between a hazard and risk is where a hazard has the
potential to cause harm and risk refers to the amount of harm that caused by a hazard.
To determine the harm and the consequences of a hazard and risk, hazards need to
be identified and the risks needs to be assessed and ranked. This process is known
as the hazard identification and risk assessment (HIRA). Hazard identification is a
continuous process and aimed at the continual improvement of safety by constantly
reducing hazards. The risk assessment process aims at considering the likelihood of
occurrence and the possible consequences. Design of safety directly influence the
health and safety of an organisation and should first aim at reducing risks.
Self-assessment – hazard reduction
1. Explain the association between the Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of
1993 and the design for safety.
2. Distinguish between the two main hazard identification methods.
3. Justify the risk reduction strategies.
4. Provide your understanding of a risk assessment.
5. Read the following article.
Flour – safety hazard and risk

Bread, cake, pastries, pudding, cookies, biscuits… all treats to eat with one common
ingredient, namely flour. When these eatables are consumed, flour as a hazard is far
from the mind. A study conducted among workers of 30 different South African
supermarket bakeries found that 25% of those employees were sensitised to flour
allergens and 13% had baker’s asthma (Baatjies, Meijster, Heederik, Stander,
Jeebhay, 2014). Flour, as a hazard poses the following risks:
• Physical risk – the inhalation of flour dust when flour is loaded into mixers,
dusting of flour onto baking surfaces, dry sweeping of flour dust from shelves
and the floor, disposing of empty flour bags.
• Biological risk – flour is contaminated by microorganisms and pests during
harvesting, transportation and production of flour through the grains. The
number of bacteria, yeast and mould on the grains can easily contaminate the
flour. Mould poses the highest risk level as they produce dangerous toxic
metabolites and is usually caused by poor storage of the grain before the flour
making-process. Pests, such as rats and bird residues and faeces are the
main contamination sources for salmonella bacteria’s contamination to flour.
• Chemical risk – chemical contamination of grain includes pesticides and
insect faeces where the latter also contain chemicals. (Erbaş, Arslan & Durak,
n.d). Flour contains naturally chemicals such as alpha-amylase.
Bakers and other employees of bakeries are constantly exposed to allergens flour
dust, especially when weighing, pouring and operating dough mixers. Baker’s
asthma has been reported as one of the major causes of occupational diseases. A
baker is therefore a “high risk” occupation (WorkSafe British Columbia, n.d.).
Sources: Baatjies, et al (2014); Erbaş, Arslan & Durak, n.d. & Work Safe British
Columbia, n.d.) – adapted and changed
5.1 Explain why flour dust poses a risk.

5.2 Identify engineering controls that can be implemented to reduce
exposure to flour dust in bakeries. Explain your choice of controls.
Answers to activities and self-assessment
1. All stakeholders were part of the design, building and commission phases to
eliminate/control the risks of the identified hazards.
2. User groups, health and safety representatives, staff and subject matter
experts.
3. A series of prototype work areas were built and eight weeks of workflow and
scenario testing were done by staff who provided feedback. This was done to
detect any design and safety issues before the actual build started.
4. The strategies used to address the key hazards are the following: <<Author: I
added this sentence; please confirm or review. MM>>
• To reduce manual handling overhead tracking were installed to move
patients from the bed to the bathroom
• Couches which double as beds were installed to maximise space and
reduce manual handling.
• To eliminate manual handling, electronic bed movers were installed.
• To reduce traffic back-up, a u-shape driveway was built at the loading
dock to allow trucks easy entry and exit without turning around.

1. Hazards are potential sources of harm to people, the environment and
equipment.
Risks are the likelihood of hazards causing harm to people, the environment
and equipment.
3. Noise – physical hazard
Stress – mental hazard
Fatigue – mental hazard
4. Noise – high level of risk
Stress – medium level of risk
Fatigue – medium level of risk
Activity 2.3
i) Rotating drill bit – engineering controls (barrier, e.g., machine guard)
Administrative controls (training, procedures)
PPE
ii) Sharp tooling and edges on the workpiece – administrative controls
(training, procedures)
PPE
iii) Flying or rotating objects – engineering controls (machine guard)
Administrative controls (training, procedures)
PPE
Self-assessment – hazard reduction
1. Safe design or the design for safety is clearly stipulated in the OHS Act 85 of
1993 under various regulations. The Act sets the minimum standards of design
and stipulate the duties of designers to ensure the health and safety of an
organisation’s employees.
2. There are two hazard identification methods that can be used, namely
comparative and fundamental methods.
With the comparative hazard identification method checklists, hazard indices,
review of historical data and facilitated inspections and audits can be used.
To identify hazards by using the fundamental method tools such as the
HAZOPS, FMEA, FMECA, HIRA and failure logic can be used.
With both methods, it is important to remember that if something poses danger
and can harm a person or the environment, it is considered a hazard.
3. There are four (4) risk reduction strategies that can be used in reducing risks in
an organisation. These risk reduction strategies are:
Risk avoidance – where the risk is avoided or eliminated as the risk is too
large, for example moving offices.
Risk mitigation – this strategy is often use where the impact of the risk is
reduced because the risk cannot be avoided or accepted, for example change
to a production line.
Risk acceptance – this strategy is used when the risk cannot be changed or
mitigated, so the risk is accepted with a contingency plan, specifying what must
be done should the risk occur, for example working with electric equipment.
Risk transfer – the risk is transferred (given) to a third party such as an

insurance company. The organisation that transferred the risk will pay
insurance premiums to cover the financial consequences of the risk.
4. A risk assessment can only be done after a hazard identification was done. The
risks need to be analysed and evaluated. The risk assessment will consider the
likelihood of occurrence and the possible consequences. This means that the
severity of the risk is evaluated which can be done by a risk matrix.
4.1 Flour dust exposure may cause occupational illness and diseases and poses
the hazard of combustion.
4.2 Ventilation system – to reduce the inhalation of flour dust as the flour dust is
extracted through the ventilation system.
Mixers with lids – when the flour is poured into the mixers, the lid will reduce
the amount of flour dust escaping into the atmosphere and its inhalation will be
reduced.
(** Student’s own discretion).
References
2.10
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Health and Safety Executive. n.d. Example risk assessment for general office
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https://www.hse.gov.uk/risk/casestudies/pdf/officecleaning.pdf [Accessed on 18
September 2020].
Health and Safety Executive. n.d. Hair salon case study. Available from:
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2021].
Health and Safety Executive. n.d. Sugar beet processing. Available from:
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2021].
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https://www.hennepin.us/-/media/hennepinus/business/work-with-hennepin-
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http://www.ilpi.com/msds/ref/engineeringcontrols.html [Accessed on 20 August
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are-five-steps-risk-assessment [Accessed on 16 September 2020].
LEARNING UNIT 3: ERGONOMICS AND PREVENTION
Learning outcomes
On completion of this learning unit and chapter 64 in the prescribed textbook, you
should be able to:
1. Identify and describe the subject fields and ergonomic domains necessary for
the design of safety.
2. Interpret ergonomic principles in the workplace for more efficient and effective
prevention.
3. Apply ergonomic principles of human-centred designs.
4. Explain the rationale and benefits of human-centred design.
5. Identify and relate ergonomic risk factors through a systematic ergonomic risk
assessment process.
6. Develop appropriate control measures for ergonomic risk factors.
7. Design a safer and healthier workplace according to good ergonomic principles.
Key concepts
Ergonomics
Human factor engineering
Ergonomic principles
Human-centred design (HCD)
Ergonomic risk factors
3.1 Introduction
Have you ever experienced a sharp pain in your shoulder and arm when you work on
your computer? Is this pain consistent when you work on a computer? The pain
becomes persistent. Do you need to see a doctor about it? If you answered yes to
these questions, it might be that your workstation design in your workplace needs an
evaluation. The ergonomic design of your workstation may not be effective.
Ergonomics therefore can be described as the process of designing or arranging
workplaces, products and systems to fit the people who work and use them
(Dohrmann Consulting, 2014). McKinnon (2020) explains that ergonomics is also
known as human factor engineering and that ergonomics is concerned with the
interaction between an employee and a machine within a workplace. Ergonomics
became a buzz word for organisations as it aims at improving a workplace by minimise
risk of injury or harm and to create a safe, healthy, comfortable and productive
workplace (Dohrmann Consulting, 2014). In general terms ergonomics aims at
matching machines, equipment and the environment to humans in such a way that it
will maximise performance, reduce errors and injuries caused by repetitive or awkward
motions and positions due to the incorrect matching of the employee and the job they
do (McKinnon, 2020). McKinnon (2020) further explains that if an organisation has an
effective ergonomics safety programme, errors and injury will be reduced and safety
will improve.
There are new ergonomic regulations submitted in the Occupational Health and Safety
Act, published in Government Notice No. R. 42894 of December 2019. The new
Ergonomic Regulations (2019) clearly define the most used terminology in the
ergonomic field and specifies that it is the duty of employers to provide a training
programme incorporating the scope and content of the ergonomic regulations and
risks. The Ergonomic Regulations (2019) also provide guidelines to the designers,
manufacturers, importers and suppliers in optimising human well-being and system
performance.
Watch online:
Workplace ergonomics by ACS Process Systems (7:12)
https://youtu.be/HbESSXKbGec
3.2 Ergonomic domains (areas) for safety design

Ergonomics is a scientific discipline that combines knowledge from other subject fields
such as physiology and anatomy, psychology, engineering and statistics to ensure
that ergonomic designs not only support the strengths and abilities of people but also
minimise the effects of their limitations. Therefore, ergonomists and human factor
specialists design workplace products and systems to suit the needs of people who
use it (Charted Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors, n.d.).
https://www.ergonomics.org.uk/Public/Resources/What_is_Ergonomics_.aspx
McKinnon (2020) suggests that three main areas/domains need to be covered when
it comes to designing an ergonomic safety programme. These domains are:
Anatomy Concerned with the human body – dimensions and variations
• Includes bio-mechanics – forces applied by the body under different conditions

(e.g. how much force is needed to move or load equipment)
Psychology Includes skill psychology and occupational psychology
• Skill psychology – mental activity of information receiving, processing and

decision taking
• Occupational psychology – individual differences, efforts required and training
• Humans interact with machines (e.g., reading controls, process information,
give machine instructions)
• Covers employee satisfaction and comfort when performing a job (e.g.,
reasonable deadlines)
Physiology Includes work physiology and environmental physiology
• Work physiology – use of energy (e.g., type and amount of energy used to
perform a task
• Environmental physiology – effects the physical environment has on the
workplace (e.g., workplace temperature)
Watch online:
Ergonomics at workplace/types of ergonomics/benefits/ergonomic evaluation
techniques by Tetrahedron (3:00)
https://youtu.be/pHc89bejapU
3.3 Ergonomic principles
It must be understood that ergonomics is much more than a proper posture of
employees. Ergonomics include how the workplace and equipment can be best used
and designed for the safety, comfort, efficiency and productivity of employees. The
workplace, products and systems must therefore be effectively designed and arranged
so that it fit the people who use them, and the maximum output can be obtained from
them (Adhikari, 2018). To design and arrange a workplace, equipment and so on, to
obtain the maximum output, Heller-Ono (2018) explains that a person’s physical,
mental, organisational and environmental demands of the job need to be considered.
Adhikari (2018) identified the following fundamental principles of ergonomics:
1. Work in neutral posture

A neutral posture is where the body is aligned and balanced (sitting or standing). It will
place minimal stress on the body and keep the joints aligned. There is minimal stress
to the muscles, tendons, nerves and bones and will allow the employee to have
maximum control, enhancing productivity (SFM, 2019).
Figure 3.1: Example of neutral posture in seated measures

(Source: Shutterstock, n.d.)
2. Reduce excessive force

Middlesworth (2013) explains that excessive force is one of the primary ergonomic risk
factors and many jobs require high force loads on the human body. With a high force
requirement, the human muscle effort increases and should be reduced by
mechanically assist, counterbalance systems, adjustable height lift tables and
workstations, powered equipment and ergonomic tools.
Mechanically assist
Figure 3.2: Example of reducing excessive force by mechanically assist

(Source: Middlesworth, 2013)
3. Keep everything in reach

Keeping everything in reach would help in avoiding unnecessary stretching and strain
and relates to maintaining a good posture. (Refer to figure 3.4)
4. Work at proper height

Workplace design should fit the variety of workers’ shapes and sizes and provide support for
the completion of different tasks. The hight of the workstation should be adjusted by using the
elbow hight as a guide. There must also be enough space to change the working position of
the person (CCOHS, 2020).
Figure 3.3: Example of balancing a workstation at a proper height

(Source: CCOHS, 2020)
5. Reduce excessive motions
Repetitive motion falls under reducing excessive motions and excessive force.
Excessive motion can easily be reduced by the design of the workstation or workplace.
Everything needed to perform a job, including tools, supplies, inventory, instructions
and other equipment needs to be easily in reach of the employee.
Reduce the distance
Figure 3.4: Example of excessive motion

(Source: CCOHS, 2020)
6. Minimise pressure points

Excessive pressure points are also called contact stress, for example squeezing hard
onto a tool like a pair of pliers. To eliminate excessive pressure points, the area where
the contact is made from the tool to the body part, can be padded. If it is for example
a hard edge of a worktable, the edge can be rounded to prevent a pressure point.
Pressure points can also form from sitting on a chair. If the chair is too high, a pressure
point can form behind the knees.
Pressure point
Padding
Figure 3.5: Example of pressure point on grip of pliers

(Source: HSE@Work, 2014)
7. Move, exercise and stretch
A healthy body needs exercise and stretching. Muscles need to be loaded and the
heart rate needs to be periodic elevated. Different exercises and movements in the
workplace can be helpful to keep a healthy body. The type of work will determine the
type of exercise and stretching to be done, for example sitting for long periods, it is
essential to shift the posture throughout the day and do simple stretching exercise to
relax the neck, shoulders, arms and so on.
8. Maintain a comfortable work environment

This principle refers to the immediate and overall work environment and focus on
lightening, room temperature, floor space, workstation space and so on.
Figure 3.6: Example of maintaining a comfortable work environment

(Source: Ghahramani, Lehrer, Varghese, Wang & Pandit, 2020)
Activity 3.1 Case study (ergonomic principles)
Read the following case study and answer the questions.
Eddie works on an engine assembly line. He uses a handheld impact wrench to fit a
component to an engine. The assembly line makes up to 2400 engines a day and it
takes approximately three seconds to tighten each component.
In addition to the risk from using a vibrating tool, Eddie often had to adopt poor
postures to reach some parts of the engine. He had to repeatedly stretch out his arm
and constrain his posture while tightening the adapter. After a few weeks Eddie found
that he was leaving work with shoulder and neck pain. One tea break, Eddie’s line
manager saw him rubbing his neck and shoulder and recognised that the pain could
be due to the type of work Eddie was doing. The line manager spoke with Eddie and
then told the company health and safety officer about what she had seen. The
company assessed the work by considering ergonomics principles and, after getting
ideas from the workforce, came up with the following modifications:
• They replaced the impact wrench with one with minimal reaction force so that
little shock was transmitted to the hand. They also suspended the wrench, so
Eddie didn’t have to support its weight.
• They modified the workplace layout, so workers had better access to all sides
of the engine, avoiding the need to adopt poor working postures.
• They implemented a job rotation scheme so the five workers on the line were
moved around a number of different tasks. Some of these tasks still required
the use of vibrating tools, but the overall personal exposure was halved.
As a result of the modifications there was:

 a reduction in vibration exposure
 no need to adopt poor and constrained postures
 reduced boredom and fatigue for Eddie’s team
 improved productivity
(Source: Health and Safety Executive, 2013)
a. Identify at least three (3) ergonomic risk hazards Eddie were exposed to in his
workplace.
b. Describe the ergonomic principles the company considered to find a solution to
the problem.
c. Explain why the company Eddie is working for considered ideas of the
workforce.
d. Point out the type of control measures used by the company for the
modifications done and give a brief explanation for the choice of control.
Answers will be online on lessons tools.
3.4 Human-centred design

Problems and problem-solving forms part of our daily lives therefore it is vital that a
problem should be clearly defined and phrased to allow creativity in how to address
and solve it. Human-centred design (HCD) is useful in developing solutions to a
problem and as the term indicates, involves human perspectives in the problem-
solving process. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (2010)
define human-centred design as an approach to enhance effectiveness and efficiency,
improve human well-being, user satisfaction, accessibility and sustainability. HCD is
further defined as an approach to make systems usable and useful by focusing on the
users, their needs and requirements and by applying ergonomics (ISO, 2010)
Discussion 3.1: What is human-centred design?

Watch the video clips, conduct your own research and discuss with your fellow
classmates your view of human-centred design and why it is important or not.
1. DevExplains: What is human-centered design – and why does it matter? By

Devex (3:18). Available at: http://youtu.be/0bxtEqM2TQU.
2. What is human-centered design? By Interaction Design (10:22). Available at:

https://youtu.be/KkUor_NTuDA
3.4.1 Principles of human-centred design
The principles of human-centred design serve as a framework and is not linked to a
specific design, process or responsibilities. The principles serve as complementary to
existing designs and provides a human-centred perspective that can be linked and
integrated into different designs and processes (Maguire, 2001).
• Design based upon an explicit understanding of users, tasks and environments

– it will consider the people who use them (directly or indirectly).
• Users are involved throughout design and development – it will consider human
capabilities, limitations and demands of a task or job.
• Design is driven and refined by user-centred evaluation – the designer focuses
on the users, their needs and the process that needs to be followed to complete
the task or job effectively.
• The process is interactive – the designers will use a mixture of methods and
tools, such as surveys and interviews to develop an understanding of the user
needs.
• The design addresses the whole user experience – the designers will base their
understanding of the users, task/job and environment to address the whole user
experience and the design team will consist of different experts to carry out an
evaluation of the design.
• Design team – this team will include multidisciplinary skill and perspectives and
will serve as an early-warning system for possible problems that can be
corrected during the design process.
Example:
Human-centred design refers to addressing three core human needs, namely
physical, emotional and mental. Physical needs refer to the office furniture in a
specific workspace and should “fit” the users in the best way possible. That is why
the “Hip Chair” by Sunon is a good example of a human centered design. This
chair will maximise comfort and ergonomics as it allows the back of the chair to
adapt to the movement of the human hips. The structure will accommodate the
human body’s movement and with innovative design synchronise the system
(Sunon, 2020). To address the emotional and mental core need with this human
centred design: if the user of the “hip chair” feels comfortable, he/she will be more
motivated and energetic to perform optimal and will therefore stimulate the mental
well-being of the user, which will improve on the overall work behaviour and
practice.
Activity 3.2 Human-centred design in the workplace

Sunon (2020) provides five key steps for a human centred workspace, namely:
i. Community iv. Biophilia

ii. Ergonomics v. Acoustics and privacy
iii. Choices
1. Explain each of these key steps and provide an example of each.

2. Justify human centred design in your own workplace and provide
recommendations.
3.4.2 Rationale for and benefits of human-centred design

An organisation investing in human-centred design will have economic and social
benefits as their systems and products will be more successful. Systems that are
designed using human-centred methods will improve the quality and contribute to the
following benefits for the organisation (ISO, 2010):
• Increased productivity, operational efficiency.

• Better understanding of use and therefore the organisation will reduce training
and support costs.
• Improve user experience.
• Reduce discomfort and stress; enhance job satisfaction.
• Provide competitive advantage.
• Contribute sustainability.
3.5 Ergonomic safety programme (ergonomic risk factors)

McKinnon (2020) claims that nearly a quarter of work injuries relates to ergonomic
injuries, such as lifting, pushing, pulling, holding or carrying objects. Preventing injuries
related to ergonomics needs to be identified. Middlesworth (2013) suggests that most
ergonomic risk factors are linked to the ergonomic principles. Middlesworth (2013)
identified three primary ergonomic risk factors, namely force, posture and repetition
that influence a person’s musculoskeletal health over a period of time.
Table 3.1: Primary ergonomic risk factors and control methods

Ergonomic
Description Control methods
risk factor
• Tasks require high force Engineering control
loads on the body. • Mechanical assist
• Muscle effort increases in • Counterbalance system
response to the force • Adjustable height lift
requirements. tables/workstations
• Increasing high force loads • Powered equipment
is associated with fatigue • Ergonomic tools
and musculoskeletal
Excessive disorders (MSD). Work practice control
• Using carts and dollies to
force
reduce lifting and carrying
• Sliding objects instead of
lifting or carrying
• Eliminate reaching
obstruction
Proper body mechanics
• Training to use proper
lifting and work techniques
• Awkward posture places Engineering control

excessive force on joints, • Eliminate / reduce awkward
overload muscles and posture with ergonomic
tendons, effecting joints. modification that will
• Joints most efficient when maintain joint range of
closest to the mid-range motion
motion of the joint. • Use proper ergonomic tools
• Risk of MSD increases to maintain optimal joint
when joints working outside positions
Awkward mid0range repetitively or for
sustained periods of time Work practice control
posture
without adequate recovery • Consider and reduce
time. awkward postures
• Train workers on proper
work techniques
• Encourage workers to take
own responsibility to use
their bodies properly and
avoid awkward postures
Job rotation control
• Rotate job and task
enlargement to reduce
repeated motion
Counteractive stretch breaks

• Rest/stretch breaks
provide opportunity to
counteract repeated or
sustained awkward
postures and allow for
adequate recovery time
• Many tasks and work cycles Engineering control

are repetitive and usually • Eliminating excessive force
controlled by hourly or daily and awkward posture will
production targets and work reduce fatigue and allow
processes repetition tasks to be
• When repetition is combined performed without an
with other risk factors it can increase in forming MSD
contribute to MSD
Work practice control

• Use safe and effective
procedures
• Train workers in proper
work techniques
• Encourage workers to take
own responsibilities for
Task repetition prevention of MSD
Job rotation control

• Task enlargement reduce
duration, frequency and
severity of MSD risk factors
• Workers rotate between
workstations and tasks to
avoid long periods of
performing a single task and
repetitive motion which will
reduce fatigue
Counteractive stretch breaks

• Rest/stretch breaks to
increase circulation
needed for recovery
(Source: Middlesworth, 2013 – adapted by author)

According to the OHS Act 85 of 1993, employers have the responsibility to provide a
safe and healthy workplace. Looking at the primary ergonomic risk factors the well-
being and musculoskeletal health of employees are vital, and injuries and illnesses
caused by ergonomic risk factors can be prevented. The best way in the prevention of
these type of injuries and illnesses is the implementation of an ergonomic safety
programme which will cover the anatomy, physiology and psychology of employees
and other stakeholders (McKinnon, 2020).
In conclusion, go to the following website:

Ergonomics - Safety Training Video Course by SafetyInfo.com (12:58). Available at:
https://youtu.be/PoTClRRQ7bM
3.5.1 Elements for the implementation of an ergonomic safety programme

With the implementation of an ergonomic safety programme the following elements
need consideration:
Figure 3.7: Important elements for consideration with implementation of an

ergonomic safety programme
(Source: United States Department of Labor, n.d. – adapted by author)
3.6 Conclusion
In this learning unit the focus was on ergonomics which is also known as human factor
engineering. Ergonomics is concerned with the interaction between the employee and
the machine within the workplace. It is vital that an organisation have an effective
ergonomics safety programme to reduce and eliminate errors and injuries due to
ergonomic problems. There are three main areas that need to be considered with the
design of an ergonomics safety programme. These areas are anatomy, physiology
and psychology. Ergonomics are much more than body size and posture; and include
how the workplace and equipment can best be used by the employer. The human-
centred design (HCD) is most valuable in developing solution to ergonomic problems
as HCD focuses on the human perspectives in the problem-solving process. Most
ergonomic risk factors are linked to the ergonomic principles and all employees and
employers need to know how to control and prevent accidents due to ergonomic
problems. Ergonomics therefore can be seen as the first step in preventing safety
hazards and risks if it is used in the designing phase.

1. Go to the following website and answer the questions related to it:
https://ergo-plus.com/systematic-ergonomics-improvement-process-approach/
1.1 Illustrate by means of a diagram the steps recommended for conducting

an effective ergonomics improvement process.
1.2 Name the two main benefits for an effective ergonomics process.
2. Go to the following website and complete the Hazard Zone Jobs Checklist and
apply it to your own workplace.
https://ergo-plus.com/wp-content/uploads/Hazard-Zone-Checklist.pdf
** Remember the pictures are merely an example. You must apply the checklist
to your own workplace.
Example:
Awkward posture:
Picture 1 illustrates men working with their hand(s) above their heads or elbows
above the shoulders. If a task in your workplace requires hands above the head
or elbows above the shoulders, “tick” the block and explain briefly what this task
is, and the requirements in the “Comment/Observations” block.
3. Define musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) in your own words.

https://www.ergo-plus.com/definition-of-musculoskeletal-disorder-msd/
4.1 Name seven (7) injuries and disorders affecting the musculoskeletal
system.
4.2 Justify why the prevention of MSD requires a partnership between an
employer and employees.
5. Distinguish between the three (3) main areas that McKinnon (2020) suggests
should be included in an ergonomic safety programme.
Answer will be online on lessons tools.
Activity 3.1
a) Vibrating tool; poor posture; constraining posture

b) The following are the ergonomics principles the company considered:
Ergonomics principles Brief discussion
Work in neutral posture The body must be aligned and balanced
to reduce stress to the muscles, tendons,
nerves and bones. In a neutral posture,
the worker (Eddie) will have maximum
control of the task or job.
Reduce excessive force Eddie’s work requires high force, where
his muscle effort increases.
Keep everything in reach Eddie needs to stretch frequently
causing awkward body posture. Keeping
everything in reach will minimise
unnecessary stretching and stain that
will enhance a good body posture.
Work at proper height There must be enough space to change
the working position of the workers
working on the production line.
Reduce excessive motions This principle goes hand in hand with
excessive motions and excessive force.
The workplace needs to be redesigned
c) The workforce are those workers that work daily with the equipment and will
best know what works for them and what not.
d) The following are the ergonomics control measures used by the company:
Ergonomics measure control Effect of the control
Engineering control The wrench was replaced with a more
ergonomic tool (less vibration)
The wrench was now mechanical assist.
Work practice control Modifying of workplace layout for better
access and reducing awkward body
posture.
Job rotation control This control measure will reduce
exposure to vibration.
Reduce fatigue as the workers on the
production line will move around.
This is a job/task enlargement as they
will do several different tasks.
Proper body mechanics The workers need to undergo
refreshment training in proper work
techniques after implementing the
modifications done to the production line
(workplace).
Activity 3.2 Human centred design in the workplace
Key human centred design elements Example
i. Community Employees get to know each other which
Collaborative furniture and social spaces build trust and effective brainstorming
in workplace let employees connect and can take place.
build work relationships.
ii. Ergonomics Adjustable desks and ergonomic chairs

Furniture and tools must “fit” the users to
ensure healthy employees.
iii. Choices Gyms, outdoor space, meditation areas,
Employees must be able to choose their colours to improve moods, access to
workspaces where they will be able to more natural light and ambient lighting
work at their best. options.
iv. Biophilia Weaving forms, textures and patterns of
Plants will reduce stress and will livens nature will create a “good mood” feeling.
up the workplace.
Will make the workplace more attractive.
v. Acoustics and Privacy Furniture with acoustical and visual

Music or excessive talking may be privacy will create a happy workplace
disturbing to some employees that may where employees can still interact and
need silence to focus. collaborate. This may also have a
positive influence on employee morale.
Justify human centred design in your own workplace and provide recommendations.
** Here the student can use their own discretion to explain their workplace
according to the answer in number 1 above.

https://ergo-plus.com/systematic-ergonomics-improvement-process-approach/
1.1
Prioritise list of Do a general Review the injury

departments and ergonomic and MSD history of
jobs to evaluate walkthrough audit the departments
Analyse the
employee surveys
Do employee survey
and information to
(if not done)
form a framework of
ergonomic risks
1.2 Enhance the work and lives of employees.

Improves the outcomes and success of the organisation.
2. Refer to the example and use your own discretion when you complete the
checklist.
3. MSD is an injury or disorder that has an effect on the movement or

musculoskeletal system of a person.
OR
MSD is an injury or disorder of the muscles, nerves, tendons, joints of a person

and is a condition created in a work environment.
4.1 The following are the seven (7) injuries and disorders affecting the
musculoskeletal system:
Repetitive motion injury Repetitive motion disorder
Repetitive stress injury Cumulative trauma disorder
Repetitive stress disorder Overuse syndrome
Ergonomic injury
4.2 It is the responsibility of the employer to provide a safe work environment. There
must be proper ergonomic principles, applicable to the type of workplace.
Employees must receive proper training.
The organisation must have a positive safety culture that promotes ergonomics
in the workplace.
Every employee needs to take responsibility for the health and safety of their
bodies.
Employees need to report any ergonomic problems as soon as possible.
5. The following are the three (3) main areas that McKinnon (2020) should be
included in an ergonomic safety programme:
Anatomy Concerned with the human body – dimensions and variations
• Includes bio-mechanics – forces applied by the body under different conditions

(e.g. how much force is needed to move or load equipment)
Psychology Includes skill psychology and occupational psychology
• Skill psychology – mental activity of information receiving, processing and

decision taking
• Occupational psychology – individual differences, efforts required and training
• Humans interact with machines (e.g., reading controls, process information,
give machine instructions)
• Covers employee satisfaction and comfort when performing a job (e.g.,
reasonable deadlines)
Physiology Includes work physiology and environmental physiology
• Work physiology – use of energy (e.g., type and amount of energy used to
perform a task
• Environmental physiology – effects the physical environment has on the
workplace (e.g., workplace temperature)
References
ACS Process Systems. 2020. Workplace ergonomics [online video]. Available from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HbESSXKbGec&feature=youtu.be [Accessed on
07 November 2020].
Adhikari, S. 2018. Ergonomics and its 10 principles. Blog, blog post, 25 August.
Available from: https://www.publichealthnotes.com/ergonomics-and-its-10-principles/
[Accessed on 04 October 2020].
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). 2020. Working in a
standing position – basic information. Available from:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/ergonomics/standing/standing_basic.html
Chartered Institute of Ergonomics & Human Factors. n.d. What is ergonomics? Find
out how it makes life better. Available from:
https://www.ergonomics.org.uk/Public/Resources/What_is_Ergonomics_.aspx
[Accessed on 07 November 2020].
Devex. 2016. DevExplains: What is human-centered design – and why does it matter?
(3:18). Available at: http://youtu.be/0bxtEqM2TQU. [Accessed on 12 August 2021].
Dohrmann Consulting. 2014. What is ergonomics? Blog, blog post, 2014. Available
from: https://www.ergonomics.com.au/what-is-ergonomics/ [Accessed on 29
September 2020].
Ghahramani, A, Lehrer, D, Varghese, Z, Wang, Z & Pandit, Y. 2020. Artificial

intelligence for efficient thermal comfort systems: requirements, current applications
and future directions. Frontiers in Built Environment, 6(49). doi:
10.3389/fbuil.2020.00049.
Health and Safety Executive. 2013. Ergonomics and human factors at work – a brief
guide. Available from: https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg90.pdf [Accessed on 08
October 2020].
Heller-Ono, A. 2018. Ergonomic principles every business needs to know – for office
and material handling success. Available from:
https://www.worksiteinternational.com/hubfs/documents/ergonomic-principles-every-
business-needs-to-know.pdf?t=1524267665581 [Accessed on 04 October 2020].
HSE@Work. 2014. The best information of ergonomics. Blog, blog post, 2 August.
Available from: http://health-safety-work.blogspot.com/2014/08/the-best-information-
of-ergonomics.html [Accessed on 04 October 2020].
Interaction Design Foundation. 2020. What is human-centred design? (10:22)

Available from: https://youtu.be/KkUor_NTuDA. [Accessed on 12 August 2021].
International Organization for Standardization. 2010. Ergonomics of human system

interaction – Part 210: human-centred design for interactive systems. Available from:
https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:9241:-210:ed-1:v1:en [Accessed on 05
October 2020].
Maguire, M. 2001. Methods to support human-centred design. International Journal

of Human-Computer Studies, 55, pp. 587-634. doi: 10.1006/ijhc.2001.0503.
McKinnon, R` C. 2020. The design, implementation and audit of occupational

health and safety management. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press Taylor & Francis
Group.
Middlesworth, M. 2013. Ergonomic risk factors and control methods. Available from:
https://ergo-plus.com/wp-content/uploads/Ergonomic-Risk-Factors.pdf [Accessed on
04 October 2020].
SafetyInfo.com. 2015. Ergonomics – Safety Training Video Course. Available from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PoTClRRQ7bM. [Accessed on: 12 August 2021].
Shutterstock (a). n.d. Check your body posture. Work at desk. Image ID: 619794149.
Available from:
https://image.shutterstock.com/z/stock-vector-correct-sitting-at-desk-posture-
ergonomics-advices-for-office-workers-how-to-sit-at-desk-when-619794149.jpg
[Accessed on 07 November 2020].
South Africa. 2019. Ergonomics Regulations of 2019. Available from:

https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201912/42894rg10177gon1589.
pdf [Accessed on 07 November 2020].
Tetrahedron Manufacturing Services. 2020. Ergonomics at work place/types of

ergonomics / benefits/ ergonomics evaluation techniques [online video]. Available
from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pHc89bejapU&feature=youtu.be [Accessed
on 07 November 2020].
United States Department of Labor. n.d. Ergonomics. Available from:

https://www.osha.gov/ergonomics [Accessed on 05 October 2020].
LEARNING UNIT 4: MANAGING PREVENTION THROUGH
WORKPLACE ENVIRONMENT CONDITIONS
Learning outcomes
On completion of this learning unit and chapters 29 and 32 in the prescribed textbook,
you should be able to:
1. Differentiate between a project and a programme.

2. Interpret the link between the life cycles of occupational health and safety
management system and project management system.
3. Explain the PDCA cycle and the use thereof in different safety programmes.
4. Apply the PDCA cycle to design and implement a safety programme.
5. Determine the purpose of inspections.
6. Describe the different types of inspections.
7. Implement a safety inspection system and audit for a safety programme
Key concepts
Life cycle
Project vs programme
Plan-do-check-act (PDCA) cycle
Safety inspection
Housekeeping programme
4.1 Introduction
In this learning unit, we will look at prevention of incidents in the workplace during the
life cycle stages of different programmes/systems. The design, implementation and
audit of an occupational health and safety management system will be emphasised by
examining an effective housekeeping programme (chapter 29) that an organisation
can implement to measure performance and to implement prevention management
during the life cycle stages of different systems. The business order (housekeeping
programme) in chapter 29 of the prescribed textbook will be the starting point. The
focus will then move to safety inspections in chapter 32 of the prescribed textbook. It
is important to look at measuring performance to assess the effectiveness of the
different programmes and to take corrective action if necessary.
4.2 Design and implement a safety programme

An organisation’s first priority needs to be their employees and keeping them safe and
healthy. This should be followed by continuously improving on the safety management
processes of the organisation. The latter can only be accomplished by designing and
implementing safety programmes. A successful safety programme should be
designed and implemented to enable employees to effectively practice prevention and
have the ability to handle any safety issues in an operative manner. Different safety
programmes can be used, such as: housekeeping programme; workplace inspections
and checklists; employee assistance programme.
An effective safety management programme should aim at:

• reducing workplace risks, incidents, injuries, measurements and improvements
• involving and motivating employees to share safety responsibility and participate
in adhering to all safety procedures stipulated in the specific safety programme
• organising and structuring safety management to enable continuous growth and
performance
• being proactive, preventative, and integrated to the safety culture and the overall
organisational culture of the organisation (United States Department of Labor, n.d.)
** Please refer to the following websites for more information regarding safety
management programmes:
• https://www.ehsinsight.com/blog/5-steps-to-developing-an-effective-
workplace-safety-program
• https://www.safeopedia.com/definition/4987/safety-program#what-does-
safety-program-mean
Study chapter 29 in the prescribed textbook.

4.2.1 Programme vs project
It is necessary to understand that there is a difference between a programme and a

project. A project has a defined start and end, where a programme is defined as a
group of related projects and usually do not consist of an end, as it is an ongoing
process (Harrin, 2020). The main distinct difference is that a successful project will
focus on delivering “on time and on budget” , whereas a programme will focus on the
overall benefits it will bring to an organisation although it will take more time and
usually cost more money to deliver a good outcome. “Value” is the driver for a
programme and “budget” the driver for a project (Weaver, 2010).
Althaqafi and Elssy (2015) explain that most organisations aim at integrating their
occupational health and safety management system with their other project
management systems. Althaqafi and Elssy (2015) further explain that this integration
is mainly to eliminate the possible work-related injuries and illnesses that may occur
during the life cycle of a project. Karaulova, Kramarenko and Shevtshendo (2008)
suggest that risk factors form part of the life cycle of a project and it is vital that the risk
factors are identified and mitigated to manage projects successfully.
4.2.2 Life cycle stages of a safety programme
From the previous section, we can assume that there is a close link between the life
cycle stages of a project and the life cycle stages of a safety programme. Watts (2014)
suggest that there are four general phases that forms a project life cycle. These
phases are:
Initiation phase
During this stage the objectives need to be identified as a safety problem or
opportunity.
Planning phase
This phase collaborates on the safety problem and consists of as much detail as
possible. All the work/tasks need to be identified, resources needed and strategies to
reach the set objectives.
Implementation (execution) phase
The designed plan that was created in the planning stage is put into motion during this
phase. The implementation of the work/tasks are continuously monitored and
adjustments are made to the original plan if necessary.
To learn more about the implementation phase of a safety programme, study the
information in the provided webpage:
Implementing a successful company safety programme by The Griffin Groupe.

Available at: https://thegriffingroupe.com/implementing-company-safety-program/
Closing phase
This is the completion of the work/tasks and inventory of lessons-learned is done. This
means that the whole project is analysed and reported back to the organisation. Data
will be available for future projects and possible problems experienced during the
implementation phase will serve as a framework.
(Source: Watts, 2014 – adapted by author)
When it comes to the life cycle of a safety programme or safety system, the is not a
clear set of phases. McKinnon (2020) suggest that all safety systems consists of a
design phase, implementation phase and an auditing phase, where the latter is
fundamentally the evaluation phase. Althaqafi and Elssy (2015) suggest that the safety
life cycle is a process consisting of an occupational health and safety policy, planning,
implementation and measurement and the last phase, being the review and
improvement phase. The Health and Safety Executive (n.d.) suggest that the plan, do,
check, act (PDCA) approach can also be used as a safety life cycle. Althaqafi and
Elssy (2015) provide an example how a safety programme life cycle can be integrated
into a project life cycle.
Table 4.1: Integration of project management life cycle into safety management
programme life cycle
Project management life cycle Safety management programme life cycle
Initiation Commitment and policy
Planning Health and safety planning
Execution and control Implementation and measuring
Completion Review and improvement
(Source: Althaqafi & Elssy, 2015 – adapted by author)
For the purpose of this learning unit, we will use the PDCA cycle as the process to
explain the different safety life cycles of safety programmes we are going to explore.
4.2.3 Plan, do, check, act cycle
The PDCA cycle is simple and powerful to use as it is systematic, straightforward and
a flexible cycle that can be used to continuously improve safety and performance
within a workplace (Patel & Deshpande, 2017). The PDCA cycle contains four
continuous repetitive stages. These stages are explained by hand of the following
illustration:
• Identify safety problems • Identify risks (assess and

(Hazards and risks) prioritise)
• Organise activities to
• Set a Policy (aims,
measurement, etc) deliver the plan
(employee involvement,
• Performance
adequate resources, etc)
(measurement of
• Implement plan (set
accident/incident figures)
preventive and
• Co-ordinate
protective measures,
(responsibilities for tasks)
provide adequate tools,
training and supervising)
• Review performance (learn • Measure performance

from accidents and (monitor the plan and
incidents, health and safety assess control measures)
data, errors, include other • Investigate
organisations) Lessons causes of accidents,
learned incidents
(audit and inspections)
• Take action (revise plans,
policies and risk
assessments)
Figure 4.1: PDCA cycle

(Source: HSE n.d. – adapted by author)
For further information on the PDCA cycle, go to:
Our safety approach: The plan-do-check-act walk by SkanskaGroup (4:08).

Available at: https://youtu.be/qHVxNH0v7wY
4.2.3.1 Applying the PDCA cycle
The four-step approach of the PDCA cycle makes it possible to find the best solution
to identified problems before the programme or system is implemented. The problem-
solving process of the PDCA cycle can be refined and continuously used by any
department of an organisation (East West Manufacturing, 2015).
** Please see annexure A for an example how the PDCA cycle can be applied to a
good housekeeping programme. It is very important to study this example, because
you will be required to compile a safety programme for your assessment.
Activity 4.1 Life cycles and safety management
1. Distinguish between a programme and a project.

2. Illustrate the life cycle of a safety programme.
3. Differentiate between the life cycle of a safety programme and the PDCA cycle.
Answers online on lessons tool.
4.3 Safety inspection system
McKinnon (2020) defines a safety inspection system as a monitoring function to locate,

identify, eradicate unsafe conditions (hazards) and high-risk acts, that may lead to
occupational accidents and illnesses. A safety inspection system is therefore part of
the organisation’s safety programme. Organisations are required by law to identify
hazards within a workplace. The hazard identification and risk assessment (HIRA)
process, which is also a safety programme can be applied to all aspects of risk. Also,
the PDCA cycle can serve as a measuring and controlling tool (safety programme) to
monitor identified hazards and risks.
4.3.1 Purpose of inspections
To understand the purpose of inspections, it is necessary to understand the difference
between a hazard and a risk. In learning unit 2 this difference is highlighted. If
necessary, refer to learning unit 2 to remind yourself.
The main purpose of an inspection is to identify hazards that may cause damage and
loss. With the identification of hazards, the amount of risk can be determined and can
be classified into:
A – High risk
B – Medium risk
C – Moderate risk
Inspections need to consider the workplace, the movement of material, raw product,
finished goods, working conditions, action and behaviour of employees and the
general health and safety of the employees. When these aspects are identified,
positive remedial measures need to be taken to rectify problems through a problem-
solving process where the PDCA cycle can be used (Annexure A).
An inspection therefore assists in identifying hazards and risks in order to plan for
corrective action and forms part of the proactive safety process. Inspections contribute
to the measurement of performance and is also contributing to monitoring rectified
problems (McKinnon, 2020).
Activity 4.2
An office environment poses fewer hazards and risks. Although the hazards and
risks are fewer, it still needs to be controlled to ensure a safe workplace. Consider
the following video: Office safety workplace training by Safetycare – Manual handling
(2:12), available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DsLZWCIWZJQ&list=RDCMUCz4xKjcRNnNn2N
cnlhaBxFQ&index=3.
1. Consider your own workplace and design an office safety programme. Use the
life cycle process and what inspection you are going to use.
4.3.2 Types of inspections

McKinnon (2020) suggest that there are various types of inspections that can be used
by an organisation. The uniqueness of the organisation and the work areas will
determine what type of inspection will be used. The following table explains the main
types of inspections:
Table 4.1: Four main types of inspections
Type Description Frequency Example
Formal inspection Planned inspection Regular Self-audit

intervals inspections
Done by a team
Permit to work
inspections
Informal inspection On the spot inspection Daily Ergonomic
inspection
Done by management,
supervisors, health and Housekeeping
safety representatives inspection
Specialised inspection Periodic inspection Annually or Mechanical
when inspection
Done by specialists needed
Ventilation
system
inspection
Regulatory inspection Inspection done when Annually or Fall protection
required by occupational when inspection
health and safety needed
legislation or regulation Critical PPE
inspections
Done by management,
supervisors, health and Fire
safety representatives extinguisher
inspection
(Source: CCHOS, 2020 – adapted by author)

McKinnon (2020) explains that the objective of inspections is to ensure that a regular
and structured system is in place and working to enable the identification of unsafe
conditions, unsafe acts and deviations from safety standards so that corrective
measures can be done to reduce risks and prevent accidental loss.
Study chapter 32 in the prescribed textbook.
Activity 4.3. Self-assessment
(Source: Blackburn, 2019)
There are numerous unsafe acts happening in this workplace, a typical example of
bad housekeeping.
1. Although there are numerous unsafe acts presented in the picture, identify at
least five (5) hazards that can be associated with bad housekeeping.
2. Classify the potential risks of the identified hazards and explain why you use
that classification.
3. Go to the following website:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/house.html
a) Explain what you understand about a housekeeping programme.
b) Provide the benefits of an effective housekeeping programme.
c) Identify the elements of an effective housekeeping programme.
4. Apply the PDCA cycle to one (1) of the identified hazards.
4.4 Conclusion
This learning unit distinguished between a project and a programme. The main
difference is that a project has a start and end, whereby a programme can consist of
a group of related projects and is an ongoing process. Most occupational health and
safety management system are integrated with other project management systems to
eliminate possible occupational injuries and losses that may occur during the life cycle
of a project. A project life cycle consists of in initiation phase, planning phase,
implementation phase and closing phase. A safety system/programme life cycle does
not have clearly defined phases and would consist of a safety policy, planning,
implementation, measurement and review and improvement phase. This cycle will
then be repeated and is ongoing. The PDCA cycle can be used as a tool to
continuously improve safety and performance within a workplace and aims to find the
best solution to identified problems (hazards) before the safety programme or system
is implemented. An inspection of a workplace/area assists in identifying hazards and
risks in order to plan for corrective action and forms part of the proactive safety
process. Inspections contribute to the measurement of performance and is also
contributing to monitoring rectified problems. The uniqueness of the organisation and
work areas determine what type of inspection can be used.
4.5 References
Althaqafi, T & Elssy, B. 2015. Integrating occupational health and safety systems into
a project management system. International Journal of Research in Management &
Business Studies, 2(2), 35-38. Available from: http://ijrmbs.com/vol2issue2/torky.pdf
Blackburn, L. 2019. Spot the hazards/dangers. ESL Worksheets. Available from:
https://en.islcollective.com/english-esl-worksheets/vocabulary/jobs-and-work/spot-
hazards/dangers/112866 [Accessed on 19 October 2020].
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). 2018. Workplace
housekeeping – Basic guide. Available from:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/house.html [Accessed on 28 July
2021].
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). 2020. Workplace
inspections. Available from: https://ohsguide.worksafenb.ca/topic/inspections.html
East West Manufacturing. 2015. How to implement the PDCA cycle (Plan-do-check-
act). Blog, blog post 04 August. Available from: https://news.ewmfg.com/blog/how-to-
implement-the-pdca-cycle-plan-do-check-act-in-any-department [Accessed on 14
October 2020].
EHS Insight. 2017. 5 Steps to developing an effective workplace safety program.

Blog, blog post 07 September. Available from: https://www.ehsinsight.com/blog/5-
steps-to-developing-an-effective-workplace-safety-program [Accessed on 27 July
2021].
Harrin, E. 2020. What is a program in project management? Available from:

https://www.girlsguidetopm.com/what-is-a-programme-in-project-management-3-
types-of-programme/ [Accessed on 12 October 2020].
Health and Safety Executive (HSE). n.d. A brief summary of plan, do, check, act.
Available from: https://www.hse.gov.uk/managing/plan-do-check-act.htm [Accessed
on 12 October 2020]
Patel, PM & Deshpande, VA. 2017. Application of plan-do-check-act cycle for quality
and productivity improvement – a review. International Journal for Research in Applied
Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET), 5(1), 197-201. Available from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318743952_Application_Of_Plan-Do-
Check-Act_Cycle_For_Quality_And_Productivity_Improvement-A_Review [Accessed
on 12 October 2020].
SafeOpedia – Dictionary. 2018. Safety program. Available at:

https://www.safeopedia.com/definition/4987/safety-program. [Accessed on 27 July
2021].
Safetycare. 2014. Office safety workplace training. Video. Safetycare free preview –
Manual handling. Available from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DsLZWCIWZJQ&list=RDCMUCz4xKjcRNnNn2N
cnlhaBxFQ&index=3 [Accessed on 28 July 2021].
The Griffin Groupe. n.d. Implementing a successful company safety program.

Available at: https://thegriffingroupe.com/implementing-company-safety-program/
[Accessed on 27 July 2021].
United States Department of Labor. n.d. Recommended practices for safety and
health programs. Available from:
https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:GZMm7YZcWzQJ:https://
www.osha.gov/safety-management+&cd=12&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=za [Accessed on 27
July 2021].
Watts, A. 2014. Project management. Victoria, BC: BC Campus<<Author: Please

confirm. MM>>. Available from: https://opentextbc.ca/projectmanagement/
Weaver, P. 2010. Understanding programs and projects—oh, there's a difference!

Paper presented at PMI Global Congress 2010 — Asia Pacific, Melbourne, Victoria,
Australia. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute. Available from:
https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/understanding-difference-programs-versus-
projects-6896 [Accessed on 10 October 2020].
Annexure A
Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) Template
Date: Team Member: Department: Housekeeping in the workshop

Problem Identify root cause of problem using
Countermeasure/Possible remedy
describe and quantify the five whys
Option One
Is there health and Update the workshop housekeeping policy regarding
safety standards? receiving of machine parts.
1. Why are there boxes with machine Pros/benefits: Cons/challenges: Employees
parts in the walkway? Employees will know not following safe work
what to do when parts practices.
2. Why are the parts not unpacked received. Keep
properly? everything at the correct
place.
3. Why are the parts not stored properly? Option Two
1: Plan
Specific, Compulsory employee training in health and safety

measurable, 4. Why are the parts needed? standards
achievable, Pros/benefits: Cons/challenges: Employees
results-focused, 5. Why is the workshop housekeeping Employees will be unwilling to undergo training
time-bound policy not followed? motivated to follow Motivate employees to engage
policy guidelines and in taking responsibility for
safe work practices health and safety
Root cause
Containment Implementation tasks for long-term countermeasures Criteria to

2:
D
determine
effectiveness
Immediate action Task Assigned to Deadline Completed Cost,
• Identify risks Update of policy Management Within one week  time frame,
• Organise Arrange for inhouse Management, Within one week manpower
activities to training supervisors and
safety officer 
deliver plan
• Implement plan
Did the plan succeed or
Test results Areas for improvement
fail?
• Measure Option 1 and 2 of • Policy needs to be up-dated regularly.
performance countermeasure succeeded. • Training is necessary on a more regular basis.
• Monitor the • Label storage units of the different parts used in the workshop.
3: Check
solution to the
problem
• Investigate if
problem still
exist
• Repeat, do and
check phase if
necessary
• Review Implementation tasks for long-term countermeasures
performance Task Assigned to Deadline Completed
• Inspection Monitoring of housekeeping Supervisors and Every shift
4: Act
• Auditing safe work practices safety representatives

Record of incidents and Supervisors, safety When needed
accidents representatives and monthly report to
employees safety officer
(Source: East West Manufacturing, 2015 – adapted by author)
LEARNING UNIT 5: SAFETY REPORTING SYSTEMS
Learning outcomes
On completion of this learning unit and chapters 43 and 44 in the prescribed textbook,
you should be able to:
1. Distinguish between reportable events and how they must be reported.

2. Describe and verify recount the benefits of an effective safety reporting system.
3. Differentiate between an accident, incident and near miss incidents in the risk
management process.
4. Apply the concepts of a safety reporting system by means of a case study.
5. Appreciate/acknowledge a safety reporting culture and explain how it forms part
of the safety culture of an organisation.
6. Develop a safety report form.
7. Relate to the elements of a safety culture and safety reporting culture in your
own organisation and that of other organisations.
8. Examine the establishment of a safety reporting culture.
9. Substantiate the importance of near miss reporting system.
10. Explain the development and implementation of an accident, incident and near
miss incident reporting process.
Key concepts
Safety reporting systems
Accident
Incident
Near miss incident
Major loss event
Injury
First aid injury
Disabling injury
Event
Safety culture
Safety reporting culture
5.1 Introduction
In any type of organisation there are many hazards and risks that can adversely affect
the success and safe operations of the organisation. An employer has a legal duty to
provide a safe and healthy workplace and employees have a duty to report safety
concerns to the management. The management has the responsibility to investigate
the reported safety concerns by means of a documented risk management process
(SMS Pro, n.d.).
Employees should feel free to report safety issues and incidents without the fear of
retaliation, victimisation or personal reprimand. Employees should get recognition for
reporting incidents such as near misses and the organisational management should
act after reports are received to indicate that they take employee reporting serious
(McKinnon, 2020). An organisation with a positive safety culture where there is open
communication, mutual trust, shared vision of the importance of safety and health, will
embrace a safety reporting system.
5.2 Reportable event definitions

McKinnon (2020) provides definitions of events that must be reported and how such
events are reported. It is vital for an organisation to decide which events they
considered to be reported. The following list is merely an example and not limited to
the events defined.
Table 5.1: Reportable event definitions and how it must be reported

How must it be
Event Definition
reported
An undesired event which • Accident/incident
causes harm (injury or ill report form
Accident health) to people, damage
to property, or loss to the
process (production or
business interruption). This
includes fires where a loss
incurred.
An undesired event which, • Near miss incident
under slightly different report form
circumstances, could have
Near miss incident caused harm (injury or ill
health) to people, damage
to property, or loss to the
process.
All major loss events such • Accident/incident
as fatal accidents, major report form
fires, explosions, or multiple • Department of Labour
Major loss event
injury scenarios should be • Compensations
classified as major loss Commissioner
events.
An injury is physical harm • Accident/incident
to a person’s body because report form
Injury of an accidental contact • Department of Labour
with a source of energy. • Compensations
Commissioner
A first aid injury is the • Accident/incident
treatment of minor report form
scratches, cuts, burns,
splinters and other injuries
First aid injury
where treatment is not
normally required by a
doctor, nurse or other
medical professional.
A disabling injury results in • Accident/incident
either death or permanent report form
Disabling injury
disability, or temporary total • Department of Labour
disability after the day
of injury. It impairs an • Compensations
employee to perform the Commissioner
tasks he or she had been
doing prior to the injury.
(Source: McKinnon, 2020 – adapted and changed)
5.3 Accident, incident and near miss

A safety reporting system is used to manage the data regarding accidents, incidents
and near misses (Alli, 2008). It is important to distinguish between accidents and
incidents in contemplation of managing an effective safety reporting system.
The Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS, 2020) defines an
incident as an occurrence, condition or situation arising in a workplace that results in
or could result in injuries, illnesses, ill health or death, as well as damage to property
and theft. An incident is unexpected and may not cause injury or damage at the time
of the incident, but it has the potential to injure or cause damage.
Figure 5.1: Examples of an incident

(Source: Shutterstock, ID: 1293819550 – adapted and changed)
An accident is defined by the CCOHS (2020) as an unplanned event that interrupts

work, that may or may not include injury, death or property damage.
Figure 5.2: Example of an accident
The terms “incident” and “accident” are often used interchangeably in the management
of health and safety. This is simply because most legislation, such as the Occupational
Health and Safety (OHS) Act, 85 of 1993 covers both and “accident” and “incident”
under the term “incident” as “accident” implies that the event was related to fate or
chance (CCOHS, 2020).
Morrison (2014) defines a near miss as an Near miss

unplanned event that occurs in a workplace with no
injury or damage but have the potential to cause
injury or damage. From this definition the term “near
miss” can be considered an incident with the
potential of causing injury, harm or damage.
Morrison (2014) further explains that it is vital for an
organisation to focus on employee involvement for
the successful reporting of near misses in the
workplace, as reporting such incidents provides the
opportunity to prevent future incidents and/or
accidents. Figure 5.3: Example of a near
miss
Discussion 5.1: Accident/incident/near miss

Given the above definitions, read the following scenarios and decide what the scenario
represent (Accident/incident/near miss). Identify the hazard/hazards in each scenario.
Discuss your interpretation of each scenario with your fellow classmates and provide
at least one reason for your choice of determining the scenario.
Statement 1: A box fell off a shelf and missed Peter by centimetres.
Statement 2: While walking along a construction site, Tshepo noticed that

most of the workers did not wear hard hats.
Statement 3: Mr Thompson was in a hurry to get to his office for a meeting.
He slipped on the wet floor, fell and hurt his ankle and arm.
Statement 4: A pot plant fell from an open window of a two-story office
building and hit a parked car.
Statement 5: Mary discovered that water coming from the air conditioner
was pooling under a wall socket.
5.4 Safety reporting system

Employees of any organisation must feel free to report any health and safety issues
to the management of the organisation. By understanding the differences between an
accident, incident and a near miss are not enough, and employees must understand
that even minor incidents or any health and safety issue needs to be reported. By
reporting health and safety incidents will assist the organisation to be proactive and it
will increase the likelihood that failures are noticed and corrected before they may
develop into serious health and safety problems (Technical Safety BC, 2019).
View the following videos concerned with safety reporting:

• The importance of safety reporting (safety management system) by AVISAV
(1:06). Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ioaO8PB2hkc
• Importance of reporting near misses by City of South Burlington, Vermont
(4:14). Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lSqSINycaGs
• Near miss reporting by GoodFella Studioz (4:26). Available from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5T65YRQyVSs
From the videos, it is clear that safety reporting is important, no matter what type of
industry. A safety reporting system will include data on accidents, incidents, near
misses and could also include occupational injuries and illnesses (Alli, 2008). The
safety reporting system should be customised to fit the type of workplace and
organisation. Traditional elements included in a safety reporting system will relate to:
• the event and location

• the date and time
• nature of the event (incident, accident, near miss)
• cause
• injuries
• name of injured person or persons
• description of the event
• witnesses
• medical care required
• corrective measures to address immediate hazards related to incident
(recommendation to mitigate the hazards)
An effective safety reporting system, with a comprehensive data base, will assist in
identifying safety hazards, risks, prioritise resources, develop interventions to mitigate
the hazards and risks and to evaluate the interventions to reduce harm. It will also
benefit the organisation in managing costs, which include the costs associated with
healthcare, injury and wrongful death lawsuits, insurance premiums, government fines
and so on (O’Neill & Wolfe, 2017).
Another benefit of a safety reporting system is to demonstrate the organisation’s
compliance with legislation and regulations, as such a system will show that the
organisation’s policies and procedures are in place to provide a healthy and safe work
environment and that the organisation takes a pro-active approach in health and safety
(Bianca, n.d.)
Activity 5.1 Safety report form

You are the safety officer for Sea Logistics Pty. Sea Logistics is a new company, and
it is your task to develop and compile a safety reporting document for the company.
Ensure that you include all the necessary elements when you develop and compile
the document.
5.5 Importance of a safety culture

It is not always easy to instil a safety culture in an organisation. Watch the video clips
and reflect on the content before continuing with the remainder of this section.
• Safety culture by Montana State Fund (2:57). Available at:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_fpRmqQ9uj8
• Understand what safety culture is in 2mn by SecuriteIndustrielle (2:46).
Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wNdJHmWyPiI
The videos clearly portray what a safety culture is and now we can look at how
important a safety culture is to be linked to a safety reporting system.
Ramírez et al (2018) defines a safety reporting system as a method used to report

accidents, incidents and near misses to enable an organisation to improve on their
safety management system. Ramírez et.al (2018) further state that a safety reporting
system should be voluntary, anonymous and confidential to allow the reporting of
incidents and near misses. Douglas, Cromie, Leva and Balfe (2014) emphasise that
the data of previous incidents and near misses contributes to the safety level of an
organisation. Traditionally, the reporting of incidents and near miss incidents serves
as a basis for identifying hazards and risks. The reporting of incidents and near miss
incidents can be a proactive safety management tool where the causes of possible
accidents that may happen can be identified. Incident and near miss reporting
therefore serves mainly for the enabling of possible faults, errors, and design problems
to be investigated and evaluated (Douglas et al, 2014).
From the above, it is vital that an organisation establishes and maintains a successful
safety reporting system. To enable a successful reporting system the organisation
should have a healthy and successful safety culture as a safety reporting system forms
an integral part of an organisation’s safety culture.
Employee
engagement Safety rules and
Teamwork procedures
Management SAFETY Organisational

commitment learning
CULTURE
Reporting Training
system
Safety
communication
Figure 5.4: Safety reporting system being part of the safety culture
Safety culture can be defined as a set of shared attitudes, beliefs and practices
amongst employees at all levels of an organisation. A healthy, successful and positive
safety culture will connect all the employees around a common goal, such as a
successful safety reporting system (Safesite, 2020). A strong safety culture requires
the involvement of the whole organisation. An organisation should pay close attention
to every employee’s contribution so that safety becomes personal and a healthy,
positive safety cultural can be formed. Common elements of a strong and positive
safety culture include:
• Shared values
• Contribution and engagement from all employees from all levels of the
organisation
• Transparency
• Continual learning
• Proactive, rather than reactive solutions to problems (Safesite, 2020).
An organisation with a strong and positive safety culture will have an impact on incident
reduction and fewer at-risk behaviours. It will also impact on the incident rate, which
will be lower and other organisational management matters, such as low turnover, low
absenteeism and high productivity.
Discussion 5.2: Safety culture

Safety is a way of life and essential to employee safety. Organisations must strive in
establishing a positive safety culture that focuses on mutual trust and shared
perceptions of health and safety. Explain how you will establish a positive safety
culture in your organisation. Share your thoughts with your fellow classmates in the
discussion forum on myUnisa.
5.6 Safety reporting culture as part of the safety culture

History have shown that most safety activities are reactive and not proactive as some
organisations see the costs involved in safety as a burden and the minimum is
budgeted for safety. Unfortunately, such organisations aim only at complying with the
minimum legislation and regulation requirement. It is also these types of organisations
that wait for losses to occur before taking steps to prevent a recurrence. The safety
cultures in these organisations will then obviously be poor or non-existent. There will
be no safety reporting culture where employees are encouraged to report incidents
and near misses. If employees of such organisations have the courage to report near
misses, it is most likely that the incidents will be overseen, preventing reoccurrence
which may lead to serious and sometimes catastrophic incidents. If an organisation
recognises the input of employees and the report of near misses, it will expressively
improve the overall health and safety of the organisation and enhance a strong and
positive safety culture that is necessary for a successful safety reporting system
(Safesite, 2020).
It is therefore important for an organisation to build its success around the health and
safety of their employees. A strong and positive safety culture will improve employee
morale as the employees will feel valued and cared about. Engaged employees and
an organisation that truly focuses on health and safety will contribute to the safety
culture and safety reporting culture of the organisation.
5.7 Establishing a safety reporting culture

Before establishing and developing an effective safety reporting culture, it is vital to
consider the current practices within the organisation and the strength of the safety
culture. As previously mentioned, it is imperative for an organisation to have engaged
employees from all levels of the organisation that will “buy in” the safety reporting
system. If the organisation consists of a positive and strong safety culture, the task of
developing and establishing a safety reporting system will be much easier (Douglas et
al, 2014).
The main purpose of a safety reporting system is to learn from mistakes of previous
incidents and near misses. It is vital to determine the causes of incidents and near
misses and an effective way to determine that is by using the safety reporting system.
The main barrier in developing and establishing an effective safety reporting culture is
that the general feeling among employees is that with reporting near misses, where
there was no injury, damage or loss, these types of incidents are overseen and ignored
(Williamsen, 2013).
Steps in developing and establishing an effective safety culture
• Identify and report all unsafe conditions,

Define expectations e.g., near misses
• Train employees to acknowledge the

importance of reporting near-misses
Provide training
• Train employees to be proactive when it
comes to safety matters
• Keep records of how many incidents and

near misses are reported by employees
Measurement • Keep records of the investigation of the
reported incidents and near misses
• Acknowledge the employees' efforts in

reporting incidents and near misses
• Awards can be in the form of certificates
given to the team/individual that took the
Recognition
most proactive safety steps for the month
• Recognition does not need to be
extravagant and must serve as building a
positive safety morale amongst employees
Source: Williamsen (2013) adapted and changed
Douglas et al (2014) suggest that the following elements will also contribute to
developing an effective safety reporting culture:
• There is a visible commitment to the safety reporting system by the top
management.
• The middle management is actively involved in promoting the safety reporting
system.
• Employees are encouraged to be engaged and actively participate in the safety
reporting system.
• The safety reporting system is flexible and accommodate the different work
areas.
• The safety reporting system is easy to use and free of intimidation of
employees.
• The safety reporting system is perceived as positive by the employees in the
knowledge and recognition that what is reported will be respected and acted
upon.
• The safety reporting system forms part of the organisation’s safety and
reporting cultures.
• The safety reporting system reflects the organisation’s level of safety and
serves as a proactive tool to enhance the safety of employees.
Activity 5.2 Case study

Read the following case study and answer the questions.
On 13 August 2020, at a construction site, a pipe erection (Approx. 6m length and

30cm diameter) was carried out using a hydra crane with a web sling at a height of 6m
in the main pipe rack. The pipe touched on the incoming 440V power cable which was
mounted to a beam. In order to shift the pipe to the desired location, workers used a
chain pulley block to pull the pipe attached to the web sling. As the pulling started, the
cable that was struck, got crushed and punctured. This led to a short circuit of the
Armour and Y phase of the power cable.
Figure 5.5: Steel wire armoured cable
(Source: Instrumentation Tools, n.d.)
The cable caught fire, burned and the Y phase fuse blew off and the web sling also
burned. Electricians immediately reached the spot and disconnected the power supply
of the incoming cable. There was no human injury.
Source: RLS Human Care, n.d. – Adapted and changed by author.
1. Does this case study portray an accident, incident or a near miss incident?
2. Provide two probable causes for the incident.
3. Identify three lessons learnt or recommendations to apply proactive safety
actions.
4. Use your safety reporting form (compiled and developed in activity 5.1) to report
the incident described in the case study.
5. From your answers, justify the safety culture of this organisation.
5.8 Near miss incident reporting system

Although most organisations do not encourage the reporting of near miss incidents,
those with a healthy and positive safety culture will encourage employees to recognise
and report near miss incidents (McKinnon, 2020). The main benefit of a near miss
reporting system is that organisations can investigate the incident and take action to
correct underlying problems. Reducing the number of near miss incidents will fix
problems before they can cause accidents (McKinnon, 2020).
Organisations that take near miss incidents seriously will implement a near miss
reporting system that will form part of the safety reporting system and the safety
management system. Before a near miss incident reporting system can be
implemented, it is necessary to provide training to employees to recognise near miss
incidents and how to report such incidents (McKinnon, 2020).
With the development of a near miss reporting system, McKinnon (2020) suggests
that it should be as simple as possible, portable and always available. McKinnon
(2020) further suggests that a small pocket-size card or booklet will be ideal and most
organisations with a near miss reporting system use this method of reporting.
Martinelli (2018) suggests the following aspects are important when establishing a
near miss incident reporting system:
• Near miss incidents need to be reported to ensure a proactive approach to

workplace safety.
• Train employees to take note and recognise near misses and to report them.
• Encourage employees to participate in the near miss reporting system.
• Demonstrate a positive safety culture by investigating all near misses reported
and provide feedback to the employees.
• Motivate employees to contribute to their own safety and the safety of others in
a responsible manner by using the near miss reporting system.
McKinnon (2020) distinguishes between formal and informal near miss reporting
system:
Informal reporting
Formal reporting • Reporting is verbally, without
• Is the main reporting system filling in of a form or online
reporting
• A reporting form is completed
• Employee reports the near miss
incident verbally to line manager
• The form is handed to the line
or co-worker
management
• Observations and incident recall

• The line manager saves the
sessions are discussed at safety
data into the safety reporting
meetings
system
• The line manager saves the data

• The near miss incident is
into the safety reporting system
investigated
• The near miss incident is

• Feedback on the investigation
investigated
results of the near miss is
provided to the employees
• Feedback on the investigation
results of the near miss is
• Corrective action is taken
provided to the employees
• Corrective action is taken

5.9 Implementation of an accident, incident and near miss incident reporting
process
It is necessary for any organisation to develop a written policy regarding accident,
incident and near miss incident reporting systems. This will form part of the safety
reporting system, which will be included in the safety management system.
(McKinnon, 2020).
Employee responsibility and accountability

If an employee is involved or witnessed an accident, incident or a near miss incident
that employee shall:
• call for help

• notify the supervisor immediately
• make the scene of the accident safe and ensure that site evidence is not
destroyed, unless unavoidable to prevent further injury or damage
• if injured, attend the medical centre/hospital for treatment
• not move an injured employee until medical help arrived
• co-operate with the investigation of the accident/incident/near miss incident
Manager/supervisor/responsible person’s responsibility and accountability

Manager/supervisor/responsible person of the injured employee, in the case of an
accident or incident, or upon being notified of a near miss incident shall:
• arrange for medical attention for the injured employee(s)

• visit the scene of the accident
• make the scene of the accident safe and ensure that site evidence is not
destroyed unless unavoidable to prevent further injury
• nominate an accident investigator
• complete the accident/incident/near miss report form
• notify management
• commence the investigation to determine the root cause of the
accident/incident/near miss incident
Activity 5.3 Near miss reporting
Familiarise yourself with the importance of employee engagement as shown in the

video. Summarise the guideline for employee engagement when it comes to near miss
incident reporting.
Near Miss Reporting – Safety Awareness by GoodFellaStudioZ (4:26). Available
from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5T65YRQyVSs
5.10 Conclusion
In any workplace there are different events happening at the same time. It can be
events, such as performing tasks, communication, different processes and so on.
There can also be those events that draw the attention to what is not usually
happening, such as an accident, incident or the most often unnoticeable near miss
incident. Most events are planned with policies or programmes in place, but the
unplanned events such as accident/incident/near miss incidents need to be recorded
after it has taken place. Unfortunately, these types of reports only records what
happened in the past and do not measure the health and safety efforts and inputs of
an organisation but is vital for establishing a safety system that will protect all
stakeholders from damage and injury (McKinnon, 2020).
An organisation must establish a safety reporting system to form part of the safety
management system. The safety reporting system is developed to manage the data
regarding accidents, incidents and near misses. It is necessary for an organisation to
distinguish between an accident, incident and near miss incidents. (Please refer to the
beginning of this learning unit and ensure you know the difference between them). A
safety reporting system will include data on accidents, incidents, near misses and
could also include occupational injuries and illnesses and should be developed and
customised to fit the type of workplace and organisation. An effective and well-
established safety reporting system will reflect the organisation’s compliance to
legislation and regulations and will form an integral part of the safety management
system of the organisation.
A cornerstone for a successful reporting system is a healthy and positive safety
culture, where the latter is defined as a set of shared attitudes, beliefs and practices
among employees at all levels of an organisation, that connect these employees
around common goals. An organisation with a strong and positive safety culture will
have an impact on incident reduction and fewer at-risk behaviours. Engaged
employees and an organisation that truly focuses on health and safety will contribute
to the safety culture and safety reporting culture of the organisation.
A positive and effective safety culture and safety reporting culture will contribute to
reporting accidents, incidents and near miss incidents. Near miss incidents are often
overseen due to the lack of reporting such incidents. Most employees are fearful in
reporting near miss incidents due to retaliation from management. It is necessary that
an organisation should implement near miss reporting by using a simple, portable, and
always available system. Employees and management must take responsibility and
accountability for an effective safety reporting system.

Five examples of how near miss reporting can stop accidents by HASpod
https://www.haspod.com/blog/management/examples-near-miss-reporting-
stop-accidents
1.1 Name the main goal of near miss reporting.

1.2 Define a near miss.
1.3 Read the five (5) examples of near miss incidents and complete the
following table.
What
What actions
accident can
can be taken to
Hazard be prevented
Example Near miss be proactive in
identified by reporting
the safety of the
the near miss
workplace?
incident?
1 Hammer falls • Hammer Head injury to • Ensuring edge
off a scaffold • Scaffold another protection and
and misses • Scaffold board worker
another • Toe board of scaffold boards
worker scaffold are in place.
• Scaffold
inspection
before it is
singed off
1.4 Name three (3) actions that can be used to prevent future near misses
and accidents.
2. Go to the following website, familiarise yourself with the content and answer the
following questions.
Bird Construction – Near Miss Safety Video 2016 by pacificproducersgrp (8:40)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xrkEDpFJq2o
2.1 Identify five (5) possible causes for near miss incidents happening.
2.2 Provide three (3) reasons for near miss incident reporting.
2.3 Illustrate the four (4) goals of a near miss investigation.
** Remember your answers must be based on the content of the video.
Activity 5.1
Sea Logistics
Safety reporting form
Event and location
Date and time
Nature of event Incident Accident Near miss
Cause
Injuries
Name of injured person/persons
Medical care required
Description of the event
Witnesses
Corrective measures to address
immediate hazards related to incident
(** This serves merely as an example – Students can use their own discretion and
design, if all the elements are included).
Activity 5.2
1. Near miss incident.
2. Causes of the incident
• Pulling on the pipe, resulting in crushing the power cable.
• Damage to the insulation of the power cable, causing the armour and
Y phase to make contact.
3. Lessons learned/recommendations
• Inspection of the site to determine underlying hazards, such as the
power cable.
• The power supply should be switched off with an erection of a pipe
near power cables.
• A single line diagram on the power distribution board panel must be
installed to reduce the time duration to switch off the power supply in
case of an emergency.
• More vigilant supervision when this task is performed in future.
• Inspection of the site before task commences.
• Installation of earth leakage protection for all power supply feeders.
4. Safety incident report
Sea Logistics
Safety reporting form
Event and location Construction site
Date and time 13 August 2020
Nature of event Incident Accident Near miss
Cause • Pulling on the pipe, resulting in
crushing the power cable.
• Damage to the insulation of the power
cable, causing the armour and Y
phase to make contact.
Injuries No human injury
Name of injured person/persons Not applicable (N.A)
Medical care required N.A.
Description of the event A pipe was removed by a crane from a
main pipe rack. Employees pulled on the
pipe. The pipe touched a power cable
mounted to a beam. The pulling caused
the cable isolation to damage. The
Armour and Y phase made contact
leading to a short. The cables were set
on fire. The electric power was switched
off by bystanders.
Witnesses Yes
Corrective measures to address See recommendations in number 3
immediate hazards related to incident above.
5. Justify the safety culture of the organisation

It is assumed that this organisation does not have a positive and successful safety
culture.
• They need to make safety an integral part of the job with better communication.
The management must lead by example. They need to improve on their safety
inspections and provide a competent on-site safety manager.
• Safety must be part of the planning process therefore a job safety analysis can be
done to take proper control and implement safety measures before the work starts.
• Better fall protection needs to be considered and a fall protection management plan
needs to form part of the safety culture.
• Regular on-site safety inspections is necessary to improve safety on specific
unsafe behaviours, equipment and competencies.
** This is merely an example. The student can use their own discretion to substantiate
the safety culture portrayed in the case study.
Activity 5.3
Summary of employee engagement according to content of video:
1. Educate/train employees the importance of near miss reporting.

2. Follow a no blame culture to motivate employees to report hazards and near
miss incidents.
3. Empower employees to participate in identifying hazards even before a near
miss incident take place.
4. Communication with employees must be open and regular to make employees
comfortable in reporting near miss incidents.
5. Create a reporting culture.
6. Provide feedback to employees on reported near miss incidents to enable
employees to be motivated to report and feel valuable.
7. Promote incentive, even if it is only a certificate to acknowledge their input in
identifying hazards and reporting near miss incidents.

1.1 Reducing possible accidents.
1.2 Near miss is an undesired event that, under slightly different circumstances,
could have resulted in harm to people or damage to property, materials or the
environment.
1.3
What
What actions
accident can
can be taken to
Hazard be prevented
Example Near miss be proactive in
identified by reporting
the safety of the
the near miss
workplace?
incident?
1 Hammer falls • Hammer Head injury to • Ensuring edge
off a scaffold • Scaffold another protection and
and misses • Scaffold board worker scaffold boards
another • Toe board of are in place.
worker scaffold • Scaffold
inspection
before it is
singed off
2 Employee • Extension Slip and trip • Plug cables

trips over cable in accident closer to where
extension middle of they are
cable – regain office needed.
footing and • Route cables
continue away from traffic
walking.
3 Delivery • Delivery Serious • Implement one-

vehicle vehicle Accident way system on
reversing off • Unsecured site.
site and exit from site. • Enforces it with
almost signage,
collided with barriers.
pedestrian. • Provide
someone to
regulate the
movement from
vehicles and
pedestrians.
• Provide a mirror
for the blind
spot.
4 Supervisor • Small leak in Slip and trip • Roof is fixed

steps into a rooflight accident
puddle of
water in a
warehouse.
5 Worker on a • Out of reach Work at • Storage

chair, reaching storage heights rearranged to
items on a • Chairs used bring regularly
shelf that are as ladder used items
out of reach within reach of
from ground floor level.
level. Chair • Safer access
swivels and equipment
worker jumps (stepping
down. stool/ladder).
1.4 Report near miss incidents, address the incident and take action to prevent
reoccurrence.
2.1 Unsafe conditions

No standardised procedures
Not keeping up with newer processes
Insufficient training
Unsafe tools
Unsafe acts by employees, for example cutting corners
Lack of safety awareness
2.2 Identify workplace hazards

Produces tolerance for risks
Avoid and prevent future accidents
What happened?
2.3
Determine the root cause of Rethink the safety hazards
incident
Four goals of near miss

investigation
Intoduce ways to prevent

Establish training needs
reoccurrence
References
Alli, BO. 2008. Fundamental principles of occupational health and safety. 2nd edition.
Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office.
AVISAV. 2019. The importance of safety reporting (Safety management system)

Video (1:06). Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ioaO8PB2hkc
Bianca, A. n.d. Safety reporting systems. Small business. Chron. Available from:
https://smallbusiness.chron.com/safety-reporting-systems-
16904.html#:~:text=Safety%20reporting%20systems%20are%20used,the%20industr
y%20and%20the%20organization [Accessed on 26 October 2020].
Bird Construction. 2016. Near miss reporting – safety awareness [video]. Available
from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xrkEDpFJq2o [Accessed on 22 January
2021].
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). 2020. Incident
investigation: OSH answers. Available from:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/investig.html [Accessed on 26
November 2020].
City of South Burlington, Vermont. 2019. Importance of reporting near misses. Video
(4:14). Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lSqSINycaGs [Accessed
on 29 July 2021].
Douglas, E, Cromie, S, Leva, MC, Balfe, N. 2014. Modelling the reporting culture
within a modern organisation. Chemical Engineering Transactions, 36, 589-594. doi:
10.3303/CET1436099.
GoodFellaStudioZ. 2019. Near miss reporting – safety awareness. Video (4:26).

Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5T65YRQyVSs [Accessed on 29
July 2021].
Instrumentation Tools. n.d. Steel wire armoured cable. Available from:
https://instrumentationtools.com/armoured-cable/ [Accessed 29 July 2021].
Konstakorhonen. n.d. In Shutterstock Royalty-free stock vector ID: 1293819550.

Unsafe condition, Unsafe act, Near miss, Accident. Available from:
https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/unsafe-condition-act-near-miss-accident-
1293819550 [Accessed on 29 July 2021].
RLS Human Care. n.d. Sharing of near miss/ accident cases at construction sites
Case Study- 2. Available from: https://rlsdhamal.com/sharing-of-near-miss-accident-
cases-at-construction-sites-case-study-2/ [Accessed on 10 January 2021].
Safesite. 2020. Core attributes of a world-class safety culture. Available from:

https://safesitehq.com/safety-culture/#:~:text=The%20Bottom%20Line-
,What%20is%20Safety%20Culture%3F,reduce
%20near%20misses%20and%20incidents [Accessed on 08 January 2021].
SMS Pro. n.d. Confidential safety reporting system. Available from: https://www.asms-
pro.com/WhatisSMSPro/ConfidentialSafetyReportingSystem.aspx [Accessed on 26
October 2020].
Morrison, KW. 2014. Reporting near misses: Why are they important and how can
safety pros get employees involved? Available from:
https://www.safetyandhealthmagazine.com/articles/10994-reporting-near-misses
[Accessed on 04 January 2021].
O’Neill, S & Wolfe, K. 2017. Measuring and reporting on work health and safety.
Available from:
https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/system/files/documents/1802/measuring-and-
reporting-on-work-health-and-safety.pdf [Accessed on 25 November 2020].
Ramírez, E, Martin, A, Villán, Y, Lorente, M, Ojeda, J, Moro, M, Vara, C, Avenza, M,
Domingo, MJ, Alonso, P, Asensio, M, Blázquez, JA, Hernández, R, Frías, J & Frank,
A. 2018. Effectiveness and limitations of an incident-reporting system analyzed by
local clinical safety leaders in a tertiary hospital. Prospective evaluation through real-
time observations of patient safety incidents. Medicine, 97, e12509.
doi: 10.1097/MD.0000000000012509.
Williamsen, M. 2013. Near-miss reporting - a missing link in safety culture.

Professional Safety Journal, 58(05), 46-50. Available from:
https://onepetro.org/PS/article-abstract/58/05/46/33181/Near-Miss-Reporting-A-
Missing-Link-in-Safety?redirectedFrom=PDF [Accessed on 09 January 2021].
LEARNING UNIT 6: JOB SAFETY ANALYSIS BEING PART OF THE SAFETY
PROCESS
Learning outcomes
On completion of this learning unit and chapters 16, 61, 63 and 65 in the prescribed
1. Explain job safety analysis (JSA) as part of the safety process.

2. Apply the risk assessment process in JSA.
3. Establish the impact of human error on safety risks.
4. Explain the role of job design in JSA and apply the concepts
of risk reduction through design.
5. Evaluate the methods of ensuring personal, electrical and mechanical
Safeguarding.
6. Examine the hierarchy of controls for occupational hazards and risks.
7. Classify and determine the use of personal protective equipment.
Key concepts
Job safety analysis
Risk assessment
Risk assessment process
Human factors
Job safety
Job design
Personal safeguarding
Electrical safeguarding
Mechanical safeguarding
Personal protective equipment (PPE)
6.1 Introduction
McKinnon (2020) explains that the key factors of a health and safety management
system is management leadership and involvement, as well as employee
engagement, where the latter “buys” into the health and safety of the organisation. To
guide the management of an organisation in controlling areas of potential loss and to
set standards, a safety management system (SMS) will prescribe elements, processes
and programmes that will assist in risk reduction and what should be done to establish
a sustainable basis to maintain workplace risk as low as reasonably practicable. The
focus of this learning unit is JSA as being part of the safety processes and safety
design in the workplace.
6.2 Job safety analysis

A JSA is a procedure used to integrate accepted safety and health principles and
practices into a specific task or job (CCOHS, 2016). Job safety analysis as part of the
health and safety process, entails the process of analysing and assessing various jobs
and comparing it with one another within an organisation. This means that a JSA is a
systematic procedure that breaks each job into sequences, identifying the safety
elements and to train employees how to avoid potential safety hazards. A job safety
analysis will ensure consistent and safe work methods, reduce injuries, and provide
documentation regarding employees’ knowledge of the job, the safety requirements
and if the job complies with the OHS requirements. The JSA process is complex and
involve risks and is best handled through risk management (McKinnon, 2020). A JSA
is also known as a job hazard analysis (JHA).
6.2.1 Quick facts about a job safety analysis
• Main goal is to understand, review, minimise or eliminate hazards associated

with a specific job.
• When? - Before commencement of a specific job.
• After any modification to an existing job process.
• Can include a risk assessment to evaluate hazard occurrence probability and
to determine the risk severity and consequences.
• Determine the effectiveness of hazard and risk control and preventive
measures used.
Familiarise yourself with the following videos:

• Job Safety Analysis – Training (28:38) by Risk Central. Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yWgfcXc9ap8&t=13s
• Job Hazard Analysis (JHA) (4:43) by Your ACSA Safety. Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8XpNhrMrggE
6.2.2 Steps in a job safety analysis

The steps in a JSA are followed to identify potential hazards and to recommend the
safest way to do the job in every step. It is essential that every JSA is written down on
a JSA worksheet that is unique to the job and organisation.
• Identify/choose the
1 specific job
2 • Break the job into steps
3 • Identify the hazards
• Determine control
4 measures
5 • Communicate and implement the

controls
6 • Review and update
Figure 6.1: Steps for conducting a JSA

Source: ETQ, 2017 – Adapted and changed
Step 1:
The Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS, 2016)
recommends that a JSA must be done for all jobs, which is most often seen by
organisations as time consuming. For the latter it is necessary to identify which jobs
need to be analysed. To identify or choose a specific job, the following can be
considered:
• Accident frequency and severity regarding the jobs within the organisation.
• Potential severity (injuries/illnesses) and consequences of accidents,
hazardous condition, exposure to harmful products.
• New established jobs as there will be a lack of experience in doing the job and
hazards related to the new job may not be evident or anticipated.
• Modified operations to existing jobs, where new hazards may be associated
with changes in the job procedures.
• Infrequently performed jobs where employees may be at greater risk due to
non-routine jobs.
Step 2
The identified/chosen job needs to be break down into steps. Each step must be in a
sequence and must be kept in their correct sequence. This part of the JSA is done by
observation of how the job tasks are executed, usually by the supervisor. It is important
that the job observer have experience and capability in all parts of the job tasks. When
the sequence of the breakdown of the steps are completed, each step should be
discussed by all the employees performing the job to ensure that all the basic steps
are recorded and in the correct order (sequence). All involved should also contribute
to potential hazard identification and the recommended prevention is taken to control
the risks. During this step an additional column can be added to determine the severity
level of the risk the identified hazards pose.
The following is an example of the format which can be used for step 2:
Table 6.1: Example of JSA worksheet, explaining step 2

Sequence of Basic Potential Hazards Risk Recommended
Job Steps Severity Preventive Action
Level or Procedure
Examination of Eye injuries 2 Wear eye protection.
underside of
vehicles
Battery work Eye injuries, acid 9 Wear eye protection,
spills, explosion utilize safety junction
box starting vehicle
with jumper cables,
and wear gloves and
protective coveralls.
Using hand-held Pinches, finger 6 Use tools for which
tools jams they were designed.
Use proper size
required to prevent
slips. Keep tools
clean and in proper
working condition.
Discard broken or
malfunctioning tools.
Spills and general Trips, falls 6 Put material and
clean up tools away in proper
place. Clean up spills
when they happen.
Working under lifted Bodily injuries 9 Use safety
vehicles (when hoist standards.
is not used)
Source: CCOHS, 2016 – adapted and changed
Step 3
Following the above example, Step 3, which is the identification of possible hazards
for each of the job steps, will be listed in the second column. During this step, it is also
important to get the insight from all the employees performing the job as they know
first-hand what the job entails.
Although the next column is not indicated as a step, it is necessary to determine the
level of the risks each hazard identified poses. Here the risk matrix can be used, which
will be explained later in learning unit.
Step 4
During this step, it must be determined the ways to eliminate or control the identified
hazards. The accepted measures in order of preference are:
i. Eliminate the hazard
ii. Contain the hazard
iii. Revise the work procedures
iv. Reduce the exposure
Step 5 and 6
These two steps focus on communicating and monitoring the findings of step 1 to 4.
6.2.3 The JSA worksheet
The following is a sample form for a JSA worksheet as provided by CCOHS (2016).
Table 6.2: Sample of JSA worksheet

Name of Organisation
Job Safety Analysis Worksheet

Job: Here the name of the identified/chosen job will be used, e.g.
Equipment Mechanics
PPE requirements: Provide all the PPE required for the job
Analysis by: Name of person Reviewed by: Name of person
Date: Date Date: Date
Approved by: Name of person Date: Date
Level or Procedure
Source: CCOHS, 2016 – adapted and changed
6.3 Risk assessment

Risk is all about uncertainty and risk assessment is about determining the potential
probability, frequency and severity of loss which are caused by hazards, resulting in
risks. It is therefore essential for hazards to be identified, and possible risks associated
by the hazards be assessed (Thomas, 2020).
Risk assessment forms part of risk management process and aims at identifying
potential hazards related to a task, job or operation. Risk assessment will analyse the
level of risk associated with the identified hazards, and will propose controls to reduce
the level of risk (Lellis, 2021). Risks can be managed through routine monitoring,
management reviews, audits, and checking of legislative and regulatory compliance
against an organisation’s documented SMS. A well designed and operated SMS will
reduce accidents and improves the overall management processes of an organisation
(McKinnon, 2020).
McKinnon (2020) states that an organisation’s SMS must be risk-based to align the
risks arising from the workplace. Therefore, risk assessment allows the organisation
to attempt to prepare for the unexpected by minimising risks and extra costs before
risks happen. Risk assessment will assist the organisation to plan proactively by
identifying and controlling hazards and risks.
Familiarise yourself with the following videos:

• Risk assessment (3:50) by Montana State Fund. Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xnVomQcRux8
• Safety risk assessment video training (2:42) by Doig Corporation. Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BVh2iOMUvik
6.3.1 Steps for risk assessment

It is essential for hazards to be identified to determine the possible risks associated
with the hazards. This can be done by five simple steps.
Figure 6.2: Five-step risk assessment process

Source: Thomas, 2020 & Worksmart, n.d. – adapted and changed
6.3.2 Applying the five steps of the risk assessment process
Worldwide working at height is considered a major safety risk. Working at height brings
about the possibility of falls and statistics show that falls from heights are the biggest
cause of deaths in the workplace. Falling (from height or slips) also contributes to a
high percentage of major injury, such as broken bones and fractured skulls. In order
to apply the risk management process, it is important to look at the design of the
equipment used in a task and the design of the task itself (RRC, 2011).
For example:
Work needs to be done on a fragile roof, where the latter can be described as a roof
sheeted with materials that will not safely support a person’s weight and can shatter
without warning.
Identify the Falling through or from the roof

hazards Falling objects
Fall from height - Likelihood (3) x Consequence (3) =

Analyse the Risk Skore (9) - High
risks Falling objects - Likelihood (2) x Consequence (3) =
Risk Skore (6) - Medium
Evaluate/rank Falling magnitude = High risk level

Falling object magnitude = Medium risk level
the risk Both risk levels indicate that it warrents treatment
Falling - Install safety net, scaffolding
Treat the Install suitable guard rails and toe boards at

edges of of work platform
risks Falling objects = Raise and lower tools and materials to and
from the roof
Monitor & Supervice the treatment implemented in the previous

step by monitoring, and review treatment to determine
review the effectiveness
risks This is an ongoing process
Figure 6.3: Applying the five steps of the risk assessment process
Source: Thomas, 2020 – adapted and changed
Table 6.3: Example of a risk assessment form
Step Activity Hazard Associated Persons Risk Matrix Control
Involved Risk at Risk Likelihood Consequence Risk Measures
Value
1
2
3
4
5
Source: Author, 2021.
6.3.3 Risk assessment matrix

A risk assessment matrix is used when a risk assessment is conducted and is a visual
tool that represents the potential risks and based on two intersecting factors, namely
the likelihood and the consequence (severity) of the risk involved. It is essential to
understand the following terminology:
• Likelihood – the most likely chance that a hazard will impact safety
• Severity – is the most likely consequence of a specific hazard posing harm
brought by a hazard (also known as consequence)
• Risk level – determine the likelihood and severity a specific hazard create. This
can be calculated by multiplying the likelihood with the severity.
For example:
If a car mechanic must examine the underside of a vehicle, it poses the hazard
of things falling in the mechanic’s eyes. The potential risk is then eye injuries.
How likely is it for the mechanic to sustain injury to his eyes? (Likely, possible
or rarely).
How serious might the consequence of such and injury be? (slight; serious,
major)
What is the risk level? (low; medium; high, extremely high)
On the risk assessment key:

Likelihood - likely = 3; possible = 2; rarely = 1
Severity (consequence) – slight = 1; serious = 2; major = 3
There is a possibility that the mechanic might sustain a serious eye injury.
Therefore: Likelihood x Severity = Risk level
2x2=4
The risk is medium; therefore, this hazard/risk needs control
measures.
Table 6.4: Example of a risk assessment key

S = Hazard Severity (Consequence)
Risk Assessment = L X S
1 = Slight 2 = Serious 3 = Major
3 = Likely Medium High Extremely High
L = Likelihood 2 = Possible Low Medium High
1 = Rarely Low Low Medium
Source: Wolters Kluwer, 2018 – adapted and changed
Table 6.5: Example of a risk descriptor

Score Risk level Risk descriptor
1-2 Low Risk is acceptable and unlikely to require specific
application of controls
3-4 Medium Risk is acceptable and unlikely to cause damage and/or
threaten harm if correct control is implemented.
6 High Risk is not acceptable and is likely to cause some damage
and harm. Needs strict control measures.
9 Extremely high Risk is absolutely not acceptable and harm and damage
might be catastrophic. A plan needs to be in place to
mitigate the risk.
Source: Wolters Kluwer, 2018 – adapted and changed
There are different risk assessment keys and risk descriptors. An organisation will
choose their own to use that will suit the uniqueness of their organisation.
6.4 The difference between job safety analysis and risk assessment
Looking at what JSA and risk assessment are, both seem similar since both are tools
used in reducing risks and being proactive in health and safety. Both risk assessment
and JSA share some basic principles, but are not the same. Job safety analysis
involves only job-specific risks and risk assessment considers all the operational risks.
For further information go to the following website:
• Here’s the difference between JSA and risk assessment by Sitemate,
available at: https://sitemate.com/us/resources/articles/safety/difference-
between-jsa-risk-assessment/
6.5 Human factors impacting job safety

Human factors in relation to JSA is vital as the aim is to optimise human performance
and reduce human failures that may contribute to the health and safety
incidents/accidents. The approach to JSA is to control the identified hazards and the
risk it may pose when a job is carried out by employees. Human factors, therefore,
play a significant role in the job tasks or job activities (Smith, Koop & King, 2011).
To familiarise yourself with the link between JSA and human factors, go to:
Understanding human factors in occupational safety by EKU Online at:
https://safetymanagement.eku.edu/blog/understanding-human-factors-in-
occupational-safety/
The World Health Organisation (2016) defines human factors as a scientific discipline
concerned with the understanding of the interaction between humans (individuals with
each other), other elements of a system (equipment and facilities) and organisational
management systems. Human factors can be categorised as environmental,
organisational and job factors which are influence by human behaviour and can affect
the health and safety system of an organisation. No hazards or risks can be fully
eliminated, but various methods can be used to analyse and understand the
organisational or task related human factors to prevent or mitigate risk caused by
human error or behaviour. One of the methods being the risk management process,
other examples are safety culture evaluation, human error identification, task
analyses, to mention but a few.
The design of job tasks developed during recent years and is driven by technology,
requirements and skills of the individuals performing the job. Therefore, human factors
can be grouped into three aspects that are interlinked and overlapping each other.
These human factors are the organisation, the job/tasks and the individual (human).
Organisation Individual
•Management and •Individual
employees characteristics
•Safety culture •Behaviour and
•Management attitude
systems •Qualification and
skills
Job
•Tasks
•Workplace and
equipment design
•Environment
Figure 6.4: Human factors impacting job design and safety

Source: Savunen (2020) – adapted and changed
Considering job factors, it is important to include the way a job is designed to interact
with the individual, equipment, and the workplace. This interaction and design will have
a direct effect on the health and safety of the individual (employee). Important task
factors, such as length of shifts, frequency of breaks, task workload, physical and
mental demands of the job will influence the human performance and will affect the
individual and the effectivity of the work system, impacting consequently the health
and safety of the employees and the organisation’s health and safety system (All
Answers Ltd., 2018).
Discussion 6.1: Human error
Human error is a significant source of risk in any organisation and has consistently
been cited as a major causal factor in a high percentage of accidents and incidents.
There have been an increasing number of incidents at your workplace and
investigation shown that human error such as: active errors, slips and lapses, ruled
based mistakes and routine violations contributed to these incidents. Discuss these
variations of human error and what control can be applied to each type of error on the
discussion forum.
6.6 Job design impacting job safety

Job design can be defined as how tasks are organised to ensure that they are
matching the employees. A job design therefore fit the job to the worker and not the
other way round (Daniels, Gedikli, Watson, Semkina & Vaughn, 2017). A job design
will include factors such as:
• job demands and job control

• skill use
• task variety
• role clarity
• variety in tasks
• support and social contact in the workplace
• employment security (Daniels, Gedikli, Watson, Semkina & Vaughn, 2017).
Job design, equipment, information and work environment, all play a vital role in the
variety of individual (human) capabilities, experience, qualification and limitations to
work effectively and ensure a healthy and safe work environment. The suggestion of
McKinnon (2020) by using an employee job specification to ensure that the correct
person is selected for the correct job, will specify the physical and cognitive aptitudes
and attitudes required for the job. McKinnon (2020) further suggests that an employee
specification should be used to reduce the chances of frustration, mismatching, stress,
and so on which can lead to human error impacting on the organisation’s health and
safety system. Vasile and Croitoru (2012) explain that employees with the appropriate
attitudes and awareness of the risks, as well as the appropriate training and personal
development will increase efficient and safe work procedures, which means reducing
risks. This can only be accomplished if the employees understand the design of the
work, equipment, work environment and the risks involved. A well-designed job should
permit an employee to feel competent and valued, maximise productivity, and provide
for a healthy and safe workplace.
A job design can directly influence the health and safety of the employee and the
workplace. With the design of a job, the general principles of prevention need to be
taken into account. The principles of prevention are a hierarchy of risk elimination and
reduction and can be presented as follows in a descending order of preference:
Avoid risks
Evaluate unavoidable risks
Combat risks at source
Adapt work to the individual, especially the design of places of work
Adapt the place of work to technical progress
Replace dangerous articles, substances, or systems of work by non-dangerous or

less dangerous articles, substances or systems
Give appropriate training and instruction to employees
Figure 6.5: Principles of prevention

Source: Health and Safety Authority (n.d.) – adapted and changed
6.7 Personal, electrical and mechanical safeguarding

With a JSA it is necessary to identify the hazards and risks associated with performing
a specific job and be familiar with what the job requires. It is therefore vital that
safeguarding, whether it is personal, electrical or mechanical, is kept in mind when a
JSA is conducted. Personal, electrical and mechanical safeguarding provide additional
services that is necessary to support the JSA. To understand the connection between
a JSA and personal, electrical and mechanical safeguarding, it is necessary to explain
what each safeguarding entails.
The Oxford Online Dictionary define the term “safeguarding” as protection from harm
or damage with an appropriate measure. Personal safeguarding therefore means that
an organisation needs to take into account the views, wishes, feelings and beliefs of
their employees when decisions are made. Humans all have different preferences,
histories, circumstances and lifestyles and by making safeguarding personal aims to
develop an outcome that is acceptable for all employees. The JSA will include the
organisation’s standards and legislation when it comes to personal safeguarding. This
is also the reason why employees should have the opportunity to participate in the
safeguarding process and JSA without the fear of prosecution, victimisation,
discrimination and so on.
Safe Work Australia (2012) explains that electrical risks are risks of death, electric
shock or other injury caused directly or indirectly by electricity in a workplace. Methods
that can be used to ensure electrical safeguarding are: regular safety audits,
modification in safety practices when electrical safeguarding is compromised, the
correct use of electrical equipment, training and information on the use of electrical
equipment. All of the above-mentioned electrical safeguarding methods will be used
when a JSA is conducted. McKinnon (2020) explains that electrical safety is a wide
field and will differ from organisation to organisation, therefore a few basic guidelines
will be given in this learning unit. The Electrical Machinery Regulations (2011) governs
the design manufacturing, installation, selling, using employers and suppliers of
electrical machinery. The South African government also introduced the Certificate of
Compliance (CoC) in 1993 and the OHS Act, 85 of 1993, Regulation R. 242 of 2009,
SANS 10142-1 are included in the CoC requirements. McKinnon (2020) suggests that
an organisation can develop and implement an electrical safety programme to serve
as a guideline for how employees should work safely around electrical parts and
equipment. Such a programme should identify electrical hazards as well as job safe
practices for working on or near areas where electrical hazards and risks have been
identified. An electrical safety programme and the standards and legislation will serve
as a guideline in conducting a JSA.
Mechanical safeguarding relates to the safeguarding of machinery where employees
are exposed to using machines to perform their job tasks. Machinery can be defined
as an assembly of linked parts or components, where at least one part or component
moves, has control and energy circuits and so on. The Canadian Centre for
Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS) (2018) indicates that mechanical
safeguarding includes exposure to moving parts of machines, heat or cold, noise,
vibration, hydraulic system, psychosocial risks, including stress, job content, cognitive
factors and so on. The South African Standard on the Safety of machinery (SANS
12100:2013) governs the general principles for design of machinery. According to the
standard, risk reduction lies with the machine design firstly, where the lifespan of the
machine, the use of it, what and how it will be used are set out. It is also the
responsibility of the designer to compile a risk evaluation to determine the levels of
risk surrounding the machine (Eltze, 2015).
Table 6.6: General hazards, risks and injury associated with machinery and
equipment that might be identified in a JSA
Hazard Risk Injury
Rotating shafts, pullies, sprockets and Entanglement Bruising,
gears dislocation,
amputation
Hard surfaces moving together Crushing Laceration,
bruising,
suppression
Scissor/shear action Severing Cuts, laceration,
amputation
Sharp edge – moving/stationary Cutting/puncturing Puncture, cuts,
laceration,
amputation
Cable/hose connections Slips, trips and falls Electrical shock,
breaks, sprains,
dislocation
Source: Queensland Government, 2019
With a JSA the obvious hazards and risks are usually easy to identify, but working with
or around machinery and electrical equipment, non-mechanical hazards and risks,
such as human factors are also present. Non-mechanical hazards and risks also
include dust, mist (vapours/fumes), noise, heat, cold, molten materials, steam and so
on. Sometimes they were also caused by machinery and electrical equipment affecting
the work environment. Employees can be exposed to these hazards and risks for
many years which will cause serious injury if not adequately controlled.
6.7.1 Methods ensuring safeguarding

Mechanical and electrical related injuries are numerous and can be catastrophic. Risks
associated with working with or around machines and electrical equipment can be
reduced and prevented by making use of safeguards.
Guards
• Fixed – barrier, permanent part of machine.
• Interlocked – when opened/removed – tripping mechanism and/or

power automatically shuts off/disengages.
• Adjustable – barrier can be adjusted to facilitate variety of

operations.
• Self-adjusting – barrier moves according to size of tock entering

danger area.
Figure 6.6: Safeguarding methods (machine guards)

Source: Gibson, 2014 – adapted and changed
Devices
• Pullback – series of cables attached to operator’s hands, wrists, and/or

arms. Allows access to point of operation when slide/ram is up and
withdraws when slide/ram begins to descend.
• Restraint – cables/straps attached to operator’s hands and fixed point. Must

be adjusted to let operator’s hands travel within a predetermined safe area.
Devices (continue)
• Safety controls (physical restraint devices):

– tripwire cables: located around perimeter of or near danger area.
Operator must reach cable to stop machine.
– two-handed control: machine requires constant, concurrent pressure to
be activated. Operator’s hands must be at safe location, on the control
buttons, at a safe distance from danger area while machine completes
closing cycle.
• Gates – movable barrier protecting at the point of operation before

machine cycle can be started. Gate must fully close before machine will
function.
Figure 6.7: Safeguarding methods (machine and electrical safeguarding

devices)
Source: Gibson, 2014 – adapted and changed
Safeguarding methods should always take the principles of safe design and the
hierarchy of control into account. Please study the examples of control methods as
provided by the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (2021), available
at: https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/safety_haz/safeguarding/general.html.
Activity 6.1 Safeguarding in the workplace

A new job position (metal polisher) was introduced at your workplace. As the
supervisor you were part of the job safety analysis and recruitment process. The
following hazards/risks were identified:
• Small pieces of material and polish can “fly” towards the operator.
• The objects that need to be polished can “fly” out of the operator’s hands.
• Lose clothing (jacket, shirt, tie, etc), long hair, jewellery could be caught in the
rotating part of the machine (rotating mop).
• Any incident that may need to stop the machine quickly.
1. Apply the risk management process to rank and prioritise the level of risk for each
identified hazard/risk.
2. With the treatment of the hazard/risk phase of the risk management process,
apply safeguarding.
3. Use the risk assessment key (table 6.4) and risk descriptor (table 6.5) for analysis
of the hazards/risks.
6.8 Personal protective equipment

The identification and mitigation of exposure to work hazards is always the first steps
that need to be taken with a JSA. This can be done by making use of the general
hierarchy of controls for occupational hazards and risks. The hierarchy of controls are
closely related to the hierarchy of prevention and include the following:
• Elimination – this includes the physical removal of a hazard.
• Substitution – the hazard is replaced to reduce the severity and likelihood.
• Engineering controls – people are isolated from the hazard.
• Administrative controls – this process change the way people work.
• Personal protective equipment (PPE) – equipment used by employees to
protect them from the hazard.
The hierarchy of controls starts with the controls perceived to be the most effective
(elimination) and moves down to the least effective (PPE) method of control. From
this, it is seen that PPE is the least effective method of control and should be
implemented as the last resort to protect employees from risks and hazards in the
workplace. Unfortunately, many organisations handle the hierarchy of control the other
way around, by providing PPE as the first step in protecting employees and controlling
hazards.
The OHS Act, 85 of 1993 states clearly that PPE is considered the last line of defence
against employee injury and illness and is acceptable when controls higher in the
hierarchy, such as engineering and administrative controls are not feasible. The
occupational health and safety regulations state that PPE must be worn by employees
to reduce exposure to hazards (NIOH, 2020). Legislation further states that it is the
responsibility of the employers to provide employees with suitable PPE and clothing,
free of cost.
PPE can be defined as clothing and equipment designed with the aim to protect
employees against different levels of hazards. The main objective thus is to reduce
exposure to hazards. It is vital for organisations to select the correct PPE for the correct
job. McKinnon (2020) suggests that employees should be included in selecting PPE
and management can consider forming a PPE committee. A PPE committee should
include employees of the purchasing department, production departments and
employees from other sectors of the organisation. This will ensure that the employees
have a say in the selection of PPE and it will ensure employee engagement in the
safety of the organisation and enhance the organisational safety culture (McKinnon,
2020). The selection of PPE also requires an investigation into safe work methods and
procedures, as well as risk assessment to determine the degree of PPE required and
the appropriateness of the PPE to suit the job to ensure the reduction of exposure of
hazards (NIOH, 2020). There are different types of PPE and the selection depends on
the type of hazards and risks.
Head protection
Eye protection
Ear protection
Respiratory
protection Face protection
Body protection
Hand protection
Foot protection
Figure 6.8: Different types of PPE

Source: Strålin, 2021 – adapted and changed
Head protection is designed to protect the employee against falling materials, swinging
objects and knocking against stationary objects. Head protection in the form of caps
or hair nets provide protection against entanglement or scalping on machinery.
Examples include helmets, hard hats and hair nets (Strålin, 2021).
Ear protection is also known as hearing protection and is designed to protect

employees against noise, where the sound levels average over 85dBa. Examples
include: disposable earplugs, reusable earplugs, hearing band (Strålin, 2021).
The names “eye and face protection” say it all, these devices are designed to protect
the eyes and faces of workers against spills, splashes, “flying” objects and so on.
Examples include safety glasses and goggles, eye and face shields, eyewear
accessories and visors (Strålin, 2021).
Most of the common injuries in a workplace are to the hands, arms and fingers of
workers and hand protection will ensure that these areas are protected against heat,
cold, vibrations, burns, cuts, bacteriological risks and so on. Examples include work
gloves and gauntlets and wrist cuff arm nets (Strålin, 2021).
Foot protection is designed to protect the feet of workers against exposure to extreme
temperatures, crushing, piercing, slipping, cutting, electricity and so on. Examples
include safety boots, safety shoes and anti-static and conductive footwear.
Body protection is design in the form of clothing for protection against weather
conditions, high-visibility, extreme temperatures, entanglement, drowning, chemical
contamination and so on. Examples include life jackets, clothing for specific weather
conditions and harnesses. Harnesses are included in the body protection class and
specifically designed to protect employees when they are working at height and
access points. Examples of height and access protection include fall-arrest systems,
lowering harnesses, rescue lifting jackets and harnesses and energy absorbers.
The last type of PPE is respiratory protection which is specifically design to protect
employees against gases, powders, dust and vapours. Examples include breathing
apparatus, full face/half mask respirators, powered respirators, protective hoods,
disposable face masks, detectors and monitors. It is vital that employees are trained
in the correct use of the respiratory protection equipment to ensure effective protection
against hazards and risks that may cause respiratory illnesses (Strålin, 2021).
Activity 6.2 Personal protective equipment in the workplace

You are a supervisor in a welding company. The job specification for a welder requires
the employees to wear specific PPE. Some of the more experienced and older welders
are often ignoring the instruction to wear PPE as they feel they are experienced
enough in doing the job and the PPE hinder them in completing their job faster.
Use the internet or any other source of information to complete the following questions.
1. List five (5) possible hazards and risks associated with a welding job.
2. Name five (5) types of PPE required for a welder with an example of each.
3. In your opinion what are the employees in the case scenario guilty of?
4. From a management position (supervisor) what recommendations will you give
to eliminate the bad behaviour of the employees in the case scenario?
5. Provide a reference list for your answers.
The OHS Act 85 of 1993 requires the employer to provide a healthy and safe work
environment. Although PPE is the last line of control, some jobs require the wear of
PPE. Where the job specification and legislation require PPE, it is the duty of the
employer to provide the correct PPE as well as training in the use of it. The employee
has the duty to wear the PPE correctly, maintain and store it properly. The information,
instruction and training will provide the employees how to maintain, clean and dispose
the PPE.
The PPE information and instruction will cover the following aspects:
• the risk present and why PPE is needed

• the operation, performance and limitations of the equipment
• use and storage
• testing requirements before use
• user maintenance (cleaning, storage, hygiene)
• factors that may affect the performance of the equipment
• recognising defects in the PPE and the reporting of the defects
• replacement of PPE (Healthy Working Lives, 2020)
Activity 6.3 Levels of PPE
Go to the following website and familiarise yourself with the four (4) levels of PPE
when working with hazardous chemicals. Summarise and distinguish between these
levels.
https://www.mscdirect.com/betterMRO/safety/video-ppe-levels-match-protective-
clothing-job
6.9 Conclusion
The key factors of an organisation’s health and safety management system is
management leadership and involvement, as well as employee engagement. Through
these factors it is essential for an organisation to conduct proper JSA to determine and
measure the demands, complexity and responsibility, as well as the competencies of
the employees to carry out the jobs effectively and safely. A JSA is a procedure used
to integrate accepted safety and health principles and practices into a specific task or
job. It is a systematic procedure that breaks each job into sequences, identifying the
safety elements and to train employees how to avoid potential safety hazards. Also,
the JSA process is complex and involve risks which is best handled through risk
management.
Risk is all about uncertaity and risk assessment is about determining the potential
probability, frequency, and severity of loss which are caused by hazards, resulting in
risks. A risk assessment will analyse the level of risk associated with the identified
hazards, and will propose controls to reduce the level of risk. A risk assessment matrix
is used when a risk assessment is conducted and is a visual tool that represents the
potential risks and based on two intersecting factors, namely the likelihood and the
consequence (severity) of the risk involved.
Human factors, such as environmental, organisational and job factors influence human
behaviour and impact job safety. The human factors are interlinked and overlapping
each other. This interaction and design will have a direct effect on the health and safety
of the employees. Job design, equipment, information and work environment all play
a role in the individual capabilities, experience, qualification and limitations to work
effectively and ensure a health and save environment.
The hierarchy of controls include: (i) elimination; (ii) substitution; (iii) engineering
controls; (iv) administrative controls; and (v) PPE. The first step in conducting a job
evaluation is the identification and mitigation of the hazards and risks, where the
hierarchy of control will be used. It is important that PPE is always the last line of
control of hazards and risks unless the job evaluation indicates that the job needs to
be performed with PPE. The correct PPE for the correct job must be selected and the
employees need to be part of the selection process.
6.10 Self-assessment question

Electrical work is a constant threat to an employee’s health and safety. You are the
supervisor for XYZ electrical maintenance department. You received a job card for
replacing four lights in the HR office. Although this seems to be a common task, you
need to plan the execution of it carefully. Design a JSA for this specific job. You may
design your own JSA worksheet or use the one provided earlier in this learning unit.
References
All Answers Ltd. 2018. Human failure in workplace health and safety incidents.
Available from: https://ukdiss.com/examples/workplace-health-human-
failure.php?vref=1 [Accessed on 1 March 2021].
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). 2016. Job safety
analysis. Available from: https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/job-haz.html
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). 2018. Safeguarding
– working around machinery. Available from:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/safety_haz/safeguarding/machinery.html
[Accessed on 03 March 2021].
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). 2021. Safeguarding
– general. Available from:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/safety_haz/safeguarding/general.html [Accessed
on 03 March 2021].
Compliplus Limited. 2019. How human factors impact on health & safety. Available
from: https://compliplus.com/news/71-the-human-factor-impact-on-health-safety
[Accessed on: 22 February 2021].
Daniels, K, Gedikli, C, Watson, D, Semkina, A & Vaughn, O. 2017. Job design,

employment practices and well-being: a systematic review of intervention studies.
Ergonomics, 60(9), 1177-1196, doi: 10.1080/00140139.2017.1303085
Doig Corporation. 2016. Safety risk assessment video training (2:42). Available from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BVh2iOMUvik [Accessed on 01 August 2021].
EKU Online. n.d. Understanding human factors in occupational safety. Available

from: https://safetymanagement.eku.edu/blog/understanding-human-factors-in-
occupational-safety/ [Accessed on 07 August 2021].
Eltse, S. 2015. Safety of machinery and SANS 12100:2013. Available from:

https://www.instrumentation.co.za/8392a [Accessed on 03 March 2021].
ETQ. 2017. Step by step guide to job safety and job hazard analysis. Available from:
https://www.etq.com/blog/step-by-step-guide-to-job-safety-and-job-hazard-analysis/
Gibson. 2014. Methods of machine safeguarding. Available from:

https://www.thegibsonedge.com/blog/methods-of-machine-safeguarding [Accessed
on 03 March 2021].
Health and Safety Authority. n.d. Designing for safety. Available from:
https://www.hsa.ie/eng/Your_Industry/Construction/Designing_for_Safety/ [Accessed
on 03 March 2021].
Healthy Working Lives. 2020. Personal protective equipment (PPE). Available from:
https://www.healthyworkinglives.scot/workplace-guidance/safety/personal-protective-
equipment/Pages/training-of-ppe.aspx [Accessed on 08 March 2021].
Kloosterman, V. 2019. What are the 5 risk management steps in a sound risk
management process? Available from:
https://continuingprofessionaldevelopment.org/risk-management-steps-in-risk-
management-process/ [Accessed on 26 January 2021].
Lellis, C. 2021. The difference between job safety analysis and risk assessment.
Available from: http://www.perillon.com/blog/difference-between-job-safety-analysis-
and-risk-assessment [Accessed on 31 July 2021].
McKinnon, R.C. 2020. The design, implementation and audit of occupational health
Montana State Fund. 2020. Risk assessment (3:50). Available from:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xnVomQcRux8 [Accessed on 01 August 2021].
NIOH. 2020. PPE (Personal Protective Equipment). Available from:

https://www.nioh.ac.za/fact-sheets/ppe/ [Accessed on 04 March 2021].
Queensland Government – Office of Industrial Relations. 2019. Guide to machinery

and equipment safety. Available from:
https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/data/assets/pdf_file/0011/20306/guidetomachinery-
equipmentsafety.pdf [Accessed on 03 March 2021].
Risk Central. 2015. Job safety analysis – Training (2008) (28:38). Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yWgfcXc9ap8&t=13s [Accessed on 01 August
2021].
RRC Training. 2011. NEBOSH international certificate in construction safety and

health. Unit ICC1. Managing and controlling hazards in international construction
activities. Element 10: Working at height – Hazard and risk control. Sample material.
Available from:
https://www.rrc.co.ae/media/299609/ICC1%20SAMPLE%20MATERIAL.pdf
[Accessed on 22 February 2021].
Safe Work Australia. 2012. Managing electrical risks in the workplace. Code of
practice. Available from:
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electrical-risks_in_the_workplace-v1.pdf [Accessed on 03 March 2021].
Savunen, A. 2020. Human factor management is part of incident prevention and

overall health and safety management. Available from:
https://afry.com/en/insight/human-factor-management-part-incident-prevention-and-
overall-health-and-safety-management [Accessed on 01 March 2021].
Sitemate. 2019. Here’s the difference between JSA and risk assessment. Available
from: https://sitemate.com/us/resources/articles/safety/difference-between-jsa-risk-
assessment/ [Accessed on 02 August 2021].
Smith, E, Koop, A & King, S. 2011. Guidance on human factors critical task analysis.
IChemE, Symposium Series No. 156. Available from:
https://www.icheme.org/media/9267/xxii-paper-54.pdf [Accessed on 07 August
2021].
Strålin, M. 2021. 8 Types of personal protective equipment (PPE). Available from:

https://support.ce-check.eu/hc/en-us/articles/360021707072-8-Types-of-Personal-
Protective-Equipment-PPE- [Accessed on 05 March 2021].
Thomas, C. 2020. Five steps of the risk management process. Available from:
Available from: https://www.360factors.com/blog/five-steps-of-risk-management-
process/ [Accessed on 22 January 2021].
Vasile, E & Croitoru, I. 2012. Integrated risk management system – Key factor of the
management system of the organization. Chapters, in: Nerija Banaitiene (ed.), Risk
Management - Current Issues and Challenges. doi:10.5772/47883
Veyrat, P. 2016. What is the definition of risk management? Available from:

https://www.heflo.com/blog/risk-management/what-is-the-definition-of-risk-
management/ [Accessed on 26 January 2021].
Wolters Kluwer, 2018. How to calculate your business risk using a risk assessment
matrix. Available from: https://www.wolterskluwer.com/en-gb/expert-insights/how-to-
calculate-your-business-risk-using-a-risk-assessment-matrix [Accessed on 07
August 2021].
WORKSMART. n.d. What are the five steps to risk assessment? Available from:
https://worksmart.org.uk/health-advice/health-and-safety/hazards-and-risks/what-
are-five-steps-risk-assessment [Accessed on 06 August 2021].
World Health Organisation (WHO). 2016. Human factors. Available from:

https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/252273/9789241511612-eng.pdf
[Accessed on: 22 February 2021].
Your ACSA Safety. 2014. Job hazard analysis (JHA) (4:43). Available from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8XpNhrMrggE [Accessed on 01 August 2021].
Answers to activities
Discussion 6.1
Human error Description Risk Control

• Result of unsafe acts. • Consultation with
• Actions carried out by employees over
human in performance of their work
the job. patterns.
• Have immediate adverse • Consideration of
Active errors consequences – e.g., the workload.
ignoring warning lights on • Shape human
a machine. behaviour to
prevent
incidents/accidents
• Lack of concentration or • Considering
attention leading to error in flexible work
correct actions – e.g., arrangements.
using incorrect switch. • Consultation with
• Lapses are errors in employees over
carrying out a specific their work
action which is part of the patterns.
work procedure – e.g.,
Slips and lapses stepping into a hole in a
walkway.
• Also known as sill-based
errors.
• Generally, occur with
highly routine activities
when concentration lapses
and due to routine, there is
a lack of attention.
• Incorrect application of a • Employee
rule/procedure is applied. encouragement to
• May be caused by improve skills and
misinterpretation of a initiative.
problem. • Training to
Ruled based mistakes understand their
role and carry out
their duties to
improve
performance.
• Employees are cutting • Encourage
corners and occurs where positive
Routine violations
there is violation of behaviour.
procedures as procedures
become normal practice – • Get employees
e.g., saving time by using involved in
an unsecured ladder decision-making
process.
(** This serves merely as an example – students can use their own discretion and
design).
Activity 6.1
Risk assessment process
Identified Analyse risks Evaluate/rank Treat the Monitor and
risks risks risks review risks
Small pieces L (2) x C (2) = 4 Medium risk PPE – Safety
of material Risk score = score warrant glasses
and polish medium treatment Restraints – to
can “fly” press object
towards the gently against
operator polishing mop.
The objects L (2) x C (2) = 4 Medium risk PPE – Safety
that need to Risk score = score warrant glasses
be polished medium treatment Restraints – to
can “fly” out of press object Supervise the
the operator’s gently against treatment
hands correct part of implemented
the polishing in the previous
mop. step by
Lose clothing L (1) x C (2) = 2 Low risk score PPE – monitoring,
(jacket, shirt, Risk score = does not Apron/overall and review
tie, etc), long Low warrant treatment to
hair, jewellery treatment Tie hair back determine
could be or use hair net effectiveness
caught in the This is an
rotating part No jewellery ongoing
of the permitted process
machine
(rotating
mop).
Any incident L (1) x C (2) = 2 Low risk score
Follow correct
that may need Risk score = does not work
to stop the Low warrant procedure and
machine treatment train
quickly employee in
operation of
the machine
(** This serves merely as an example – students can use their own discretion and
design).
Activity 6.2 Personal Protective Equipment
1. Ultraviolet radiation
Metal fumes/gases
Burns
Eye damage
Electric shock Any 5
Cuts
Injury to toes and fingers
Noise
Work environment (confined space)
Tripping and falling
2. Eye and face

Respiratory
Body
Feet
Hands
3. Ignoring Health and Safety legislation and regulations, endangering themselves

and others, ignorance to own and other’s well-being, insubordination for
refusing a lawful and reasonable direction from the employer.
4. Employee engagement in choosing PPE.

Employees must sign a clause in their employment contract that PPE is
mandatory.
Lead by example.
Training and refresher training.
Inform employees about consequences of hazards and risks.
Recognition/reward for complying to health and safety directions.
Building on an organisational safety culture.
(** Student’s own discretion)
5. Reference list
Burton, L. 2017. Refusal to wear PPE: guidance for employers. Available from:
https://www.highspeedtraining.co.uk/hub/refusal-to-wear-ppe/ [Accessed on: 08
March 2021].
Petkovsek, J. n.d. Five potential welding safety hazards to avoid. Available from:
https://www.lincolnelectric.com/en-za/support/welding-solutions/Pages/Five-
potential-welding-safety-hazards.aspx [Accessed on: 08 March 2021].
Salton, J. 2017. Can you “force” a worker to wear PPE? Available from:
https://healthandsafetyhandbook.com.au/bulletin/can-you-force-a-worker-to-wear-
ppe/ [Accessed on: 08 March 2021].
Activity 6.3 Levels of PPE

Level A • Fully encapsulating, chemical and
Cover the whole body vapor protective suit
• Permeation rating (High to low,
according to type of chemical)
• Positive-pressure, self-contained
breathing apparatus or positive-
pressure, supplied-air respirator
• Inner and outer gloves with chemical
resistance
• Chemical-resistant boots (steel toes
and shanks)
Level B • Highest level of respiratory

Safeguard Lungs protection
• Positive-pressure, self-contained
breathing apparatus/positive-
pressure, supplied-air respirator
• Limited exposure to skin and eyes
• Overalls (long-sleeved jacket,
coveralls, hooded two-piece
chemical splash suit, hood and
apron (All chemical resistant)
Level C • Comparable to level B with

Protection against the known difference in respiratory protection
• Employees know the chemical
concentration they work with
• Clothing will be same as level B
• Limited exposure to skin and eyes
and will use full face or half-face
mask, air-purifying respirator
• Concentration levels of chemicals
must be frequently tested and PPE
assessed for maximum protection
Level D • Low permeation ratings and

Avoiding nuisance contamination intolerable penetration times
• Avoid contact with harmless
chemicals
• Use disposable items such as:
overalls, pants, tops and shoe cover
(protecting employee’s own clothing)
• General PPE (gloves, safety boots,
earplugs, eye protection, etc)
• Job/task evaluation must be
frequently done to add additional
PPE as appropriate
XYZ
Job Safety Analysis Worksheet

Job: Replacement of light bulbs
PPE requirements: Safety glasses, non-slip footwear, gloves, isolated
screwdriver according to required voltage and amps
Analysis by: Benjamin Reviewed by: Jack
Date: 08/08/2021 Date: 08/08/2021
Approved by: Gladys Date: 08/08/2021
Level or Procedure
1. Get ladder a) Trip/slip while 3 a) Ensure walkway is
carrying ladder clear
b) Muscle strain 1 a) Wear non-slip
from carrying shoes
ladder b) Use proper lifting
method
b) Get help to carry
the ladder
2. Get light bulbs a) Cuts if light bulb 2 a) Wear tacky, cut-
breaks resistant gloves
a) Handle bulbs with
care
3. Switch power off a) Electrical shock 6 a) Use a Lock out
a) Fall as result of Tag
reaction 3
4. Climb ladder a) Fall from ladder 3 a) Inspect ladder
b) Pinch fingers 1 prior to use
c) Slip from a) Climb using three-
ladder steps 3 point of
contact
a) No use of top
three
steps of ladder
b) Keep hands clear
of pinch points
when setting up
ladder
c) Wear proper
footwear
5. Remove old/replace a) Electrical shock 6 a) Turn off light
new bulb a) Fall as result of 3 switch and use
reaction Lock out Tag
b) Burn from hot 2 b) Allow bulb to cool
bulb before removing c)
c) Eye injury/ 2 Wear tacky, cut-
laceration from resistant gloves
broken bulb so, bulb does not
need to be
squeezed while
twisting
6. Climb down ladder a) Fall from ladder 3 a) Climb using three-
b) Pinch fingers 1 point of
c) Slip from contact
ladder steps 3 a) No use of top
three
steps of ladder
b) Keep hands clear
of pinch points
when setting up
ladder
c) Wear proper
footwear
7. Discard of old bulb a) Laceration if 2 a) Wear tacky, cut-
bulb breaks resistant gloves
a) Handle bulbs with
care
8. Put ladder away a) Trip/slip while 3 a) Ensure
carrying ladder walkway is clear
a) Muscle strain 1 a) Wear non-slip
from carrying shoes
ladder b) Use proper lifting
method
b) Get help to carry
the ladder
** This is merely an example. Student can use their own discretion.

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PREFACE

A warm welcome to the module, Management of Prevention through Design (SMA4803).

Figure 1.1: Module structure

1. Define a safety management system (SMS) and elaborate on the key

Fernández-Muñiz et al (2007) elaborate on the key components of a SMS across

1.2 Safety management systems overview in a South African context

1. Risk assessment, inspection, ladder safety and so on.

6. National Occupational Safety Association

Safety is a management function and is therefore the responsibility of an organisation’s

1.4 Designing a safety management systems

• Management leadership and organisational commitment

1.4.1 Management leadership and organisational commitment

The organisational management must demonstrate their support of the organisation’s

(Source: McKinnon, 2020 – adapted by author)

1.4.2 Hazard identification and assessment

Risk assessment Risk management process

Hazard • Identify all pure risks in workplace and connected to

Risk analysis • Thorough analysis of the risk (consider: frequency,

Risk control • Deal with risk where possible

Re- • Monitor and re-evaluate continuously

1.5 Implementation of a safety management system

(b) permit safe movement of persons from floor to floor; and

(c) have dimensions appropriate to its use.”

Figure 1.3: Functions of safety planning

Safety leading involves an organisation’s management to entrust safety responsibility and

Table 1.2: Steps for safety controlling with implementation of SMS

(Source: McKinnon, 2020 – adapted by author)

Figure 1.3: PDCA cycle used with implementation of SMS

Activity 1.2 Safety management system implementation

1. Name the SMS you are evaluating.

1.6 Auditing of a safety management system

Activity 1.3 Safety management system audits

Type of audit Baseline audit

1. Define the term “safety management system”.

1. Name the SMS you are evaluating.

6. To what degree has the standard and requirements been implemented?

• Formal and • Formal • Formal and • Formal audit

• OHS Act 85 • OHS Act • OHS Act 85 of • OHS Act 85

Timeframe When required • Every six • Annually • Annually

1.10 Recommended reading

Coresafety. 2012. Training and competence. Available from:

Druley, K. 2018. The hierarchy of controls. Available from:

Janek. 2011. SANS 10400. Available from https://www.sans10400.co.za/stairways/

Thomas, MJW. 2012. A systematic review of the effectiveness of safety management

A workplace consists of structures, machines, substances, products and so on, each

• Reduction in work-related ill-health and injuries.

2.2.1 Principles of safe design

The following principles have an impact on achieving safe design:

1. Persons with Control

2.2.2 Process of safe design

2.3 Safety planning by design

• Immediate action to take

Table 2.1: Principles of safety planning

Source: HASpod, 2018 – adapted and changed

• to retrofitting and redesign of a hazardous work area

(Source: Verge, 2019)

The benefits of a safe design of a work area include:

• preventing work-related injuries and illnesses