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Entire Document
STONE CARVING MAHABALIPURAM
PREFACE In the coastal town of Mahabalipuram, nestled along the southeastern shores of India, lies a treasure trove of artistic heritage
that has withstood the test of time. This UNESCO World Heritage Site has witnessed centuries of cultural progress and aesthetic
expression, most notably in the form of magnificent stone carvings. The complex sculptures and architectural marvels that adorn this
ancient environment bear witness to the extraordinary talent and dedication of the artisans who crafted them. Exploring the depths of
Mahabalipuram's rich artistic heritage, we find ourselves transported on a captivating journey through the past and present. As we travel
through the annals of time, we follow the amazing craftsmen who chiselled life into stone, creating deities, myths, and storylines that last
centuries. We will decipher the carvings' complex intricacies and their tales and emotions. Setting the stage for our upcoming exploration
and offering valuable insights into the historical and cultural importance of stone carving in Mahabalipuram, this is a journey through
which the subsequent chapters unfold and provide a deeper understanding of stone carving. It will reveal not just the techniques and tools
employed by the skilled craftsmen of the past but also the profound spiritual and artistic inspirations that guided their hands. With their
unwavering passion and dedication and having poured their souls into preserving this remarkable artistic legacy, we are extremely grateful
and in awe of the artisans. This document celebrates tradition's persistence against modern forces. By embarking on this journey of
discovery, we aim to unravel the enigma of Mahabalipuram's stone carving heritage, celebrating its strengths and uncovering the secrets
that continue to make it awe inspiring for anyone who comes across this legacy.
CHAPTER ONE: ORIGIN AND HISTORY
1.1 THE CRAFT'S HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT History and Tradition
India features a remarkably rich stone-carving tradition, widely recognised as one of the most prominent in the world.Since the seventh
century B.C., there have been stonecutters' and masons' guilds in this area. Stone was one of the earliest materials used by ancient
humans for tool-making purposes. These objects are exquisite works of art, meticulously crafted by hand with the use of hammers and
chisels. Stone carving was a prevalent practise in ancient times, primarily used for crafting a variety of small weapons, including
arrowheads, javelin points, hammers, and more. The exquisite figures are skillfully carved in relief, showcasing intricate details engraved in
fine lines and delicate patterns. The carvings show that the excavations uncovered stone figures that date back about 3000 years.
Although metal became increasingly popular for making various items, stone continued to be a preferred material for creating sculptures.
The classical tradition of stone carving was closely intertwined with architecture. India is renowned for its numerous significant temples,
including Puri, Konark, Khajuraho, Martand in Kashmir, Ellora, Kailash Temple, and the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram.
Stone sculpture is a captivating art form that involves the creative process of transforming blocks of stone into three-dimensional objects.
Stone moulds are used to precisely shape raw natural stone pieces, allowing for the production of a wide variety of objects. Stone carving
is an ancient technique that has been practised for centuries in order to create stunning and intricate stone sculptures. The process
involves skillfully removing stone fragments from a block in order to achieve the desired design. The durability of stone can be observed in
some of the earliest societies, including Greece, Egypt, India, and various parts of Europe. Sculptors are equipped with a wide range of
carving tools, including both hand carving tools and a diverse selection of chisels. Throughout history, various cultures have utilised
electric devices, employing a wide range of methods and cutting-edge technology. Throughout the vast majority of human history,
hammers and chisels have served as indispensable tools. Stone carving is a meticulous and time-consuming process that requires a great
deal of focus and concentration. The process entails several distinct steps. Stone sculptures can be crafted using a variety of materials,
including marble, travertine, limestone, sandstone, and soft stone. Several states, including Orissa, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh,
and Andhra Pradesh, are currently involved in engineering projects that specifically target the extraction and utilisation of margraphite and
sandstone. The process of stone carving typically involves three main steps: design, gradual removal, and finishing. The market for stone
carving is thriving, both locally and nationally. However, one major challenge it encounters in terms of international trade is the significant
cost associated with transportation. Artisans specialising in stone carving often experience discouragement as a result of a lack of
appreciation for their artistic values. The carvers' ancestors possessed exceptional skills, and over time, the art of carving has undergone a
slight but gradual evolution. The unreliable electricity supply in these regions greatly hinders production, causing many individuals to
abandon their work in order to support themselves.
Breaking down: Shilpa Shastra The Shilpaic tradition is an ancient practices of stone carving, with the skilled artisans who engage in this
craft being referred to as Shilpkar. According to this tradition, it is believed that stone is a living entity. The Shilpkr refer to it as "Shakti
Paravastu," which translates to "the ultimate luminous substance." Stone is widely believed to have the longest lifespan of any material on
Earth. According to Shilpaic tradition, there are three types of stones: one that produces a resonant sound, another that produces a long
and slender note, and a third type that does not create any sound, thereby dampening the vibrations. These three types of stones are
referred to as male, female, and neutral, respectively. According to the sacred texts, it is advised to use a stone that corresponds to the
gender of the deity being carved. For male deities, a male stone is recommended, while for female deities, a female stone is suggested.
Additionally, when constructing temples, it is recommended to use a neutral stone. When a stone carver carves a stone, a deep
connection forms between the carver and the stone. This intimate bond creates a joyful and spiritually infused work of art known as the
shilpi. It is also believed that worshipping a sad form, or a sad shilpi, can have adverse effects on the worshipper. When an artisan
internalises spiritual concepts, they undergo a transformation where a sculptor becomes a sculpture and an architect becomes an
architect. The sculptor's moral code is of great importance, as he is the one who brings sacred forms to life through his thoughts.
India’s rich history of arts and crafts Various art forms have evolved in India using both metallic and non-metallic materials. Stonework is a
wonderful craft. With a rich stonecraft tradition, masons and stone carver's guilds have been present since the 7th century B.C. Indian
craftsmen use stones such as marble, soapstone, and sandstone.
Additionally, it is used to carve panels, tiles, paperweights, pen stands, replicas of historic structures, and sculptures of people and animals.
The stone is traced and shaped with a basic design. The carving is complete, and the items are polished. Mathura and Varanasi were
historically significant for centuries. Both places achieved near perfection in stone carving with their own unique styles. Ashoka's imperial
court in the 3rd century B.C. greatly boosted stone carving art. The stupas and cave temples from this period are among the oldest stone
structures still in existence. Stone sculptures from the Mauryan era that may be found in Mathura and Agra frequently employ the red
sandstone from Chunar.
Stone: The Unparalleled Symbol of Strength and Beauty -- The fascination with stone is timeless. The stone's appeal remains unchanged,
whether it's an ornate inlay with black marble or finely latticed soapstone. Both Hindu and Muslim rulers in India employ this art. Uttar
Pradesh's craft flourished during the Mughal era, when the Taj Mahal was built.
-- Varanasi and Agra are best known for their stone carvings. Each item is a unique work of art, from intricate architecture to finely crafted
stoneware and elegant tabletops with inlay work. -- The royal fascination with stone is evident in the intricately carved forts and palaces.
Now we're exploring different stones and articles. Art lovers can find architectural objects like carved pillars, railings, and fireplaces for
modern indoor spaces. Candlesticks, ashtrays, jewellery boxes, and miniature Taj Mahal reproductions are popular among today's artisans
because of their great demand as presents and souvenirs. -- Artistic sculptures of Indian deities with intricately carved costumes and
expressions serve as the primary ornamental elements. Even today, stone carving students in the land of the Buddha begin by perfecting
complex hand gestures and facial expressions that reflect different mudras through his statues. -- Stone artwork combines carving,
inlaying, engraving, sculpture, and undercutting techniques. Designs are created by cutting and varying the patterns on the stone.
Stonecutters and sculptors work together. The work is made primarily from marble, gorara soapstone, and sometimes cuddapah. Marble is
sourced from Makrana, Rajasthan, quarries. Agra's finest work can be found in marble from Rajasthan or Alabaster from Italy, adorned with
semi-precious materials like Cornelian, Malachite, Lapis Lazuli, Mother of Pearl, Onyx Agate, and Shazar. Using inexpensive shells instead
of semi-precious stones creates affordable gift items. Agra's famous inlay work mirrors the mosaic techniques seen in the Taj Mahal and
Fatehpur Sikri. Currently, this work has limited availability and is in high demand internationally.
1.2. THE HISTORY OF STONE ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA
Stone has long been integral to Indian architecture. Religion has been closely linked to most civilizations since the Indus Valley civilization.
Stone shrines were important in this culture and remain important in new civilizations. Buddhism and Jainism spread across the nation in
the first century BC. Idol worship was not practised then; instead, monasteries and stupas held greater importance. Rock-cut construction
expanded further under Ashoka's rule, evolving from simple to complex structures. Idol worship has increased since the first century AD,
when Hinduism gained power. It began in the Gupta Dynasty. The first temples for gods were built during this era. Buddha sculptures
emerged as Buddhism started using images to depict the divine presence. Jainism followed a similar path. Each religion's monuments and
shrines had distinct factors, such as their theme, iconography, and design. They all worshipped idols, which was their commonality.
Buddhism's popularity declined in the 10th century. Jainism was rare but still persisted. Hinduism was dominant for the next two centuries.
Temples here are built on a grand scale, rivalling the splendour of cathedrals and other religious monuments in Europe. The buildings
became important centres for social, educational, and commercial activity, influencing the state's development. Later, these temple
complexes grew to include hundreds of workers from various social strata. Timber construction influences various stone and brick
structures. Stacking bricks and beams is more common than using arches and domes. Hindu Temple Architecture originated in the Early
mediaeval Period. India has various types of Temple Architecture based on different regions. The two main styles of temple architecture
are the Nagara style from the North and the Dravida style from the South.
Nagara Style of Temple Architecture: This style is seen in northern India.
●● The temple is constructed on a sturdy stone platform, with a set of steps leading up to it. ●● It lacks elaborate boundaries or gateways.
●● The garbhagriha is always positioned directly beneath the tallest tower. ●● The Mandapika Shrines, which consist of closely spaced
pillars, have flat roofs. ●● The shikhara of this type is known as the "Latina" or the "Rekha Prasada Type" because it has a square-shaped
base and inwardly curved and sloped sides that converge at a point on top. Here, you can see structures called Amalaka, which are stone
discs piled up on top of each other. ●● The second type is known as the 'phamsana' Shikhara, which is broader and shorter compared to
the Latina. The roofs consist of multiple slabs that intersect at the highest and most central point of the building. Gavaksha Dormers,
which are flat-roofed structures with a bull's-eye design, can be observed on the outer walls of the buildings. Additionally, corner pavilions
have been incorporated as well. ●● The third type is known as the 'Valabhi' type, which features a Shikhara. Rectangular buildings with a
roof ascend into a spacious vaulted chamber. Gavaksha Dormers, also known as bull's eye flat-roofed structures, are architectural features
that are characterised by their unique design. ●● The Shekhari temples are a type of Nagara-style temple architecture that can be found in
northwestern India. Its structure features a clustered spine. ●● The Eastern Indian temples followed the traditional Nagara style,
incorporating elements of the pala stupa. Orissa had a distinct style. The temple followed the well-known Latina style, incorporating
elements of Orissian architecture. The Parashurameshvara Temple in Orissa showcases this.
Dravida Style of Temple Architecture: This style is seen in South India.
●● A compound wall surrounds the Dravida temples. The front wall of the building features a centrally located entrance gateway called
the 'gopuram'. ●● This structure consists of two tiers. Shrine-filled shrines make up the first tier, while a sizable kuta with an octagonal
dome surrounds it on the second. ●● In Tamil Nadu, the vimana, which is also referred to as the main temple tower, has a distinctive shape
resembling a stepped pyramid. Unlike the curved shikhara commonly found in the Nagara Temple style, the vimana rises up in a geometric
manner. ●● A temple tank is often enclosed within the complex. ●● Some of the most famous temple towns in Tamil Nadu include
Kanchipuram, Thanjavur (also known as Tanjore), Madurai, and Kumbakonam. These towns were known for their temples, which served a
purpose beyond religious significance during the period from the eighth to the twelfth centuries. ●● There are five subdivisions of
Dravidian temples based on their shape. ●● There are five different shapes: square (also known as kuta or chaturasra), rectangle (also
called shala or ayatasra), elliptical (referred to as gaja-prishta or vrittayata), circle (known as vritta), and octagonal (referred to as ashtasra).
●● The Pallava dynasty was one of the earliest dynasties in South India. They had strong connections with Southeast Asia and expanded
their empire to various regions of the subcontinent, sometimes even reaching the borders of Odisha. ●● Timber construction serves as the
basis for various stone and brick structures. The practise of stacking masonry, beams, and corbelling is more prevalent compared to the
use of arches and domes. Pallava Stone Sculpture The Mahendra and Mamalla monuments were built during the rock-cut period, which
lasted from 610 to 668 AD. The Mahendra group refers to Mahendravarman I's monuments (610–630 AD). The majority of these
structures are mountainous, pillared halls. These pillared mandapas are reminiscent of Jain temples. The finest Mahendra cave temples
may be seen at Mandagapattu, Pallavaram, and Mamandur.
Between 630 and 668 AD, Mamalla built the second set of rock-cut monuments. Pillared halls and rathas (chariots) were built during this
time period. This style is seen in the Pancha Rathas and Arjuna's Penance at Mahabalipuram. The second stage of Pallava architecture
includes the construction of free-standing shrines out of imported stone and mortar. There are Rajasimha (600–800 AD) and
Nandivarman (800–900 AD) monument groupings. In their early construction of temples, the Rajasimha Pallavas experimented. Rajasimha
II constructed
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the Shore Temple in Mahabalipuram and the Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple in Kanchipuram, both
of which are noteworthy examples from this era. The finest Nandivarman structure is Kanchipuram's Vaikuntha Perumal Temple. The
Cholas' Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, and other notable structures serve as evidence that Pallava
architecture was at its pinnacle.
Chola Stone Sculpture The Chola Empire in South India refined Chola art and architecture from 850 to 1250 CE. Amaravati architecture
had an influence on the Pallava dynasty, which built Chola temples. The Cholas extensively encouraged temple building and growth. They
erected numerous spectacular temples, including Thanjavur's UNESCO World Heritage Big Temple, Brihadeeswarar Temple. Temple
gopurams, pillars, and walls have elaborate stone carvings. Contemporary architectural and aesthetic trends inspired Chola artists and
artisans to improve temple architecture. The Chola emperors erected temples throughout the plains, Central and Northern Tamil Nadu,
occasionally the entire state, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. From Vijayalaya Chola through Sundara Chola, Rajaraja and Rajendra Chola
rose to greatness, and Kulottunga I's Chalukya Chola era until the end of the Chola empire was the last phase.
In addition to temples, the Cholas built palaces, hospitals, and other public facilities. Inscriptions and modern data list several similar
buildings. Aditya Karikala reportedly built his father, Sundara Chola, a golden palace. Many constructions have collapsed due to the use of
flammable materials such as wood and bricks. Chola sculpted a number of Hindu deities, including Shiva, Vishnu, and Durga. These divine
sculptures draw believers closer to God. Nataraja, Lord Shiva's cosmic dance form, is a renowned Chola sculpture. Chola painters depicted
Nataraja's graceful dance, intricate posture, multiple arms, and fire. Chola stone sculptures were intricate, sacred, and well-made.
Pandyan Stone Sculpture Near the southernmost point of India, in the Tamil Nadu district of Tuticorin, is a hill known as Kazhugumalai ('zh'
is to be pronounced as 'L' but with the tongue being brought farther inside), which is home to the magnificent monolithic rock-cut Shiva
Temple known as Vettuvankovil as well as Jain Reliefs. A rocky hill close to the town of Kovilpatti, Kazhugumalai, has been the site of
building endeavours dating back to the eighth century CE. The Pandya monarchs, who had Madurai as their capital, ruled South Tamil
Nadu during the eighth century. The Pallavas, who had their capital at Kanchipuram, were at their peak during this time period, producing
spectacular rock-cut temples and rock art. In addition to its majestic Shiva Temple, Kazhugumalai has become well-known for its rows of
Jain reliefs and inscriptions that have withstood the whims of time and history. The outstanding example of Jain art in Tamil Nadu is this
ensemble.
Rajasthan Rajasthan's forts, palaces, havelis, and temples feature stunning stone sculptures. Rajasthan is called 'The Land of Marble and
Sandstone' due to its abundant stone resources and rich history of stonecraft and sculpting. The state's quarries produce high-quality
marble and sandstone, attracting skilled stonemasons and artists. Makrana and Bari in Rajasthan produce marble and sandstone, and
Jaisalmer is famous for its stone architecture. Marble temple idols are made at 'Sikandra' (Dausa) and Khazane-walon-ka-rasta. Northern
Indian temples often have these idols. This place produces stone goods, architectural structures, and deities.
Rajasthan is renowned for its temples and skilled jali carvers. Ancient Rajasthani palaces featured jali art on doors and windows. Sandstone
and marble jali screens at zenana windows enabled purdah women to secretly observe court activities. The screens shielded them from
the weather while allowing fresh air to pass. Local artisans create simple stone products. Stone sculptures depict Rajput soldiers' bravery
and heroism. The carvings depict Rajasthan's cultural traditions and pride, showcasing traditional stories, heroic actions, and gallantry.
Odisha Stone carving is popular in Odisha. The Konark Sun Temple is the 'Wonder in Stone'. Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri, and Udayagiri contain
beautiful monasteries and stupas. Orissan sculptors create gods and goddesses from soapstone. Carving is important in Odisha. Over
millennia, diligent artisans in Odisha have perfected stone carving. The successors of these artists, who built Parsurameswar, Mukteswar,
Lingaraj, Puri, and the Sun God at Konark, maintain their sculptural traditions.
When the Kalinga School of mediaeval North Indian architecture flourished in the 13th century A.D., Orissa began stone carving. The
world-famous Sun Temple was built during this time. This custom is passed down through generations. Stonecraft is very important in
Orissa's handicraft industry. Many artisans have won national and state prizes for their high-quality work. Pink and white soft stones exist.
Pink stone objects are popular.
Stone sculptures on these temples exhibit Odishan art and architecture at their best. Stone carving makes these religious monuments
architectural marvels and attracts believers and tourists from around the world. Mythology, culture, and traditional art are often shown in
Odisha's stone carvings. Ratnagiri, Udayagiri, and Khandagiri are Buddhist and Jain historical sites in Odisha, together with Hindu temples.
Bihar
Stone carving is an ancient tradition in Bihar. The rock-cut caves of Barabar and Nagarjuni Hills in Jehanabad District are outstanding
specimens of Mauryan-era workmanship. The craftsmen of Bihar's stupas and monasteries are remarkable. The Ashoka pillars at Lauria,
Nandangarh, and Koluha and the Gupta-era Mundeshwari Temple Complex are famous Bihar stone sculptures. This work is done at
Patharkatti, Gaya. Major stonecraft hub in Bihar. Marble and granite are the major materials for this art. This handcrafted item is unique.
Gaya's 500–700 artisan households depend on this craft. Nalanda, Kaimur, and Patna are Bihar stone craft hubs. Gaya's 'Patharkatti' boasts
a unique blue-black pot stone. It specialises in Buddhist icons. Other household goods include a pestle and mortar. Singhbum's Chandil,
Karaikal, and Dumka have green-grain soapstone. At ancient Buddhist monuments in Bihar, stone sculptures represent Buddha's
biography, Jataka stories, and Buddhist symbols like the Wheel of Dharma. These sculptures illustrate Buddhist philosophy and propagate
teachings, attracting pilgrims and academics from throughout the world. These engravings reveal the region's historical civilizations,
architectural styles, and creative techniques. From exquisite temple wall carvings to colourful motifs on old structures, Bihar's carvings
demonstrate their artistic talent. Karnataka Karnataka has many ancient temples, such as the Hoysaleswara Temple in Halebidu, the
Chennakesava Temple in Belur, and the Virupaksha Temple in Hampi. The state showcases impressive Hoysala architecture. The 57-foot-
tall Jain statue of Gomatesvara in Shravanabelagola is an impressive stone sculpture. These temples showcase the state's architectural
brilliance, featuring exquisite stone carvings that epitomise Indian temple architecture. The Chalukyas, Hoysalas, Vijayanagara Empire, and
Chola dynasties all patronised stone carving in Karnataka. The kings' support and patronage resulted in the creation of magnificent
structures with intricate carvings, which is crucial to the significance of stone carving in Karnataka. Stone carvings in religious structures
create a sacred atmosphere. Stone carving in Karnataka is important in religious practises as it enhances the spiritual experience of
worshippers and visitors through intricate artwork.
Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh is renowned for its stonecraft and temples like the Khajuraho Group of Monuments, Udayeshwara
Temple, and Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, which are known for their stunning stone carvings. Jabalpur and Tikamgarh create sculptures of
animals and humans. Balaghat has many green stones. Local artisans carve green stone into various objects such as boxes, animals, and
trays. Green stone idols are also famous. Gwalior's stone carving craft creates stunning sculptures and elements from dimension stones in
the nearby Vindhya ranges. Gwalior's palaces and forts showcase stunning stone architecture and sculpture. This piece's historical
significance inspires highly desired creations. The craft flourished under the Scindia dynasty in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Gwalior
fort, built in the 8th and 15th centuries, was an impressive architectural marvel. Babur, the Mughal emperor, referred to it as Hind's Fort's
"pearl."
The stone carvings in these temples depict mythological stories, intricate deity sculptures, and scenes from daily life, showcasing the
artistry and craftsmanship of the time. Madhya Pradesh is renowned for its Buddhist heritage, featuring UNESCO World Heritage Sites such
as Sanchi and Bhimbetka. These sites exhibit stone carvings of Buddhist stupas, monasteries, and symbols.
Andhra Pradesh In Andhra Pradesh, the main centres of stone craft are Durgi, Allagadda, and Tirupati. These centres are known for their
exceptional craftsmanship in creating intricately carved figures of gods and goddesses. The craftsmen here adhere strictly to ancient rules
regarding carving and sculpting.
Stone carving in Andhra Pradesh is of great significance because of its rich historical and cultural connections. The temples are adorned
with carvings that portray a wide range of deities, mythological stories, and religious motifs. These intricate carvings have made the
temples highly revered pilgrimage sites, drawing visitors from all corners of the country. The stone carvings in Andhra Pradesh hold great
religious and spiritual significance. The carvings predominantly portray Hindu gods and goddesses, along with scenes from Hindu epics
such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Uttar Pradesh Muslim rulers in India have supported stone crafts in Uttar Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh's stone crafts have created stunning
architectural marvels. Sandstone preserves the enchantment and variations of royal stone sculpture. The intricate curves of the forts and
palaces showcase impressive stone craftsmanship. Ashoka's royal court in the 3rd century B.C. promoted stone sculpting. The Taj Mahal
and Fatehpur Sikri in Uttar Pradesh are known for their impressive stone mosaic work. Uttar Pradesh stonecraft uses marble, gorara
soapstone, and cuddapah.
Stone carving occurs in Hamirpur district, Uttar Pradesh. Agra's marble inlay craftsmanship is legendary. Geometric patterns and plants are
used. The Taj Mahal inspired these exquisite artefacts. Vases, boxes, lamps, plates, bowls, and pitchers feature intricate carvings and forms.
The stone craft of Uttar Pradesh showcases various items such as marble boxes, wall plates, table tops, coasters, and ashtrays. These
pieces are beautifully decorated with semi-precious stones and mother of pearl, using pietra dura motifs that draw inspiration from
Mughal art and structures. Uttar Pradesh is home to Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Religious monuments feature stone carvings of
deities, symbols, and holy texts.
Gujarat Rough stones for this craft are taken out of quarries and delivered to the job site. A combination of geru, or red oxide, and water is
used to define the desired designs after the stone has been meticulously cut into the proper sizes. The Sompura group of stonemasons
from Wadhwan in Kathiawar were responsible for carving the well-known Somnath and Dwarka temples. Gujarat is recognised for
building structures that fulfil a variety of utilitarian functions. Waterworks, temples, cemeteries, forts, and palaces are among the
architectural features.
Techniques for cutting stones have changed over time. Gujarat's jaali (fretwork) is one of the most outstanding displays of stone carving
artistry. The pillars, ceilings, and jhorukhas (balconies) are all crafted with exquisite and complex detail. Stone carving is an essential
component of Gujarat's stunning temple art, which is used to adorn these revered buildings. Temples in Gujarat are renowned for their
magnificent sculptures of gods, heavenly creatures, and legendary themes. These detailed carvings not only increase the visual
attractiveness of the holy sites but also their spiritual value.
Tamil Nadu The famous rock-cut temples of the
Pallavas in Mahabalipuram occupy a special place in Indian history. The sculptures
found in these temples are so alive, depicting scenes such as
Arjuna asking for penance on one knee, the hunting of pigeons,
and a stag scratching its nose with its hind leg.

Stone carving is an ancient craft of Tamil Nadu, and the temples of Chennai are famous for their mesmerising stone carving structures.
The stone carvers belong to the Viswakarma community and are skilled in carving idols out of black and white granite, locally known as
karuppu kal and vellai kal. The first step in stone carving is to stencil the granite stone by cutting it along predetermined lines. Once the
final product is ready, its surface is cleaned and smoothed to give it a shiny lustre. It is then painted as per the needed design. The articles
on stone carving revolve around the theme of Hindu mythological epics. You can shop for a variety of articles, such as small dolls, animal
figurines, incense stick stands, and other decorative items. The South Indian state of Tamil Nadu is often referred to as the "land of
temples" due to the presence of numerous beautiful temples that are scattered throughout the region. The Meenakshi temple at Madurai
represents the ultimate achievement in Tamil temple architecture, showcasing its magnificent glory. The temple is a testament to the
incredible architectural skills of Tamil sculptors. Its magnificent proportions, abundant sculptures, thousand-pillared mandapas, towering
gopurams (gateways), and larger-than-life-sized reliefs all contribute to its grandeur.
The sculptor's fine sense of balance and skill are also displayed in the other temples of the state. There are 108 beautiful panels depicting
the karanas of Natya Shastra at Chidambaram. In addition, Kanchipuram is home to numerous temples that date back to the earliest
Pallava times, the Nayak period, and even later.
The artistic achievements of the Tamil sculptors are also displayed at the grand Ekambareshwar Temple and the Varadaraja Temple. The
granite carving in Tamil Nadu is confined to the area around Mamallapuram (also Mahabalipuram) and Chengelpettu. The presence of the
Mamallapuram School of Sculpture in this area may be the reason for this. Just as in bronze, 20th-century sculpture has not yet evolved
an idiom of its own, and many of the carvings are copies of the earlier periods. The quality of the material is an extremely important part of
the sculptural process. Similar to how the Shilpa Shastra provides regulations for measurements and sculpting techniques, the sculptors
here have also delved into intricate details concerning the stone's quality, maturity, texture, colour, and various other factors. In this area,
the artists specialise in working with indigenous varieties of stone that are readily available in the state. These stones are known for their
exceptional durability, making them ideal for construction purposes. The uniformity of the stone is also vital for the finished form's stability
and longevity.
The stones are carefully selected based on their texture and the direction of their growth. This also describes the quarrying technique
used. The dynamiting of rocks is not recommended when the stone is supposed to be used for sculpture. Dynamiting forms cracks in the
stone, thereby making it unfit for use. The stone is cut by moving a series of wedges about 5 to 7.5 cm deep. The wedges are carefully
driven using heavy 4-kg hammers, which cause the rocks to break apart cleanly with well-defined edges. A high-quality stone should not
have any flaws, such as kalanga or stains, rekha or patches, or bindu or spots. The themes for most of the sculptures have always been
religious in nature. The Indian Puranic tradition and mythology provide a solid foundation for most of the progression. There is a robust
system of symbols for representing abstract concepts. A nayanon-milan ritual is conducted once the sculpture is finished. In this
ceremony, the image is invested with sight, life, and breath, thus making it a virtual living force. Only then is the image ceremoniously
placed in the garbhagriha, or sanctum sanctorum. Their likenesses appear often in the temple sculptures in southern India. In the famous
Mahabalipuram, carvings depict arresting figures of Arjuna standing in the traditional penance pose with one leg, one of two cots, hunting
pigeons. Then there's the amusing illustration of a deer scratching its nose with its rear leg. A buffalo chewing the cud is so alive that it
seems the mouth is moving. So pigs, ducks, monitor lizards, fowls, and spiders coexist with elephants, lions, and horses (prehistoric stone
sculptures). The granite sculptures of Mahabalipuram and the sandstone figures of Khajuraho show a variation in their treatment of one
another in the hands of an artist. Hard granite stone was used to build temples and daily goods such as grinding stones in South India. The
design and form that may be built are determined by the grade of stone available in each region of India.
Relief-sculptured Panels: A relief has carvings only on one side. The carving might be shallow or deep, whereas the opposite side is flat
and frequently incorporated into the building's masonry work. Low relief can range from 1-3 cm deep and high. Relief can resemble a
three-dimensional sculpture. Three-dimensional Figures: Such figures can be viewed from all sides. Additionally, they are capable of
producing free-standing pillars similar to those that Ashoka built all over his empire in the third century BCE.
1.3. SIGNIFICANCE OF STONECRAFT IN TAMIL NADU
Tamil Nadu is home to several renowned destinations, such as Mahabalipuram, Kanchipuram, Madurai, Thanjavur, and more. These places
are famous for their exceptional stone carvings. These places are home to intricate sculptures, ancient temples, and rock-cut monuments.
The stone carvings found in Tamil Nadu temples depict a wide range of Hindu deities, mythological scenes, and religious symbols. The
carvings play a crucial role in religious practises and worship by creating a sacred environment and enhancing devotees' spiritual
experiences. They are considered an essential part of these practises. Stone carving is a time-honoured tradition in Tamil Nadu that has
been handed down from one generation to the next for centuries. Stone carvings from Tamil Nadu often depict various cultural elements
that are unique to the region. The carvings are visual representations that celebrate the rich heritage of Tamil culture, folklore, and
traditions.
Mahabalipuram is renowned for its Pallava art and architecture, dating back to the 7th and 8th centuries. The historical, cultural, and
religious significance of stone carving are all intertwined in Mahabalipuram. The stone sculptures and rock-cut monuments of the Pallava
period showcase the architectural brilliance and artistic finesse of that era. The stone carvings in Mahabalipuram portray various scenes
from Hindu mythology. These include intricate sculptures of deities and celestial beings, as well as stories from renowned epics like the
Mahabharata and Ramayana. The site's deep religious and spiritual significance is reflected in iconic sculptures like Arjuna's Penance,
which portrays the descent of the Ganges, as well as depictions of Lord Vishnu in various forms. The carvings hold religious and spiritual
significance for devotees and pilgrims. The stone carvings in Mahabalipuram offer valuable insights into the culture, lifestyle, and societal
practises of the Pallava people. These artworks portray various aspects of ancient Tamil culture, such as daily life, royal processions, and
courtly activities. They offer valuable insights into the past and help us gain a better understanding of this rich historical heritage. In
addition to that, the stone carvings depict various animals, plants, and birds, symbolising the celebration of the harmonious relationship
between humans and nature. The intricate and elaborate stone carvings in Mahabalipuram serve as a testament to the artistic brilliance
and craftsmanship of the sculptors. The carvings are renowned for their exquisite beauty and meticulous attention to detail.
Patrons of Crafts “ The Indian craftsman” book written by Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, describes the craftsmen of India and Sri Lanka that
he studied i the ealry twentieth century. He divided the comuunities into different categories ♦ Craftsmen who live and worked in the
village ♦ Carftsmen who travelled from village to village and towns ♦ Craftsmen who lived and worked in towns ♦ Craftsmen who were
employed by the ruler in royal workshops
The Village: The potter, carpenter, stone sculptor, mason, craftsman, and goldsmith were skilled artisans who resided and practised their
crafts within their own homes, which were typically located in specific areas of the village. In the village, everyone was familiar with their
local craftsmen, so there was no need for them to autograph their work. This was because of the Jajmani system, which established a
connection between hereditary artisans and the dominant agricultural groups through traditional ties. The relationship between the artists
and the landowners was hierarchical and symbiotic, with the artists working under the protection and hospitality of the landowners.
During festivals, it was customary for the landowner, or jajman, to approach the potter and commission him to create ceremonial pots and
diyas. In exchange for his services, the potter would receive payment in the form of food, which would sustain him throughout the year.
The stone cutter would create a grinding stone according to the specific requirements and size whenever his household needed one.
Itinerant Craftsmen:: Some artisans, , travel from village to village, serving the community and spending as much time as is necessary in
each location. craftsmen that travel from village to village, serving the community and spending their time
. These craft communities were often paid in kind with gifts of grain, food, clothing, and money so that they did not have to cultivate land
for food but could pursue their craft to perfection. In the Town: While the artists in the village worked as a family, individual artists in the
towns formed guilds to protect their interests and ensure the quality of their work. The guild protected the group and its occupational
interests by punishing the wrongdoer, negotiating prices and grants, and enforcing standards of work. The artist in the town was also paid
in kind, with grants, or with produce from land.
In the Court: Through the ages, rulers tried to attract well-known performing artists and craftsmen like sculptors to work in their court.The
creations of artists provide an idea of cultures and eras gone by. Rulers understood that having brilliant architects and sculptors The Ajanta
caves are just one example of how artisans' guilds contributed to India's architectural heritage.
Folklore Even today, Tamil Nadu stone carvers start their work with a prayer asking Mother Earth for forgiveness for carving the stone. The
prayer ends with offerings of sweets and milk to the earth and a solemn promise never to misuse or waste stone. The stone cutter starts
by locating a good stone quarry. Then begins the process of cutting what he needs from the mother rock. Metal pegs in the granite are
pounded at regular intervals in a straight line. Water is poured on the rock to wet it. The difference in temperature between night and day
causes contraction and expansion, and the rock progressively slices along the straight peg lines into flawless slabs. The most fascinating
aspect of the creative process is when the artist selects the stone item to work on. How does he decide which piece of rock is the perfect
one to use? What qualities of the rock doesthey are looking for—colour, grain, texture, or the softness or hardness of the stone? Can he
visualise what its shape will be, or can he feel how it will feel once it has been totally carved? The group of monuments at Mahabalipuram
occupies an important place among the classical monuments of India. The monolithic and cave temples, located near the sea, provide an
unparalleled experience of ancient Indian architecture and sculpture. Mahabalipuram received World Heritage Site status in 1988 and
attracts visitors from across the country and the world. The ancient tradition of stone carving is still alive in the region, and the rhythmic
sounds of Hammer and chisel on stone afford a glimpse of how these monuments, Rock-cut caves, and sculptures appeared almost
fifteen hundred years ago.
CHAPTER TWO: GEOGRAPHY 2.1. LOCATION: MAHABALIPURAM, TAMIL NADU Mahabalipuram, or Mamllapuram, is a town in the
Chengalpattu district of Tamil Nadu that is well known for its Hindu group of monuments. These monuments were built between the 7th
and 8th centuries and are now a UNESCO world heritage site. The traditional name for Mahabalipuram is Thirukadalmallai, and it is a part
of greater Chennai. In the ancient kingdom of Pallava, there were two significant port cities, one of which was Mamallapuram. It was a
name that resonated with history and carried the significance of a mighty ruler. The town was named after none other than the Pallava
king Narasimhavarman I, a man of great valour and strength. Known by the regal title of Mamalla. In the midst of flourishing economic
prosperity, a remarkable transformation took place. The once-ordinary site underwent a magnificent transformation, becoming adorned
with a collection of regal monuments. These amazing structures were meticulously crafted, emerging from the very essence of the living
rock itself. In the 7th and 8th centuries, a collection of magnificent structures emerged, each with its own unique charm and purpose.
Among them were the rathas, temples that took the form of grand chariots, exuding an air of regality and grace. These rathas stood
proudly, showcasing the architectural prowess of the time. Along with the rathas were the mandapas, cave sanctuaries that provided a
serene and sacred space for worship. These sanctuaries, carved into the very heart of the rock, offered a tranquil refuge for devotees
seeking solace and spiritual connection. One particularly awe-inspiring creation was the
giant open-air rock relief known as the Descent of the Ganges. Lastly, the Shore Temple
dedicated to Shiva stood as a testament to devotion and architectural brilliance. This temple, situated near the water's edge, commanded
attention with its striking presence. Its walls echoed with the prayers and hymns of countless worshippers who sought blessings from the
mighty deity. Together, these structures painted a vivid picture of the artistic and spiritual landscape of the 7th and 8th centuries. Each one,
a testament to the ingenuity and creativity of the era, stood as a timeless reminder of the rich. In the year 1827, during the era of the British
Raj, a town plan was established that would shape the landscape of the contemporary town we know today.
Etymology In the vast expanse of time, there's a remarkable mention of a city hidden within the pages of a 1st-century work known as the
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Penned by an enigmatic Greek navigator, this ancient text unveils the earliest rumours of this mysterious
place. In the ancient world, a renowned Greek geographer named Ptolemy made a fascinating reference to this particular location. He
eloquently called it malange. The coastal town of Mahabalipuram goes by many names; some call it Mamallapattana, while others refer to
it as Mamallapuram. In the course of history, there was a renowned Vaishnavite saint named Thirumangai Alvar. This pious soul, in his
writings, spoke of a sacred place known as Thirukadalmallai. It is said that this name was given to a magnificent temple called the
Sthalasayana Perumal Temple. In ancient times, Mahabalipuram was not only recognised by its current name but also held another
intriguing title that captivated mariners. This name, known to seafarers since the days of Marco Polo, was "Seven Pagodas." It referred to
the magnificent Seven Pagodas of Mahabalipuram that proudly stood along the shoreline. While the passage of time has taken its toll on
these architectural wonders, only one of them, the Shore Temple, has managed to withstand the test of time and still stands proudly
today.
History Mahendravarman ruled the Pallavas from 600 to 630 CE, and his son Narasimhavarman I did so from 630 to 668 CE. King
Narasimhavarman I of the Pallava dynasty founded the city of Mahabalipuram in the 7th century CE. The monuments at Mahabalipuram
owe their origins to the Pallava rulers of south India. Mahendravarman, the father of Narasimhavarman I, was not only a pioneer of south
Indian temple architecture and painting but also a highly esteemed poet, dramatist, and musician. Mahendravarman, originally a Jaina, was
responsible for the construction of the cave temple at Sittannavasal. In his later years, Mahendravarman endured a conversion to Shaivism
under the guidance of the saint Appar. Following this, he embarked on a project to construct rock-cut Shiva temples throughout his
kingdom. The Pallavas were known for their expertise in sailing and their extensive travels across the region. Evidence of their journeys can
be found in inscriptions written in the Pallava-Grantha script as well as in sculptures that clearly reflect the influence of south Indian
Pallava culture. Mahabalipuram, known as the port of the Pallavas, likely played a significant role in spreading Pallava culture beyond the
borders of India. Mahendravarman, the father of Narasimhavarman I, was not only a pioneer of south Indian temple architecture and
painting but also a highly esteemed poet, dramatist, and musician. Mahendravarman, originally a Jaina, was responsible for the
construction of the cave temple at Sittannavasal. In his later years, Mahendravarman endured a conversion to Shaivism under the guidance
of the saint Appar. Following this, he embarked on a project to construct rock-cut Shiva temples throughout his kingdom. Most of the
monuments in Mahabalipuram were built during the reign of Narasimhavarman I. The panel located in the northeastern corner of the
Dharmaraja Ratha depicts a statue of Narasimhavarman I. Recently, archaeologists have made noteworthy discoveries in the vicinity of
Mahabalipuram. These findings include a Neolithic burial urn, cairn circles, and jars containing burials that can be traced back to the 1st
century BCE. The poem "Perumpuppadai" from the Sangam age portrays the rule of King Thondaiman Ilam Thiraiyar in Kanchipuram, a
port situated in Tamil Nadu. Scholars have linked this port to the modern-day location of Mahabalipuram. Coins from the 4th century CE,
including Chinese and Roman coins attributed to Theodosius I, have been discovered at Mahabalipuram. This discovery illuminates the
fact that
the port was a bustling hub of global trade in the late classical period. Two Pallava coins bearing
the inscriptions "Srihari" and "Srinidhi" were recently discovered in Mahabalipuram. They strategically utilised
the port to launch trade and diplomatic expeditions to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.
In
an 8th-century Tamil text, Thirumangai Alvar vividly described this location as "Sea Mountain."
He described it as a location where ships were anchored, carrying immense wealth, majestic elephants with strong trunks, and stacks of
nine distinct varieties of precious gems. The ships were heavily loaded to the point where they seemed to be on the brink of breaking. The
temples depict various events described in the Mahabharata and hold great significance as they exemplify the transition from rock-cut
architecture to structural building techniques. The mandapa, also known as pavilions, and the rathas, which are shrines shaped like temple
chariots, are meticulously carved from granite rock. On the other hand, the Shore Temple, which was built fifty years later, is renowned for
its meticulous use of cut stone. Mahabalipuram's cultural resonance is derived from its remarkable capacity to assimilate and spread
diverse influences. The Shore Temple is known for its impressive collection of reliefs, including a remarkable granite carving that measures
100 feet (30 m) in length and stands 45 feet (14 m) tall. Established in 1957, the Government College of Architecture and Sculpture has the
primary objective of promoting and revitalising the art of sculpture and temple-making.
Transport Mahabalipuram is located about 56 kilometres from Chennai. The most convenient mode of transportation between Chennai
and Mahabalipuram is by road. The roadway connecting Chennai to Mahabalipuram is widely recognised as one of the most popular
routes in the state. The route runs alongside the East Coast, providing uninterrupted views of the beautiful Bay of Bengal. In addition to the
breathtaking scenery, several popular attractions along the route include the Dakshinachitra Museum, Thiruvidanthai Beach, the Madras
Crocodile Bank Trust, and the Centre for Herpetology Coast. The MTC and TNSTC (Villupuram division) offer bus services that
conveniently connect Mamallapuram and Mahabalipuram with Chennai, Chengalpattu, Kancheepuram, Tiruttani, and various other
destinations. MTC provides bus services in Chennai from various locations, offering both Deluxe and Air-conditioned buses. Although
there is no direct train route connecting Chennai and Mahabalipuram, there are alternative transportation options available. You can
consider taking a local train from Chennai to neighbouring towns like Chengalpattu or Thiruvanmiyur. From there, you can easily access
Mahabalipuram using local transportation such as buses or auto-rickshaws.
The best way to travel within Mahabalipuram is on foot. Most of the attractions in Mahabalipuram are located within a short distance of
each other, typically just a few metres or up to 1 kilometre. Autorickshaws are a common mode of transportation as well. There are two
types of autorickshaws: shared autorickshaws and private autorickshaws. If you feel comfortable riding a scooter or motorcycle, renting
one could be a great way to explore the town and nearby areas at your own pace. For a more comfortable and private mode of
transportation, taxis can also be hired. You have two options for booking: you can either book in advance or book through a local agency.
Climate Mahabalipuram receives tropical weather because it is located along the Bay of Bengal. The summer season begins in April and
lasts through mid-June. Summertime maximum temperatures often range from 35 to 38 degrees Celsius. Due to its near proximity to the
sea, the evenings are often colder. In the summer, there is a lot of humidity. The northeast monsoon, which arrives at Mahabalipuram
about mid-September and lasts through mid-December, is mostly responsible for the city's rainfall. Here in Mahabalipuram, the strong
rains during the rainy season might be problematic. The temperature drops to an average of 25 degrees Celsius throughout the winter
(from November to February); however, it seldom drops below 25 degrees Celsius. Due to the dry and temperate weather, December
through March is the best season to visit Mahabalipuram.
Food Mahabalipuram boasts a wide array of captivating restaurants and cafes that offer a diverse range of cuisines. Discover a vibrant
selection of street food, a rich and authentic traditional thali, and a variety of delectable western dishes. While you're here, be sure to try
our delicious selection of dishes, including Grilled Fish, Vegetarian Thali, Prawns, Lobsters, Crabs, and much more. You could also consider
trying a traditional South Indian platter, which includes a variety of dishes such as Idli, Dosa, Appam, Vada, Upma, Sambhar, Sweet Pongal,
Kesari, Payassam, and many other options.
Language Tamil is the main language spoken in Mahabalipuram. Sanskrit, being one of the oldest surviving classical languages in the
world, boasts a rich literary and cultural heritage.
Besides Tamil, you can also encounter individuals who are proficient in English and Hindi, particularly in tourist-populated regions. In
addition to the local language, some residents may also speak other regional languages or dialects.
2.2.
GROUP OF MONUMENTS AT MAHABALIPURAM The Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram is a collection of 7th- and 8th-century CE
religious monuments
founded by the Pallava kings and carved out of rock along the Coromandel coast.It is recognised for its rathas (chariot temples),
mandapas (cave sanctuaries), large open-air reliefs such as the famous 'Descent of the Ganges,' and the temple of Rivage, which has
thousands of sculptures
depicting Shiva's splendour. This complex, which is made up of various structures, was built during the Pallava era.Among these are the
Pancha Rathas (Dharmaraja Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Bhima Ratha, Draupadi Ratha, Nakula Sahadeva Ratha, and Ganesha Ratha).
There are also a number of cave temples, including the Pancha Pandava Cave Temple, the Mahishasuramardini Mandapa, the Krishna Cave
Temple, and the Varaha Cave Temple. Additionally, the complex contains structures like the Shore Temple and the Olakkannesvara Temple.
The Descent of the Ganges, one of the biggest outdoor bas-reliefs in the world, is also located there. Mahabalipuram is famous for its
magnificent architecture. This area houses an archaeology museum that displays sculptures and buildings that have been found in the
neighbourhood. There is also an architectural school in this region that provides classes in stone carving and the history of sculpture.
GEOGRAPHY Mahabalipuram's rocky shoreline, which is adorned with big granite boulders and outcrops, is one of its most unique
geographical features. Mahabalipuram's natural features have shaped the town's landscape in addition to providing a unique background
for the area's renowned stone carving and sculpture. Mahabalipuram's craftsmen have displayed their extraordinary talent by creating
magnificent temples, caves with rock carvings, and monolithic sculptures from granite rocks. Their artistic and architectural talent is
beautifully displayed in these creations.
The town's strategic location along the coast has allowed for the preservation of its historic buildings. The stone carvings have survived in
good condition because of the moderate microclimate they have benefited from as a result of their proximity to the sea.
Additionally, Mahabalipuram's picturesque coastal setting adds to its allure. The Bay of Bengal's crystal-clear waters, swaying palm trees,
and golden sand beaches all add to the allure of this popular tourist destination. Due to its advantageous location, the town has
transformed into a thriving cultural and historical hub that draws visitors from all over the world who come to admire its magnificent
architecture and immerse themselves in its rich heritage.
ARCHITECTURE Mahabalipuram monuments are unique because they combine Hindu religion, culture, and legends associated with the
Hindu religious pantheon. These Dravidian-style monuments on the Bay of Bengal showcase Tamil Nadu's rich art and culture. Mandapas,
or cave temples; Rathas, or chariots; an open-air bas-relief depicting Arjuna's reparation to Lord Shiva to obtain the Pashupata weapon;
and structural temples are on the site. Rock-cut temples, especially rathas, influenced south Indian temple architecture. South Indian
temples and those in Cambodia, Annam, and Java adopted the architecture and sculptures.
These shrines' sculptors' descendants worked with Mahabalipuram's artisans.
The monuments at Mahabalipuram can be divided into different categories based on their style of construction: Temples made of solid
rock that stand alone are known as monoliths. Most of these temples are built in the regional style and look like rathas or chariots. The Five
Monoliths, also known as the Pancha Rathas, are one example of such a complex. The sculptures, the majority of which date from the
Narasimhavarrman era, display various Pallava architectural and plastic art styles. Narasimhavarman I ruled the Pallavas from 630 to 668
CE. The Pallava kings of South India were responsible for building the monuments at Mahabalipuram. These kings rose to power between
the third and fourth centuries and ruled from Kanchi, their capital.
The Five Monoliths The five rathas, also known as Panch Rathas, are a compact group hewn out of solid rock to form five free-standing
monolithic temples. They are connected to the five Pandavas of the Mahabharat, like many other monuments throughout the nation,
without any sort of historical foundation. They are the earliest monuments of their kind in India and were discovered during
Narasimhavarman I's rule. A small squarniche with a picture of Durga is cut out of its chest. Through these monoliths, the Pallava dynasty
in Mahabalipuram is remembered for its inventiveness and commitment.
RATHA TEMPLES Ratha, a rock carving Chariots are similar to temples. The five Pandava Rathas, which resemble chariots in a tableau or
parade, are monolithic diorite or granite constructions that protrude above the sand beach. The Pandava Rathas of the Pallava Dynasty,
who were named after Draupadi and the five brothers of the Mahabharata, originated in the seventh century. The Nakula and Sahadeva
Ratha, the Arjuna Ratha, the Dharmaraja Ratha, and the Draupadi Ratha. One rock was used to cut five different-shaped rathas. Since they
weren't built, none of these temples are currently utilized for worship. The Ganesha Ratha, which was built in the late 7th century, is an
additional ratha in addition to these five. An inscription with the name of Mahamalla's grandson Parameswara Varman I serves as a dating
tool for this ratha. Narasimhavarman invented the Pancha Rathas, sometimes referred to as the Pandava Rathas, which are distinctive in
Indian architecture. The Mahabalipuram Group of Monuments, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is managed by the Archaeological Survey
of India (ASI).
Dharmaraja Ratha The temple is a pyramid with a square base. The upper part of the temple consists of decreasing levels with pavilions,
kudus (chaitya-windows), and pilasters dividing the temple into niches with sculpted images. The images in the centre tier's niches display
commonly used traits in future iconography. The four corner blocks have two panels with standing figures, two pillars, and pilasters
between them. They are supported by crouching lions, except for one block that only has four pillars.
The final side is an Ardhanarishvara, a combination of Shiva and Parvati, located at the back and facing east. This sculpture from the early
Pallava period is highly pleasant due to its flawless balance of masculine characteristics and weaponry in the Siva-half, graceful anatomical
details, and the sporty lotus in the half-figure of Pârvati.
Bhima's Ratha The following temple is long on a rectangular base, supported lengthwise by four pillars and two pilasters, and has a roof
that resembles the hood of a country waggon. The pavilion and decorations resemble those of the Dharmaraja Ratha, including the fake
chaitya-windows (kudu). Bhima Ratha is a sculpture made from a single, lengthy stone of pink granite that resembles a chariot (ratha). The
building is dedicated to Vishnu and bears the name of one of the Pancha Pandavas.
Arjuna Ratha The Dharmaraja Ratha and the Arjuna Ratha are almost the same. Carved panels are located on the first floor and on all four
sides of the main body, between pilasters. The middle and corner panels are narrower but more noticeable, with five panels on each side
of the main body of the ratha. On the eastern panel, there is a depiction of a wise man and his disciple, both holding staffs. The panels
feature royal couples. (The panel faces south.) The sculptor's skill in portraying these individuals in full and three-quarter profile showcases
their mastery of the craft. The upper-level panels also depict similar royal couples. The monument's base features alternating etched
supports of elephants and lions. The Dharmaraja-ratha employs the same decorative approach as kudus and pavilions. Mahabalipuram is
home to the Arjuna Ratha, a Pallava-era monument. It is believed to be one of the Pancha Rathas and was completed before the
Dharmaraja Ratha. The wooden temple before it is a replica of this stone one.
Draupadi Ratha The Draupadi Ratha is a structure in the Pancha Rathas complex in Mahabalipuram
that was carved out of a single, long granite stone to resemble a chariot (ratha). The structure is named after Draupadi, the common wife
of the Pancha Pandavas, despite the fact that history does not corroborate the nomenclature. The goddess Durga is honoured by the
unfinished building.
Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha The two heroes inspired the name of this temple. It possesses ornamental characteristics similar to those of
Arjuna, Dharmaraja, and other rathas. It moves a little bit forward to make a porch with two pillars. This temple lacks any figure carvings.
The Pancha Rathas complex at Mahabalipuram includes the monument Nakula Sahadeva
Ratha. It is carved from a single, long stone of pink granite,
like a chariot (ratha). The last two brothers of the Pancha Pandavas are commemorated on the edifice, despite the fact that history does
not corroborate the nomenclature. The tiny, incomplete building is a temple for the god Indra.
Pallava architecture and sculpture
●● Mahendra Style In the evolution of Pallava forms, three main movements have been identified. The first, known colloquially as
'Mahendra Style,' was rock-cut. These temples' pillars are huge and split into three sections: the upper and lower are square in form, while
the centre is horned and octagonal. The doorkeepers (dwarapala) on either side of the sanctum's doorway are huge and hefty, carry a
heavy club, are sometimes horned, and have the sacred thread (yajnopavita) running across the right arm; however, they are not fierce-
looking and have only one pair of arms, unlike their later counterparts.
However, a pillar inscription from Kanchipuram indicates the presence of masonry temples during his time, although no such specimens
survive now.
Kotikal Mandapa is the cave in this image. A female doorkeeper is on duty to watch over a cell beyond the hall's enormous pillars. On
either side of the entrance, there are female doorkeepers watching over a cell that is beyond the hall's enormous pillars. on each side of
the entrance.
●● 'Mamalla Style' Varaha Cave temples continue in this period, and free-standing monolithic temples also come into existence. The pillars
are more slender, slightly more decorated, and supported by crouching lions. The pavilion ornament resembles a thatched cottage with a
mimicked railing below. The torana arch on top of the niche is adorned with two makaras. These makaras have riders and floriated tails,
one at each end of the torana. The dwarapala in this form are similar to the ones found in the earlier caves. The figures now have a
slimmer contour, although they are still heavy. The general features of the earlier period continue as a whole.
The Mamalla-style Varaha Cave Temple in this panorama has a spacious hall with a front row of four pillars and two pilasters supported by
crouching lions. The two-pillar back row has no lions, and the back wall has a cell cut in the centre. This cell depicts Varaha lifting the
earth from the ocean. Rock-cut Varaha Cave Temple is also known as Adi Varaha Cave Temple. The cave's most important sculpture
depicts Lord Vishnu as a Varaha, or boar, carrying Bhudevi from the sea. There are also many mythological figures engraved. The Pallava
rulers Mahendra Varman I and Rajasimha, or Narasimhavarman I, known as Mamalla, ruled the cave, which includes transitional
architecture with columns set on seated lions and murals on the walls. Mamalla's son, Parameswara Varman, followed this technique.
Historical records reveal that Mahabalipuram was founded after Mamalla, and the caverns and rathas date to his reign in 650 AD. The
oldest monument in Mahabalipuram The cave's facade includes artistically carved columns on sitting lions, a Pallava feature. Four panels
flank the cell in this cave: a Gaja-Lakshmi seated on a lotus, washed by elephants and attended by nymphs; an eight-armed
Mahishamardini at the end; and two Vishnu depictions.
The verandah's side walls have two panels: a seated king with queens and a standing king leading his two queens. The Gaja-Lakshmi panel
resembles the other Varaha cave panel.
Mahishamardini stands on Mahisha's cut head. In both panels, two prostrate followers worship him, and two dwarapalakas flank him, one
of whom has snake-hoods atop his hat, suggesting Sesha, the serpent-lord, always linked with Vishnu's Varaha incarnation. Other panels
depict Gangadhara and Brahma, with the former receiving Ganga in his hair and supporting her with his right upper arm. One of the
notable royal images depicts a king sitting on a throne with his two standing queens, while the other depicts a king in royal robes leading
his senior queen, then the second, and pointing his right forefinger at the central shrine figure. .
●● 'Rajasimha Style' In this period, the practise of excavating rock-cut temples fell into disuse. The masonry temples' pillars are thin and
supported by lions that are running, not squatting. Additionally, the dwarapala are more ornamented, their figures are conceived and
executed with greater delicacy, and there is a greater exuberance and a larger grouping of figures.
Krishna Cave Temple Krishna Cave Temple at Mahabalipuram is a rock-cut mandapam dedicated to Lord Krishna. About the mid-7th
century. Its excavated entrance leads to a hall with columns. Inside is the "most poetic and endearing" Indian or Angkor sculpture
depicting Krishna hoisting Govardhan Hill to protect cowherds and gopis from severe rains and floods. Another cave scene depicts Krishna
playing with milkmaids. Krishna raises Govardhana mountain to protect the gopas and gopis from Indra's storm. Krishna supports the
mountain with his left palm and varada hand. Right now, Balarama has his left hand on a gopa's shoulder and his right on his hip. His right
displays a magnificent cowherd milking and licking the calf naturally. He sits alongside another woodcutter with his axe on his shoulder. A
woman holds her infant behind the milking cow as a cowherd plays a flute overhead. Everything illustrates the cowherds' indifference to
Indra's rage, who prepared a storm to punish the gopis but couldn't since Krishna held Mount Govardhana. This fresco has three female
friends to his right. His childhood girlfriend Radha wears a kirita makuta crown, a breast band, and jewels. On his right are two people,
male and female.
Panchapandava Cave Temple Panchapandava Cave Temple, also known as Mandapa of the Five Pandavas, is one of the best examples of
Vishwakarma Sthapathi rock-cut cave architecture. Pallava architecture's basic verandah columns with lion bases were given to
Narasimhavarman I Mamalla Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha in the mid-7th century. In Mahabalipuram, the Pallavas built 10 significant cave
temples. Cave temple incomplete. The entrance faces east. The temple has Mahabalipuram Cave Temple's longest cavern, 50 feet (15
metres). The opening length appears to create a cave-circumambulatory tunnel around the main shrine.
Mahishasuramardini Mandapa
The Pallava dynasty constructed Yampuri, also known as Mahishasuramardhini Mandapa, a
rock-cut cave temple, in the late 7th century. The rock-cut cave temple is located on a hill near a lighthouse in Mamallapuram, along
with other caves.
The Mahishamardini Rock Cut Mandapa is located 200 metres away from the Five Monoliths. The big hall has panels of Seshasayi Vishnu
and Mahishamardini at both ends. The central cell contains a Siva-linga, with a depiction of Somaskanda on the wall behind it. The cave
depicts Purana scenes from the 5th century AD.
The cave, along with Ellora, has one of the best Mahishamardini groups. Notable examples of Mahabalipuram's plastic art include Seshayi
Vishnu, Gajalakshmi in the Varaha Cave, and Arjuna's Penance.
Mahishamardini, with her eight arms, rides a lion and wields all her weapons, including a bow that she holds up to her ear. She wields a
large club in a fierce alidha stance alongside armies of ganas and Amazon yoginis. In yoga nidra, Vishnu is serene on his serpent-couch,
while Madhu and Kaitabha, with their weapons, contribute to his tranquilly.
Arjuna’s Penance Arjuna performs penance to please Shiva and obtain the Pasupata weapon in a Mahabharata story. Rows of gods and
goddesses, such as Chandra, Surya, Kinnaras, Siddhas, Gandharvas, Apsaras, and more, hurry towards a central place in a cleft. In the midst
of it all, a sage stands in deep penance on his left foot. There is another rock with an unfinished image south of Arjuna's Penance, in front
of the lighthouse. The sculptor may have attempted this before beginning. In Arjuna's Penance, the focal point is a sage standing on one
foot, practising self-mortification. A mighty Siva, with four arms, a trident, and dwarf ganas, stands beside the sage. The cleft features
beautifully sculpted Nagas and Naginis with loving hands. The deer near the lion implies the presence of nearby sages' hermitages. Sages
exude tranquilly and calmness, resembling a meditating cat amidst a few scurrying rodents. The sculptor portrayed Nagas, commonly
linked to water, in various elements like the cleft, temple, sages, dwellings, and disciples conducting water-related rituals. This suggests
that the cleft symbolises a river flowing down from the hills.
ROCK RELIEF Rock reliefs are carved either on rocks or on independent boulders. The most famous rock relief or bas-relief work depicted
in Mahabalipuram is titled
The Descent of the Ganges (also known as Arjuna's Penance or Bhagiratha's Penance).
It is the largest open-air rock relief work in the world. This bas-relief is carved on two huge boulders of 27 metres (89 feet) length and 9
metres (30 feet) height with innumerable depictions of Hindu beliefs. These are early or middle 7th-century creations on granite boulders
and
are considered by The Hindu to be "one of the marvels of the sculptural art of India." Descent Of The Ganges
A massive open-air rock relief, Descent of the Ganges, is carved from two monolithic rock boulders spanning 96 by 43 feet. The bas-relief
depicts Bhagiratha leading the Ganges from heaven to earth. Ganges water is thought to have magical abilities. The Pallava historic site
depicts the Ganges' descent
and Arjuna's penance in stone. The relief is a canvas of Indian rock-cut sculpture at its best, unrepresented in India.
This relief commemorates Hinduism's victory over Buddhism. After Pallava Dynasty king Narasimhavarman I (630–668 AD) during the
4th–9th centuries, Mahabalipuram was known
as Mamallan, the "great wrestler" or "great warrior". His father, Mahendravarman I, switched from Jainism to Hinduism. The
Mamallapuram architecture sculpted in situ granite faces using stone.
STRUCTURAL TEMPLES During the 8th century, The Pallava kings built the structural temples, specifically during the reign of King
Rajasimha (AD 700–28). The Shore Temple complex is the most famous and prominent example of this type of temple. It has two small
temples and one large temple, all enclosed within a two-tier compound wall decorated with Nandi images. The temple is 60 feet tall and
has a square base measuring 50 feet on each side. In the original Force Court, thousands of sculptures are displayed to worship Lord
Shiva, and there are small temples. The complex has two additional temples located behind the main temple. These temples, called
Rajasimhesvara or Nripatisimha Pallava Vishnugriha and Kshatriyasimhesvara, face each other. The latter is dedicated to Shiva, while the
former has an ancient reclining image of Anantashayana Vishnu carved nearby in the riverbed. The mandapa in front of the
Rajasimheshvara extends to the basement. A compound wall with Nandis on top surrounds the temple complex. Due to its proximity to
the sea, the Shore Temple is subject to the choppy sea and salt-laden winds.
Shore Temple The 700–728 AD Shore Temple faces the Bay of Bengal. The ancient granite-block temple of Mahabalipuram (173) dates to
the 8th century AD. South India's oldest structural stone temple This temple complex has one large and two small temples. After seeing
the tall building on the beach, sailors called it the Seven Pagodas. They presumably navigated ships with the temple. The pagoda-like
name was familiar to sailors.
This temple complex was King Narasimha Varma I's mid-7th-century architectural peak.
King Rajasimha (700–28 AD), also known as Narasimhavarman II, of the Pallava Dynasty, is
credited with the Shore Temple complex's architectural elegance, despite later cut-in and cut-out features such as the Atiranachanda
cave, Pidari rathas, and Tiger cave.
This was the last submerged seashore temple complex. The Cholas invaded Tamil Nadu and erected Shore Temple.
The two inscriptions on a smaller Shiva temple slab
are Kshatriyasimha Pallaveshvara-graham, Rajasimha, and Pllikondaruliya-devar. The entire temple is Jalashayana. This proves the Vishnu
shrine was dug first.
Rajasimha's title, Narasimha Pallava Vishnu Griha, is on the temple lintel.

The ASI discovered a small shrine with the Bhauvaraha image in 1990. It dates back to the reign of Pallava King Narasimhavarman Mamalla
(AD 638–660). Rajasimha's reign (AD 700–728) saw the construction of an elliptical well to enclose it. These carvings are found on the
bedrock of the Shore Temple complex, which
also features the reclining Vishnu. The complex is dedicated to Shiva. The base is carved from bedrock and has sixteen sides. Lions are
depicted on the pilasters. It is a unique
temple from the Pallava period. The shikara has a circular shape and features Vesara-style architecture. This image is unique because it
does not include Bhudevi or an ocean, unlike other Varaha depictions in different regions of the country. Varaha dives
into the ocean to rescue Bhudevi; the depiction shows this. The act symbolises the myth when the temple is underwater, below ground
level. The
shrine's surrounding wall prevents sand intrusion
from the sea. It also features an inscription in Pallava-Grantha script, equating the king with Arjuna.
Olakkannesvara Temple The Olakkannesvara Temple ("flame eye"; also known as Olakkanatha, "the Old Lighthouse") is at Mahabalipuram.
Olakkannesvara Temple is structurally similar to Shore
Temple. Built in the 17th century, it overlooks the Mahishasuramardini mandapa on a hillside with stunning views of the town.
Dedicated to Shiva's incarnation. The common name is "Olakkanatha Temple." The original name of Olakkanatha Temple is
Olakkannesvara, derived from "Ulaikkannisvaram," which means a Shiva temple with a crescent moon or wisdom eye on the forehead.
Pallava dynasty ruler Rajasimha erected the Olakkannesvara Temple and Shore Temple. Archaeologist A. H. Longhurst noted that before
the 1900 building of the current lighthouse, the Olakkannesvara Temple roof was used as a lighthouse, maybe a wooden hut. Worship was
held in this temple until the 1800s.
CHAPTER THREE: PROCESS
3.1. STONE CARVING IN MAHABALIPURAM
Stones available in Mahabalipuram:
-- Granite: Granite is a hard and durable stone that is widely used for stone carving in Mahabalipuram. It is known for its strength and
ability to withstand weathering, making it suitable for outdoor sculptures and monuments. -- Black granite (Karuppu Kal) -- Red granite
(Sivappu Kal) -- White Granite (Vellai Kal) -- Soapstone (Maavu Kal): Soapstone, also known as steatite, is a softer stone often used for
smaller carvings and intricate details. It has a smooth and easily workable texture, allowing artisans to create delicate and intricate designs.
-- Sandstone: Sandstone is occasionally used for stone carving in Mahabalipuram. It has a relatively soft texture and is suitable for intricate
carvings and decorative elements. Sandstone sculptures are often seen in the form of relief panels.
Process -- There are 4 steps:
-- First it starts with a plain outline drawing with measurements followed by step 1 - rough cutting step 2- shaping/carving step 3-
polishing step 4- detailing -- In-between where the markings are done 3 to 5 times using Red Oxide powder or marker as and when it's
required During the process both mercenaries and hammer and chisel(like old days) are being used. They have a basic measurement scale
which is made of a bamboo stick on which they have marked measurements for each part of the body which is roughly the face, upper
body, lower body and feet. So when the customer asked for a specific size they just take the already prepared stick for marking the
measurements.They almost have five different machines that they used till the finished product, -- Step 1- Rough cutting- they have a
cutting machine which has different sizes that almost starts from 2 inches to 12 inches blades depending on the size of the blades the
voltage differs. -- Step 2- Shaping/carving- the drill machine is used for punching holes and creating the required cavity in the idol, there
are different bit sizes so locally they call it the bit machine -- Step 3 -Polishing- A buffing machine is used for polishing the idol with
different spindles and discs to give a glass finish look. This is used for large idols, and interestingly, they use the carbon from the cell or
shoe polish for idols that are smaller in size. There are six different discs, each with six different textures, which are responsible for the
glass finish. each disc has a colour behind it, so they can identify by the colour too, as it's easier -- Step 4-Detailing - the use of a die
grinder to give intricate details on the idol.
Raw Materials Red granite, Black granite, and white stone are the types of stones used as the basic raw materials available.
Tools Chisels: Wide-edged and point-edged chisels (Uli) are used for removing unwanted material to get a rough outline on the stone.
Hammer: It is used for hammering in conjunction with chisels to strike and remove material from the stone. They can vary in weight and
size, depending on the stone and the carving technique. Sandpaper is used to polish the surface of the stone. Red oxide solution: Before
carving, the stencils are painted on the surface of the stone with a red oxide solution. Palamunai uli: Chisel used to level the surface of the
stone. Water: To avoid heat production, water is continually showered. Oil: Coconut or Castor Oil is applied to the stone as it gives it a
characteristic black colour and a smoother surface. Cutting Machine: Different types of automated cutting machines are used to cut the
bigger stone blocks. Saw: A saw is used to cut stone slabs into the required sizes. Scales: These are used for marking marks on the stone
surface for the measurement. Water and chemicals are used to whiten the outer texture of granite stone. Brush:A brush is used to remove
the stone powder that accumulates on the statue's exterior surface while carving out features.
3.2 SHILPA SHASTRA In ancient Indian scriptures, Shilpa refers to any art or craft, whereas Shastra refers to science. Shilpa Shastra
translates to "the science of art and crafts." It is an old umbrella name encompassing a variety of Hindu books that explain arts and crafts
shrine-bound, as well as the design rules, principles, and standards that govern them. The Shilpa Shastras were guides for sculpting and
Hindu iconography in the context of Hindu temple building and sculpture. The Shilpa Shastras, among other things, regulate the
dimensions of a sculptured figure, composition, principles, meaning, and all architectural standards.
Shilpa Shastra serves as a foundational guide and reference for stone carving in traditional Indian art and architecture. It outlines the
principles, rules, and techniques that craftsmen use to create intricate and culturally significant stone sculptures. It covers various aspects
of stone carving, such as design, proportions, iconography, symbolism, and the methods of carving different types of stone. The art of
sculpting in ancient India, known as Shilpa Shastra, established its own set of standards about measurements and proportions. It is a
system of iconometry that defies rigorous definitions due to its complexity. The system of measurements by Tala in the palm of the hand
(from the middle fingertip to the wrist)is known as Talamana paddathi. It is an essential component in the creation of temple icons and
images. Iconometry, which is the concept that discusses proportions, was an essential component of the Murti shilpa, which refers to the
process of creating idols. Shilpa-Shastra addresses architecture and iconography in Agama literature. Devalaya Vastu covers temple
structure, while Prathima covers iconography. Shilpa and Shastra are both used to describe sculpting; however, Shilpa refers to the
method and Shastra to its principles. Agama literature discusses worship with images. The Agama scriptures describe rites and sequences
for a shrine-bound, worship-worthy image. The underlying principle is that a temple must be made for the icon, not the other way
around. A temple is simply an expanded representation of the icon. Icons only matter in respectable shrines. Agama literature influences
Shilpa-Sastra Architecture. The icon, temple, and rites are interconnected. Indian temples should be considered in the context of temple
culture, which includes religious, philosophical, social, aesthetic, and economic elements. The Agamas for Shilpa detail the quality
requirements of temple sites, the images to be installed, the materials to be used, their dimensions, proportions, air circulation, lighting,
and more. Manasara and Shilpasara address these rules. The Agamas govern daily temple worship rites. The Shilpa Shatras of the Agamas
describe the temple location, building materials, size, directions, and orientations of temple structures, image, and specifications for a
pilgrimage site. Sthala (temple site), Teertha (temple tank), and Murthi (idol) are the main components. Sthala Vriksham, a tree-temple
relationship, exists. Initially, a square grid is divided into sixteen equal squares for the purpose of creating an image. Six segments are
formed from these squares: The central four squares, known as Brahma-bhaga, Above the Brahma-bhaga, there are two squares
designated as Deva-kesha or Deva shiro-alankara-bhaga, which symbolise the crown or intricate hair arrangement of the deity. The space
below the Brahma-bhaga, consisting of two bottom squares, is referred to as the Vahana-bhaga or peeta-bhaga, serving as the pedestal
for the deity. Adjacent to the Vahana-bhaga, there are two bottom squares on either side, known as Bhaktha-bhaga, which are reserved
for the depiction of the worshipping devotees. On either side of the Brahma-bhaga, there are two squares each, referred to as Devi-
bhaga, which represent the accompanying female deities. Lastly, the two squares located at the On either side of the Shiro-bhaga are
designated as the dharva-bhaga, symbolising the presence of the Gandharvas. The centre section of the primary deity is represented by
the Brahma-bhaga; its head, crown, or hair-do is represented by the Deva-shiro-bhaga; and the deity's feet, pedestal, and mount (vahana)
are represented by the lower Vahana-bhaga. The vertical, horizontal, and diagonal axes of the square intersect at a point referred to as the
Brahma-bindu, located exactly at the centre of the Brahma-bhaga. The deity's navel (nabhi) would be at the Brahma-bindu.
INTRODUCTION TO THE CLUSTER The Stone Carving Craft Cluster exudes an ethereal aura that enthrals the heart and soul. It is situated
directly next to the main road, the greenery, and the tranquil melody of flowing waterways. Ten accomplished artists who are experts in
their fields get together here every day to breathe life into lifeless stones with their skilled hands and limitless imagination.
The lotus pond's reflective surface is bathed in a warm glow from the dawn's first rays, and a natural symphony fills the air. The water's
gentle ripples caressing the shoreline echo the rhythmic chiselling that comes from the artisans' studios. The skilled craftspeople began
their delicate labour in time with nature's embrace, drawing on centuries of tradition and knowledge. Tradition and modernization live
together in the craft cluster. A water line that was thoughtfully installed offers a constant supply of water to wash the stones, and a radio
that softly hums helps the artists in their creative endeavours. The fusion of the modern and the classic results in works of art that bridge
the past and the present and carry on the tradition of stone cutting for future generations. Visitors can watch the creative process unfold
as they walk along the winding paths that surround the lotus pond. A reflection of the community and friendship that ties these
accomplished artisans together can be heard in the air as it reverberates with laughter and discussion. Each sculpture is a marvel to see
thanks to the craftsmen's inspiration, which lends each piece a touch of natural elegance. The artisans who work there are
Anbu,Munmuswami, Shiva,Rajesh, Ganesh,Purushotaman,Tangaraj,Venkatashan,Devendran,Velagari, Balaji, Sudhakaran, Velmurugan,
Murugan, and Anandan.
CHAPTER FOUR: ARTIST PROFILE 1.
Name: Anbu Arumugan Age: 41 Gender: Male Marital Status: Married Place: Mahabalipuram Working Experience: 30 years Field: Stone
carving Shop name: Sri Raja Stone Carving Anbu Arumugan is the most experienced craftsman in this cluster. He resides with his family in
Mahabalipuram proper, 10 kilometres from his place of employment. He is married and has two kids, one in sixth grade and the other in
kindergarten. He began working at this job when he was just 12 years old in order to support his family. He only came into this field
because he had to provide for his family financially; he had no interest in this job. He is employed from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. He marks and
sketches everything on the stone because he is the master artisan and can complete all the tasks, then hands the stone off to another
artisan to complete. He did not attend a school for sculpture. 2. Name: Munmuswami Age: 85 Gender: Male Marital Status: Widow Place:
Mahabalipuram Working Experience: 45 years Field: Stone carving Shop name: Sri Raja Stone Carving Centre Munmuswami has a son who
used to work nearby at a construction site but now lives alone because he can't hear well and his wife passed away. He works as a polisher
and has done so for more than 45 years. His family has agricultural roots, and he started working at this job when he was just 10 years old.
3. Name: Shiva Age: 32 Gender: Male Marital Status: Married Place: Thiruvaikundam Working Experience: 22 years Field: Stone carving
Shop name: Sri Raja Stone Carving Centre Shiva is from Thiruviakundram, which is about 15 kilometres away from Chengalpattu district.
His daughter, who is one year and two months old, is his only child; he is married. When he was about ten years old, he arrived at this field.
He has held various positions. When asked if he would have done anything else besides stone carving work, he replied that because he
was raised in a hamlet, people there are expected to labour tirelessly at anything, whether it be laying tiles or constructing buildings. A
friend who he considers a brother first introduced him to this work, and over time, he eventually learned it. He has now been working at
this shop for about ten years. 4. Name: Purushottaman Age: 45 Gender: Male Marital Status: Married Place: Mahabalipuram Working
Experience: 30 years Field: Stone carving Shop name: Sri Raja stone carving Purushottam has been employed for approximately 30 years.
He was raised in Mahabalipuram itself, where he was born. When questioned about how he came to work here, he explained that it was
due to his family's circumstances. His family is from here, and his father and his grandfather both worked in construction. When asked
how he ended up in this field, he specifically stated that he doesn't remember anything from Mahabalipuram but that he used to go with
his grandmother to see these street performances that were based on the Ramayana or the Mahabharata, among other things, which
helped him when he was creating the statues, according to him. 5. Name: Rajesh Age: 20 Gender: Male Marital Status: Married Place:
Mahabalipuram Working Experience: 2-3 years Field: Stone carving Shop name: Sri Raja Stone Carving Centre Rajesh had lost his father.
He is married and has a child, and he lives with his mother and younger brother. His coworkers claimed that since he is from a lower caste
—typically in his caste, they marry young—and that he has only completed the fifth grade of school, He initially performed any tasks that
were assigned to him in the temples, such as cleaning or other tasks. But after seeing all the statues in the temple and how much people
revered God, he decided that he must complete the task of creating a statue of God. As a result, he came to this field. 6. Name: Tangaraj
Age: 50 Gender: Male Marital Status: Married Place: Tri Vandanam Working Experience: 30 years Field: Stone carving Shop name: Sri Raja
Stone Carving Centre Tangaraj had previously worked for a Granite company. He just does polishing work because he enjoys it. He has
been doing it for 30 years overall, but he has been working in this shop for 4 years. His family is located 100 kilometres away, and he lives
here by himself in a modest room. So he makes a weekly trip to see his family. After work, he spends much of his time eating and sleeping.
He also enjoys watching YouTube videos and movies. 7. Name: Ganesh Age: 32 Gender: Male Marital Status: Married Place: Pudukottai
Working Experience: 18 years Field: Stone carving Shop name: Sri Raja Stone Carving Centre Ganesh, who is 28 years old, started working
in this industry when he was about 10 years old. At first, he was in the construction industry, through which he travelled to Dubai and
worked there for a while. However, after realising that he wanted to work in stone sculpting, he returned to India and joined a store where
he had to learn everything on his own. Now, he is opening a store in his hometown. He also said that he can't wait to go to work every day
and that even missing one day of work makes him feel really unhappy.
8. Name: Venkatesan Age: 55 Gender: Male Marital Status: Married Place: Mahabalipuram Working Experience: 25 years Field: Stone
carving Shop name: V B V Traditional Architectures and Sculptures
Venkatesan completed a five-year diploma programme in sculpture and temple architecture at the government college of architecture
and sculpture. He also completed a four-year course in fine arts at the Madras School. He has travelled all around the world, including
America and Bangkok. He now works for the Tamil Nadu government's department of temple architecture. He serves on the panel for
inducements as well. His entire family hails from Mahabalipuram, where he was born and raised. The college that he previously attended
employed his father as a teacher. His family has exclusively worked in this industry for the last three generations; therefore, he also
developed an interest in it. He thought that since stone carving is such an essential craft, people should continue to pursue it. He is
passionate about his work, and customers come to him from all around the world. He claimed that he had previously loved this art better
because it just required the use of a hammer and chisel, but now, due to the extensive use of machines and the rise in health issues, the
number of young people entering this area is now declining. He claimed that this work is well-regarded and timeless. He also said that he
respected his teacher because it was only thanks to him that he had reached this position. He has helped create temple sculptures in Tamil
Nadu and other nations. He is now building a temple close to Thiruchendur. 9. Name: Sudhakaran Age: 50 Gender: Male Marital Status:
Married Place: Mahabalipuram Working Experience: 25 years Field: Stone carving Shop name: Sai Kshatriya Gallery
Sudhakaran has three people working under him. He began working at a relatively young age and has been in this industry for almost 25
years. The College of Sculpture awarded him a degree. His ancestors and his family are all from Mahabalipuram. He also thinks his
ancestors are from the Pallava clan. He claimed that, except for stone carving, no other line of employment could compare to his passion
for and interest in it. He has commercial ties all over the world, primarily in New Jersey, the USA, Malaysia, and Bangkok. He claims that he
is well-liked across the nation. He adds that working with stone used to sound like music back when there were no machines, but that is
no longer the case. Since Sudhakaran is a devoted disciple of Sai Baba, he has built a temple just across from his business while also
working and maintaining it. He was able to climb, touch, and feel the monuments because he was raised in Mahabalipuram, which had a
significant influence on his decision to begin stone carving. Name: Velmurugan Age: 48 Gender: Male Marital Status: Married Place:
Mahabalipuram Working Experience: 22 years Field: Stone carving Shop name: Sai Kshatriya Gallery Velmurugan has two children and
resides with his family. He entered this sector when he was 12 years old, worked in a variety of businesses and locations, and is now a
permanent resident of Sudhakar businesses. He merely completed eighth grade of his studies. Since they were all close to his house and
he could see all the shops nearby, he used to visit them all during the school breaks. Therefore, he used to visit and sit with these
individuals over the holidays and became aware of them. He gradually developed an interest in this area and decided he wanted to carve
stones. He joined a store and began working there when he was 12 years old. After arriving here and working for some time, he claimed
he just felt drawn towards it and never really thought about anything else when asked whether he had any interest in studying or if he
wanted to do something else. He completed all the stages and procedures. 11. Name: Devendran Age: 30 Gender: Male Marital Status:
Married Place: Mahabalipuram Working Experience: 3 years Field: Stone carving Shop name: Sai Kshatriya Gallery Devendran is the brother
of Velmurugan, the primary craftsman. He is married with two children. When he arrived here, his brother showed him how to complete
the task. He had trouble hearing clearly. He was conducting the task that deals with a cease and desist to hang in a company in Chennai
before he came here. He does the third part of the process, polishing, here. He goes to clean the temple that is directly across from their
cluster, sits there for a while, and then returns to his home. 12. Name: Balaji Age: 27 Gender: Male Marital Status: Married Place:
Mahabalipuram Working Experience: 6 years Field: Stone carving Shop name: Sai Kshatriya Gallery Balaji has been in this line of work for
over 6 years, and interestingly, before that he was a driver. However, one day with a friend, he visited the place of employment where he
had previously worked, and he became so enamoured with it that he began going there every day. Ultimately, he began developing this
skill simply by watching other people at work. When asked, How did he become an authority in this field? He claimed that his friend
eventually taught him how to do it, and that he is now completely self-sufficient. His work here is the final stage of the polishing of the
idol's principal detailing. 13. Name: Anandan Age: 55 Gender: Male Marital Status: Married Place: Mahabalipuram Working Experience: 30
years Field: Stone carving Anandan has been employed for about 30 years; he was born and raised in Mahabalipuram. His father and
grandfather both used to perform the same duties. After graduating from the sculpture college with a passing mark, he now manages a
store where 15 people work. The course is a five-year program. Although statues are exported both domestically and abroad, most statues
are purchased in India. When asked about his early experiences, he explained that there used to be a lot of breaking and that most of it
wouldn't turn off as you would have expected until 2 to 5 years later. 14. Name: Vellagiri Age: 72 Gender: Male Marital Status: divorced
Place: Chengalpattu Working Experience: 40 years Field: Stone carving Shop name: V B V Traditional Architectures and Sculptures Vellagiri
is 72 years old. His two sons are both educated and he hails from a tiny town close to Chengalpattu. He has been working for 40 years
and solely does polishing. They each have profitable businesses that they started separately after studying sculpture in college. Although
he initially came here just for the money because he had to support two children, he came here for the salary because anyone from this
could help him convince his children to study and pursue this line of work. Despite the fact that he has almost lost 90% to 80% of his
vision, he stays in the workplace . 15. Name: Munmunswami Age: 60 Gender: Male Marital Status: Widow Place: Mahabalipuram Working
Experience: 50 years Field: Stone carving Shop name: Sri Sudhakar stone carving Munmunswami, a shopkeeper who is 60 years old and
who was born and raised entirely in Mahabalipuram, has no experience in stone cutting or statue construction. He merely looks after and
maintains the store. He has been employed for four years, and in that time, he has only mentioned that it was challenging at first due to
the store's numerous products and varying prices. His duty is to clean the store, which is open from 9 a.m. to 8 p.m. If anything needs
attention, he notifies the owner right away. He simply has to cook when he returns home because his wife passed away and he has two
children, a daughter and a son. 16. Name:Santosh Age: 29 Gender: Male Marital Status:Single Place: Visakhapatnam Field: IT employee
Santhosh, an IT professional from Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam, is 29 years old. He is a person who enjoys visiting various places, and one
distinctive trait about him is that he takes pleasure in learning about the well-known landmarks, local cultures, and different kinds of
companies in each place. When he visits, he makes sure to remain for a week or a few days so he can try to learn the local language and
meet people. He has travelled to many locations, and he studied stone carving in our group. It is more convenient for him to travel as he
now works from home.He has been to Kerala, Rajasthan, Kerala, Mumbai, and Bangalore. As a result, he had a strong sense of creativity as
a child and always loved making art and working with materials. He asserted that he also tried to use materials he discovered about the
house to imitate sequences from films, such as the building of the Charminar Taj Mahal. He added that he used to enjoy painting but that
no one had ever told him about art colleges like NIFT or other chances for higher education because of his lack of education. He
ultimately chose to enrol in an engineering programme, though he now states that he wants to go back to his original area of interest after
working in IT. even feigning employment in the IT sector or current financial gain. In order to at least try to return home and enjoy doing
what he likes to do when he has some free time, this person goes from place to place and attempts to study their art, learn their language,
and mingle with people. In essence, he is attempting to actualize the childhood fantasy he had but never realised. 17. Name: Dr
Chandrashakaran Age: 58 Gender: Male Marital Status: Married Place: Mahabalipuram Working Experience: 28 years Field: Professor(Stone
carving ) College name:Government College of Architecture and Sculpture Chandrashakaran is a native of Kadambadi, a small village close
to Mahabalipuram. He earned his doctorate in this area and worked for a university in the stone department of the stone sculpting college.
He eventually quit that position though, and went back to teach at his old college. both a doctorate and an MA in sculpture. He was able
to lead multiple seminars despite teaching at numerous colleges. He married a singer because he yearned to sing but was unable to. He's
married and has two kids.He began a diploma programme in 1995. While his colleagues enrolled in the eleventh and twelve grades after
the tenth grade, his brother enrolled him in this school. He avoided the real class though because he detested it and none of his friends
went to this particular college. They were all enrolled in classes at various institutions, and they were all making fun of him by saying that
he didn't understand what they were all studying. But after three months, he finally made it to college and started to show interest. He is
currently the first person in his family to receive a PhD after finishing an MA and M Phil in sculpture. Before, he showed no interest at all,
but now that he has reached heights.
CHAPTER FIVE: PRODUCTS
5.1. STONE CARVING PRODUCTS IN INDIA
The classical tradition of stone carving was closely intertwined with architecture. The great history of Indian stone carvings is displayed in
the country's most famous temples, including those in Puri, Konark, Khajuraho, Kailash, and the Shore Temple in Mahabalipuram.
The stone work in Varanasi exhibits a distinctiveness that sets it apart from other parts of India. Carving gets done on a soft stone called
gorara, which is sourced from the Hamirpur and Mahoba regions, instead of using hard marble. Gorara is unique because of its
unpredictable range of colours. When polished, mottled gorara reveals a beautiful range of shades, including grey, bright pink, green, and
black. The limited availability of gorara in small pieces restricts the size of its end products due to its softness. Bowls and serving dishes are
highly sought-after items. To fully immerse oneself in the art of stone craft, it is essential to take a leisurely walk through the intricate
network of narrow lanes found in the Sonia and Kalimohal areas of Varanasi, as well as Gokulpura in Agra. For curious collectors, it has the
potential to be a delightful journey of discovery. In these areas, one can find approximately 4,000 artisans who are the driving force behind
this age-old tradition, skillfully crafting wonders from stone. The high grade of marble and sandstone mined from the state's numerous
quarries spawned a history of stonemasons and artists. The quarries in Makrana are well-known because it is from these quarries that the
marble for the Taj Mahal was quarried. The beautiful Dilwara Jain temples at Mt. Abu were also built with marble from Makrana mines. The
red sandstone that the Mughals used to construct their forts and palaces at Agra, Delhi, and Fatehpur Sikri is still available in Rupbas (near
Agra) and Karauli. East Rajasthan Kota produces grey stone for flooring, Barmer produces yellow marble for delicate sculptures, and Ajmer
produces granite. The state's stone carvers carve images of the deities out of the soft, chromatic stone they mine from the quarries in
Dungarpur. The sculptors must adhere to the rules outlined in the Shilpa Shastra, an ancient Hindu text, because the subjects of these
images are heavenly sculpture and architecture. The religious themes are carved in stone all over the state. One can see the lifelike images
being skillfully sculpted in different varieties of stone across the state. White marble is used to carve statues of gods and goddesses, as well
as animal and human forms, in Jaipur.
5.2. STONE CARVING PRODUCTS IN MAHABALIPURAM
The temples of Mahabalipuram are renowned for their intricate carvings, which excellently highlight the mastery of stone carving as both a
decorative and devotional art form. The traditional craftsmen skillfully carve a variety of masterpieces depicting mythological figures.
These include human figures, images of gods and goddesses, idols for worship, animal figures, scenes from Hindu epics, various poses of
Lord Vinayaka, and mounts for deities. Lord Ganesh is occasionally called Lord Vinayaka. In addition, essential items for the kitchen such as
wet grinders, grinding stones, sculptures of notable individuals, and the letter Icon of Buddha are produced as well. Lord Vinayaka statues
can be intricately hand-carved in a variety of postures and forms. These statues often depict Lord Vinayaka with either four or eight arms,
each holding different symbolic objects. Lord Ganesh is frequently depicted engaging in dance or playing a musical instrument, such as
the flute. Sometimes, he is accompanied by or seen riding a rat (or a mouse), which symbolises his all-pervasiveness. The rat symbolises
being under Ganesh's control, representing a spiritual journey towards self-realisation and grace. The position of Lord Ganesh's The trunk
holds great significance and carries special meaning. Each of Ganesh's symbols and traits holds unique benefits for devotees. When the
idol trunk turns left, it symbolises blessings of wealth, success, and pleasure. On his right, the trunk symbolises the benefits associated with
moksha: the realisation that earthly pleasures are temporary and the pursuit of ultimate bliss. Lord Vinayaka's statues commonly feature
several sacred symbols, including an elephant gods, bowls filled with Indian sweets or honey, an axe, and an upside-down noose. These
symbols hold great significance in the worship of Lord Vinayaka. Gods symbolise the guidance needed to navigate the soul away from the
ignorance and illusions of this earthly existence. They serve as a metaphorical tool for steering the soul, much like a person would guide
an elephant away from a dangerous path. Modakapatra, which is also referred to as a bowl of sweets, represents Ganesh's fondness for
sweets and his most beloved symbol: moksha, or liberation, which is considered one of the most delightful aspects of life. The axe is a tool
that is used to eradicate ignorance from the world. The noose serves as a symbol of bringing loved ones closer to us while also reminding
us to extend our support and help to those who are in need, even in extraordinary circumstances. The exquisite sculptures depict the
mastery of workmanship as well as the history of stone carving at Mahabalipuram. Every aspect of stone carving is highly artistic and
artistic-based. The basic stone is transformed into legendary pieces with elaborate ornaments and elaborately detailed facial expressions.
A few art pieces by Anand Aew MP Hades are interestingly made of stone with Jali work.
Stones Used for Making Various Products Limestone, sandstone, and marble are often used for making sculptures. Due to limestone’s
fantastic weather-resistant properties, many of the sculptures and buildings made out of this material thousands of years ago have been
preserved to this day. Soapstone is highly resistant to heat, and precisely for this reason, it has been traditionally used for making carved
cooking pots, pans, trays, and other household or functional items. Granite stone is very strong and durable due to the high level of quartz
content, so it is used for building columns, doors, and lintels for architectural purposes. Gemstones like chalcedony, agate, amethyst, sard,
onyx, carnelian, heliotrope, jasper, and quartz are used for making jewellery pieces. Stones like Soapstone, Alabaster, marble, and Paleva
are used for making decorative showpieces of different shapes and sizes for home decor. Stones such as marble, alabaster, limestone, and
granite are the most popular materials used in the manufacture of god and goddess statues to create impressive sculptural works.
Stone Carving Product Range Household items include products like cooking pots, pans, trays, and khalbatta. Jewellery includes products
like small pendants, alphabet jewellery, rings, necklaces, temples, and other items made in different sizes and colours. Sculptures include
various sculptures present in museums, temples, and other monuments. Statues include statues of different goddesses, deities, or
personalities. Small decorations include products like candle stands, small elephants, tortoises, ashtrays, agarbatti stands, lanterns, a Lord
Buddha face, and other decorative pieces.
Product Usage In ancient times, the stone craft primarily focused on the art of carving stones to create small weapons. Stone is used to
make arrowheads,
spears, javelin points, and hammers. These implements were used for both hunting and cooking. As time passed, stone carving evolved
into a form of art.
Stone carving was traditionally employed to create cathedral façade, sculptures, and religious imagery. In modern times, stone carving
products are also used for decorative purposes at home. It is mostly used in temples, palaces, and for making decorative pieces.
Stone carvings are often used for decorative purposes, both indoors and outdoors. Decorative products like customised pillars, Lanterns,
Stone Water fountains, Full-body deities or portraits and water troughs Customised pillars can also be architectural as well as decorative
for household furnishing. Carved stone elements such as fireplace surrounds, wall panels, and decorative accents can enhance the
ambiance of a space and create a luxurious and timeless appeal. It also plays an important role in architectural design. Carved pillars,
columns, capitals, and lintels are used in the construction of temples, monuments, palaces, and other buildings. In many cultures, stone
sculptures and statues are considered sacred and are used to represent deities, gods, goddesses, and spiritual beings. These carvings are
placed in temples, shrines, and sacred spaces for worship and devotion. They are often used to create memorials and monuments
dedicated to individuals, historical events, or significant milestones. These can include statues, plaques, and gravestones that are crafted
with intricate carvings and inscriptions to commemorate and honour the subject. Precious and semi-precious gemstones are also carved
into delicate shapes for jewellery or larger items and polished to produce pendants, earrings, bracelets, rings, and other wearable items.
Carved stone bowls, vases, candle holders, and kitchenware are examples of functional items that combine practicality with artistic beauty.
Products Packaging When it comes to packaging stone carving products, the primary focus is on ensuring their protection during
transportation and storage. Padding materials such as foam, bubble wrap, or tissue paper are used to protect the product from impacts
and vibrations. The padding is placed around the product to create a cushioning effect. Depending on the size and shape of the stone
carving product, it is necessary to provide additional support and stability to the product. To hold the product firmly in place within the
packaging box, custom-cut foam or cardboard dividers are used. Strong and durable packaging boxes made of corrugated cardboard or
rigid material are used to withstand the weight of the stone carving product. The box is usually several inches larger than the product on
all sides. The packaging box is securely sealed with packaging tape to prevent it from opening during transit. Labelling of the package with
necessary information such as the recipient's address, return address, and any handling instructions or fragile labels is done. This helps the
handlers be aware of the delicate nature of the contents and handle the package with care. If the stone carving product is valuable or of
significant importance, it is beneficial to consider insuring the package against loss or damage during transit. Additionally, Using a shipping
service that provides tracking capabilities allows the recipient to monitor the package's progress and ensure its safe delivery.
Based on our initial study, it was observed that a majority of store owners employ the practice of using newspapers as a means of
wrapping their items and then storing them within their respective warehouses. Additionally, during the sale of their items, they employ the
practice of wrapping them solely in newspaper, securing the wrapping with either tape or thread to prevent the newspaper covering from
becoming loose. They use multiple layers of newspaper to protect the product in case one layer tears.
5.3. MOTIFS Lotus
The symbol is often used for decoration and to represent supreme deities. Its portrayal is important in many cultures and religions. The
lotus flower symbolises purity and perfection, thriving in muddy waters. Buddhists find inspiration in this flower, as it symbolises their
aspiration for a sincere and pure life. By 200 BCE, Buddhism had become congregational, and the first great stupas were constructed. The
lotus symbolically faced the world from its sacred threshold. It symbolised abundance and offered mandalas as a symbol of hope. Each
mandala transforms into a roundel that depicts the stories of the Awakened One's life.
Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists all share a common desire to worship and honour divinities or aspects of divinity. Commonality often leads to
the development of an image-making instinct. Three Hindu deities are linked to the lotus. Brahma, the Creator-god in Vedic mythology, is
born from a flower that emerges from Vishnu's navel. In the myth, Vishnu dreams the world into existence while floating on the primordial
waters, supported by his Cosmic Snake.
The Lotus-goddess, Sirima, is also called Sri or Lakshmi. She is revered as the goddess of good fortune. The lotus symbolises transcended
existence, emerging from the waters with the sun of transcendence at its centre, surrounded by petals in a mandala.
Nagas Tamil-speaking communities in the southeast peninsula place nagakals, commemorative snake stones, under trees. The stones are
now essential to regional temples. Serpents are often linked to wisdom. Balarama is an incarnation of Vishnu, known as the Plough bearer.
He is often shown as a serpent. Adi Shesha, associated with Balarama, also has a human form. Patanjali, a renowned grammarian and
commentator from the second century BCE, exemplifies this form.
Serpents are believed to carry jewels on their heads. The titles for exceptional awards and honours are "shiromani" and "chudamani,"
meaning "crest jewels." Shiva, the deity of yoga, language, and dance, wears serpents as jewels.
Serpents possess great power, holding the earth like a precious jewel on their crowned hoods. The Dignagas, also known as the
"Guardians of the Cardinal Points," are famous. They constantly derive orientation from the boundless expanse of space.
Makara The Mount for the River Ganga is well recognised and popular. It became significant when the local watertime nymph joined the
pantheon of minor divinities in the 4th century CE. The divine RiGoddess Ganga and Goddess Yamuna had taken their positions on either
side of the temple entrance. Ganga was riding on an anga-mounted makara, while Yamuna was riding on a Yamuna-mounted tortoise.
Animal mounts and yakshas originated in ancient Bharhut.
An ancient ocean deity is often depicted riding a makara. Varuna is the Hindu deity corresponding to the Greek god 'Ouranos'. In the Vedic
hymns of 10,000 BCE, he is portrayed as a solar god, symbolising justice and dominion over the world, and is also revered as a water deity.
The technology of Vedic sacrifice, including the fire offerings, is unique. Indigenous worship is simple and inclusive. Originally, the act
involved circling the sacred item clockwise and placing offerings, usually flowers, respectfully at its base. The temple priests regularly offer
offerings to the permanent temple sanctuary. The main icon, or shrine symbol, is bathed in milk, honey, and melted butter. Stone-carved
makaras with open mouths carry away the residue.
The Kirttimukha The Kirttimukha, also known as the "Glory Face," is a term used to refer to a specific entity. Three elements commonly
associated with this observation are the lotus, the Naga, and specifically the Makara. The design creatively combines elements that are
clearly inspired by a lion's head, symbolising the powerful energies of the sun.
The 'Glory Face' is a mask that conceals the true identity of a demon. It enhances power. The purpose of it is to instill fear and repel evil.It
acts as a protective emblem.
Within the grand religious structures of Central Java, there is an alternative name attributed to them: Kala, which is also referred to as the
eternal embodiment of 'time' or the formidable devourer. The influence of Mahayana and Tantric Buddhist and Hindu sects during the
classical and mediaeval periods was crucial in spreading iconic Indian art traditions to Southeast Asia. The influence had a profound effect
on the development of religion and the state in the region. This point is highlighted in a story.
Matsya The FISH, tortoise, and bear incarnations of Vishnu can be depicted in sculpture either as pure 'animal form' or as a combination of
animal and human features. The narrative friezes of the Fish's descent depict the divine being as a colossal fish.
The uniqueness of this Avatara lies in its flood motif, which is incredibly ancient. It is so old that it is considered to be on par with the
Semitic tradition. It is possible that it existed in oral tradition for a significant period prior to being recorded in written form around 800-
600 BCE. Furthermore, there are two stories, each of which is straightforward and carries the same theological significance. Vishnu
contracts and expands to protect the 'ark'. Vishnu delves into the abyss to retrieve the profound revelations of the Vedas. Repetition serves
to reinforce the message.
According to the Indian perspective, 'ends' signify the start of new beginnings. For the world to be remade, it must come to an end. As we
delve into the era of the classical Middle Ages, we can observe a distinct shift in the perception of space-time that becomes intertwined
with myth. It is both fabulous and precise.
Kurma: The Tortoise
The giant tortoise is one of Lord Vishnu's Ten Avtaras, or "descents," into the world. It is the second descent, representing Lord Vishnu's
commitment to upholding the dharma. Temple art depicts ten entities. The first three are Fish, Tortoise, and Boar. Entities can be portrayed
as theriomorphic or half-anthropomorphic. They can also be shown as fully human, as long as they have the right symbolic attributes of
the god.
The Fish and the Bour narrative was included in the Vishnu corpus through different versions from various mythological layers. In this
version of the Mahabharata, the Vishnu cult is gaining popularity.
The sun, moon, and Vishnu's gems slowly rise from the ocean. The Lotus goddess, wearing a white robe, emerges gracefully with the wine
goddess. The four-tusked elephant representing the rain god and the white stallion symbolising the sun appear together.
Varaha: The Cosmic Boar retrieves the Earth from the Oceanic Abyss
Followers revere and adore this manifestation of Vishnu. Coins, seals, and archaeological findings confirm the early temple scriptures'
claim that Varaha had multiple shrines in the fourth and fifth centuries CE.
The temple texts make considerate allusions to them. This is Vishnu's first incarnation to receive such attention. In Sanskrit, iconography is
pratima-lakshana, the image's characteristic. We learn about the image's creation, interpretation, and reading. The 'Sacrificial Boar' The
Sacrificial Boar refers to its Vedic sacrifice origins. This and the Prehistoric Boar race the Earth out of the abyss. The Boar of the World's
End is enthroned. The Sacrificial buck is the only one that is completely white, unlike the others, which have colours resembling the
evening sky. Indian sculptures, similar to classical Greek marbles, can be coloured partially or entirely.
Narasimha:The Man-lion manifests his divinity and protects the life of his devotee
Narasimha, the Man-lion, reveals his divine nature and safeguards his devotee's life. In Vishnu's fourth descent, the sun god chases away
darkness and negative energy.
The Lion-Man Embodiment is enigmatic. He is a divine hybrid of human and animal species. He can be seen in the "Between" of day and
night, above and below, and outside and inside. His self-disclosure is a gracious act. He embodies savagery, yet he is stunning, radiant, and
remarkably calm. He wakes up when needed. It surpasses all limitations to achieve its goal.
5.4. COLOURS
The extremely hard stone Granite is available in reds, greens, blue-greys, blue greens, greys, blacks, and browns.
Limestone is a soft stone; it is available in colours like grey, buff, and a variegated grey/buff soft.
Sandstone is found in separate categories such as buff sandstone, reddish brown sandstone, and grey medium-to-hard sandstone
Marble ranges from medium to hard in the colours white, grey, green, red, black, and variegated. Another soft stone, soapstone, is found in
greys, greens, and blacks.
Alabaster, which is a translucent type of soft gypsum, is found in colours like white, grey, beige, orange, yellow, red, white translucent, and
variegated.
Change of colour or tarnishing effect in monuments and sculpture The calcite in marble and limestone dissolves when nitric, sulfuric, and
sulfuric acids in contaminated rain and air combine with it. We observe eroded surfaces, material loss, lost surfaces, features exposed to
the elements, and alterations to structures and monuments. Stone surface material may be removed everywhere or simply in the places
where it reacts more strongly.
The shielded regions of monuments and constructions built of limestone and marble have blackened crusts that, in some cases, have
peeled off to show crumbling stone beneath. You may expect that acid precipitation wouldn't impact them. The bulk of this black crust is
made up of gypsum, a mineral formed by the reaction of calcite, water, and sulfuric acid. Since gypsum is soluble in water and can form
anywhere on carbonate stone surfaces that are exposed to sulphur dioxide gas (SO2), it usually washes off. It only persists in covered areas
where rain does not instantly moisten them.
Change of colour during polishing process
Polishing restores the stone's gloss and brilliance. The majority of the colour change is caused by an increase in the stone's natural colour
and pattern after polishing. When the stone polishing process first starts, the stone may have minor faults, scratches, and surface
abnormalities. Throughout the polishing procedure, these surface flaws progressively disappear, leaving the surface looking smoother and
more consistent. Polishing may improve the colour of the stone by emphasising the contrast between light and dark areas, giving the
colours a more likely and robust appearance. Polishing contributes to a more uniform appearance of the stone's surface by reducing
colour variations and irregularities that may be present in unpolished stone.
CHAPTER SIX: PRICE RANGES, QUALITY ASSURANCE AND CONTROL
6.1. PRICE RANGES OF STONE PRODUCTS The price ranges depend on the workmanship done on the piece. The different types of
granite, marble, and tiger stone—red marble, green marble, and black marble—are all there, and they work with all kinds of stones.
Per square foot, it's Rs. 600. So it is calculated that when they purchased the stone, a minimum, or average, stone cost almost 20 to 30
thousand rupees. The bigger the stone, the more it keeps increasing accordingly. Aitself, few are legal by the government itself, like the
black stone, but the white marble and stuff like that isandgal, which is bought separately and pay extra for that so the stone there that we
saw, which was almost 1 lakh They can cut the stones to a particular size; if the stone is bigger, they have a factory with huge machines
that can cut the stones, but in the shed or in the works. They have basic tools that they use to cut the stones for detailing and smoothing.
They have very basic tools.
6.2. QUALITY ASSURANCE AND CONTROL
QA/QC, which stands for quality assurance and quality control, is a process that ensures goods and services meet consumer expectations.
Quality assurance is a process or set of activities that are used to gauge and ensure the quality of a product.
In the production of high-end stone carvings, quality control is essential. Skilled craftsmen perform the initial carving and sketching of the
product, which is the most important stage in the production process. Skilled craftsmen are responsible for the final inspection and any
necessary modifications, while less skilled workers can contribute by deepening the carvings. After the head artisan has completed the
initial sketching, the other artisans finish the job. The head artisan performs a final inspection to ensure the quality of the product.
6.3. CHALLENGES AFFECTING ARTISANS AND PRODUCT QUALITY The challenges faced by rural Indian craftsmen have a significant
impact on both their livelihoods and the quality of their work. They experience suffering due to various causes that lead to these problems.
Rural craftsmen face several main issues, which include:
●● Weak financial power and difficulty in obtaining bank loans ●● Illiteracy of artisans ●● Non-availability of quality raw materials ●● Lack
of skill improvement and technological upgradation ●● Shift of rural customers to industrial products ●● Lack of infrastructural facilities ●●
Lack of aggregation ●● Very low income and irregular work; ●● Lack of marketing support, neglect from the government, and the
absence of non-farm policies Comprehensive solutions that encompass financial support, access to education and skill development,
improved infrastructure, market linkages, and government initiatives to promote the welfare of rural artisans can address these challenges.
Financial support can be provided through various means, such as loans, grants, and subsidies. Improving access to education and skill
development can be achieved through various means, such as offering scholarships, implementing training programmes, and providing
apprenticeships. Improved infrastructure refers to the development and enhancement of various elements such as roads, bridges, and
communication networks. Market linkages can be established through various means, such as organising exhibitions, fairs, and online
marketplaces. Government initiatives can include various measures such as tax breaks, subsidies, and marketing support. These solutions
will help improve the lives of rural artisans and the quality of their products.
6.4. IPR (INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS) Intellectual property rights refer to the rights granted to individuals over the creations of their
minds. Creators are typically given exclusive rights to their creations for a specific duration. Indian handicrafts are known for their
exceptional aesthetic and functional value. They showcase a harmonious combination of design expertise and technical craftsmanship.
The Indian industry plays a crucial role in the country's economic development. Every year, it contributes over Rs. 15,000 crore to foreign
exchange earnings and employs approximately 67 lakh people.
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) play a crucial role in the Indian handicraft sector. They help preserve the unique designs and methods of
handicrafts, which are susceptible to being imitated. Ensuring that handicraft producers receive a fair return for their work is important. It
allows consumers to purchase authentic handicrafts and supports the livelihoods of these producers. Globalisation has brought significant
challenges to this industry, specifically in terms of competition from similar crafts in countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka,
Indonesia, China, and others. In addition to the challenges mentioned earlier, the industry also grapples with the problem of cheap
counterfeits.
The widespread infringement of their products has the greatest negative effect on producers of distinctive craft goods because it causes
them to lose markets. Following the TRIPS agreement, the implementation of Intellectual Property Rights in India has provided a means to
safeguard the distinct products of the country.
The implementation of "Geographical Indications" (GIs) is a way to protect unique craft products that come from specific regions. This use
of Intellectual Property mechanisms helps safeguard these products. By effectively preventing any misuse or exploitation of the "regional
brand name," this approach also establishes a unified brand for these products. There are various types of intellectual property rights (IPR)
that can be used to safeguard handicrafts. These include patents, trademarks, and geographical indications. Patents are a means of
safeguarding novel and innovative designs for handicrafts. Handicraft businesses can use trademarks to protect the names and logos they
use. Geographical indications are a means of safeguarding the names of specific locations that are linked to specific handicrafts, like
Kashmir shawls or Banarasi silk. Under Section 13 (1) of the Geographical Indications of Handicrafts Registration and Protection Act, 1999,
Assistant Registrar, GI Registry, Chennai, Chinnaraja G. Naidu, granted the coveted certificate to Tamil Nadu Handicrafts Development
Corporation Limited (Poompuhar), Tamil Nadu Government, for Mahabalipuram Stone Sculpture.
In addition to its other applications, IPR can also be used to promote handicrafts. The government of India has launched several initiatives
to promote the use of IPR in the handicraft sector. These initiatives involve offering training to handicraft producers on how to utilise IPR
and assisting them in the process of registering their IP rights. The use of IPR has played a significant role in boosting the Indian handicraft
sector. In recent years, India's handicraft exports have experienced a significant increase in value. This growth has resulted in the sector
providing employment opportunities for millions of people. In addition to its other benefits, IPR has played a crucial role in enhancing the
quality of handicrafts. It has also contributed to promoting sustainable production practices in this industry. This policy offers numerous
advantages to artisan and craft producers, in addition to brand building and marketing. By enhancing the value of their products,
safeguarding them against piracy, and ultimately improving the socioeconomic status of artisans, boosting sales and profitability are
achieved. The future of the Indian handicraft sector relies heavily on the use of IPR. It plays a crucial role in safeguarding the distinct
designs and techniques employed in handicrafts. By doing so, IPR contributes to maintaining the competitiveness and sustainability of this
sector.
CHAPTER SEVEN: MARKET STUDY
7.1. IMPORT AND EXPORT OF STONE CARVING PRODUCTS (INDIA)
●● According to the data provided by India Export, the total number of stone carvings shipped from India was 15,000 pieces, which were
sold to a total of 1,995 buyers. The United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany take the lion's share of India's exports of carved stone
products, making India the top exporter of carved stone products in the world. India, Italy, and Germany are the top three countries that
export stone carvings. India is in first place with 15,030 exports, followed by Italy with 11,643 shipments, and Germany is in third place with
10,349 shipments. These figures have been up to date until May 27, 2023, and they are derived from India's Export Data for Stone Carving.
This information was collected from 70 nations' export and import cargoes, and it includes the names of customers, suppliers, and key
decision-makers in addition to their contact information (such as phone numbers, emails, and LinkedIn profiles).
●● The types of stones: Natural Stone Granite Stone Limestone
●● Top exporting countries for the past ten years: India Italy Germany Spain Netherlands China
●● Top importing countries for the past ten years: United States United Kingdom Germany Netherlands Canada United Arab Emirates
●● Top buyer countries for the past ten years: United States India Germany Hong Kong, United Kingdom Vietnam
●● Top supplier countries for the past ten years: India China Indonesia South Korea Hong Kong Vietnam
7.2. SWOT ANALYSIS For Sri Raja Stone Carving Centre:
STRENGTHS:
●● As a result of excellent teamwork, the artisans communicate effectively and have a streamlined workflow. ●● Popular in the area, the
owner has good connections. ●● It is the first store in a row of tourist attractions and is situated in an ideal location with convenient road
access. ●● The artisans are extremely skilled at their craft, resulting in dependable and high-quality products. ●● The artisans are
compensated well for their efforts. ●● They source and import goods, as well as handle custom orders. ●● In comparison, the cluster has
a larger number of workers, ranging in age from 20 to 50. ●● There is instruction and encouragement for audience members who want to
learn more about the art form.
WEAKNESSES ●● The working environment is hazardous due to open circuits, live wires, improper tool storage, and other factors. ●● Poor
water hygiene makes the surroundings unsanitary. ●● Ineffective methods of material waste disposal accumulate clutter in and around the
cluster. ●● In the absence of medical precautions, there is a higher risk of accidents and mishaps. ●● The small-scale design of the cluster
is crowded and unorganised. ●● The lack of signage in the cluster and the store makes it difficult to notice and fails to capture attention
visually.
OPPORTUNITIES ●● With better marketing strategies and signage, the exterior image of the store can be improved. ●● As they have an
existing online website for the store, the artisans can explore opportunities to export their creations or sell them through this online
platform to a global audience. ●● Expansion of the cluster and the store can attract more passersby. ●● Targeting niche markets, modern
art would increase and widen the stone carving consumer base and cater to a huge chunk of the craft market. ●● Opening up other
branches in other tourist locations around Mamallapuram increases their purchase numbers. ●● Imprinting the logo or brand identity on
the structure as a mark of the store’s identity can help the store market itself better and promote the store. ●● Undertaking custom orders
via public art installations can contribute to enhancing the city's public areas. ●● Exhibitions are a great way for artists to show off their
creations and expose them to new markets and audiences.
THREATS: ●● Larger stores with a well-established market identity can overtake. ●● The appeal of stone carving might wane in the face of
modern art. ●● Cyclical economic conditions have an impact on luxury arts like stone carving. ●● Lack of education among some of the
artisans may lead customers to doubt the authenticity of the craft. ●● Reduced interest in and preservation of ancient skills may lead to the
demise of this great art form.
For the stone carving market in Mahabalipuram: STRENGTHS:
●● The raw materials are easily accessible. ●● The utilisation of local natural resources is done well. ●● The distinctive designs contribute
to the exclusivity of the art and make it stand out in the broader market. ●● The exquisite craftsmanship and unique rock-cut architecture
attract tourists and history enthusiasts from around the world, contributing to the local economy. ●● Stonework techniques continue to
inspire generations of artists and sculptors across India and beyond. Its techniques, styles, and themes have left a lasting impact on the
evolution of Indian art and continue to influence contemporary artists. ●● The stone carving market in Mahabalipuram offers a diverse
range of products, from small souvenirs to large sculptures and architectural elements. This diversity caters to a wide audience, making
the art accessible to different collectors and buyers.
WEAKNESSES: ●● Stone carving is a time-consuming and intricate process that demands skilled artisans. Over time, there has been a
decline in the number of skilled artisans practising this profession. The lack of skilled craftspeople hinders the preservation and
continuation of this historic art form. ●● Preserving these ancient structures requires the implementation of conservation and restoration
efforts. However, a lack of sufficient funding, knowledge, and resources can hinder the conservation and restoration processes. ●● In
order to carve stones, quarry stone must be extracted, which raises concerns about sustainable material sourcing. ●● Due to its intricacy
and specialised talents, stone carving may not be available to many artists or communities. ●● The craft requires expensive materials and
tools, making it expensive for artists and customers.
OPPORTUNITIES: ●● In order to minimise the environmental impact of quarrying activities and preserve the biological balance in the area,
it is essential to prioritise sustainable sourcing practises. ●● Establishing art galleries and studios in Mahabalipuram to showcase and sell
stonecraft artwork presents a promising opportunity. These spaces provide platforms for local artists to showcase their skills and creations,
drawing in art enthusiasts and collectors. ●● The stone-carving businesses in the area can create a unique selling point by partnering with
hotels and resorts to offer stonecraft workshops or display local artwork. ●● Collaboration with contemporary artists and modern art to
create fusion art works that blend traditional designs with modern concepts can widen the market for contemporary art enthusiasts. ●●
Educating and spreading awareness will help maintain the value of the craft and keep the ages-long tradition alive. Efforts to protect and
promote this craft through workshops, training programmes, and exhibitions should be made.
THREATS: ●● Unauthorised carving and damage to the old stone carvings in Mahabalipuram are unfortunately quite common. It is
important to note that many of these carvings are protected as historical monuments. ●● Unauthorised carving by individuals or
organisations seeking to create new sculptures can result in harm to existing structures and compromise the historical integrity of the site.
●● The high demand for products has the potential to be commercially exploited by unscrupulous individuals who may engage in the
illegal trafficking of authentic artefacts or create counterfeit replicas. Engaging in such actions poses a threat to the historical significance
of Mahabalipuram and depletes its cultural assets. ●● In order to carve stones, quarry stone must be extracted, which raises concerns
about sustainable material sourcing.
7.3. MARKET GROWTH AND DRIVERS According to the 2010–2026 predictions of the market, the stone market share is expected to
increase to 85,22,06,55,000 Indian rupees from 2021 to 2026, at a CAGR of 3.6%.
For dimension stones, According to the US Department of Commerce, the private construction industry as a whole increased by 7.05
percent annually in 2020. Multiple economies, including Vietnam, the Philippines, and Myanmar, are anticipated to experience expansion
in the building and construction sectors. The increasing demand for bridges, airports, trains, and power infrastructure is anticipated to
propel the industry's growth, particularly in China and India. The implementation of this rule is anticipated to boost the demand for natural
stone products made from limestone, marble, and granite in the local region. These goods are emission-free. There has been a notable
surge in construction activity in the Asia-Pacific region's growing economies, including China, India, and Southeast Asian countries. The
global dimension stone market is projected to witness growth during the forecast period, primarily driven by the rise of construction
activities.
For granite: The global granite market is currently witnessing growth as there is a rising demand for granite in a wide range of applications.
These include tabletops, desktops, backsplashes, bathroom sinks and basins, and kitchen counters. The rising demand for residential
granite and the increase in investment in construction activities are what are driving the growth of the granite market. In addition, granite is
highly prized for its remarkable durability against corrosion and its capability to retain its colour over time. Therefore, it is widely used in a
multitude of applications, including sculpture and monuments, construction, engineering, and numerous other fields.
For Marble: Between 2022 and 2031, the worldwide Marble Market is expected to rise at a 5.9% CAGR. Marble is a popular choice for
interior design and decoration in both residential and commercial sectors.
In addition to its use in manufacturing sculptures, showpieces, and artefacts, it is also utilised for beautification in interior design. During
the forecast period, the growth in investment in housing and home upgrades to improve the aesthetic appeal of dwellings is expected to
be a key driver of market expansion. The advent of 3D sculpture making and the increasing popularity of Marble in the international market
of art and design are projected to increase demand for marble as a raw material. Marble sculpture is an ancient craft that has lately
acquired popularity due to the increase in modernity and construction activity. Thus, the use of marble in 3D sculpting and the marble
carving business are projected to be key market developments in the next few years.
CHAPTER EIGHT: GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
8.1. THE TOURISM POTENTIAL OF MAMALLAPURAM
Stonecraft Tourism: A Case Study
Mamallapuram ranks among the top ten destinations for foreign visitors in India. Tourists are attracted to this city for various reasons
beyond its architecture. The region is situated in a breathtaking environment. Great numbers of casuarina forests and lovely white-sand
beaches can be found. The highway connecting Chennai and Mamallapuram is lined with numerous tourist attractions, which adds to its
appeal. Due to the large number of tourists visiting Mamallapuram, the market for stone crafts in the area is experiencing significant
growth. Both government and private museums in Mamallapuram exhibit a wide range of stonecraft items that date back to the Pallava
era and continue up to the present day. The School of Architecture, along with other institutions, utilises these museums as educational
resources. The Sound and Light performance on the history, culture, and crafts of Mamallapuram is another highly sought-after attraction
for tourists. In 2013, Mamallapuram welcomed approximately 15 million foreign visitors, resulting in a steady annual growth of 18 to 20% in
the city's foreign exchange earnings.
The initiative is set to take place in a cluster of villages near Mamallapuram, which is home to numerous artists. The project involves
constructing roads, sewers, water lines, street lights, retail establishments, exhibition spaces, residences, and work sheds. These structures
will have attractive facades, walkways, and signboards. Visitors will be greeted with a beautiful entrance arch when the community opens
in the middle of next year. The Union Handicrafts Development Commissioner has announced that it will offer financial assistance for the
village project, amounting to Rs 1.9 crore. The concept of a "craft tourism village" combines the promotion of crafts, the well-being of
artisans, and tourism. According to a senior official from THDC, artisans have a higher likelihood of making sales to tourists when they
reside and work in the same location.
The Union government should allocate Rs 563 crore for the comprehensive development project in Mamallapuram. During the Modi-Xi
summit in October 2019, a comprehensive plan was devised. This plan encompassed the construction of a life-size statue of Bodhidharma
and the creation of a Buddhist pilgrimage circuit within the state, which would include Mamallapuram. The Union Minister of State for
Tourism called a virtual meeting with the goal of evaluating the various policies put into place by the federal and state governments two
months ago. The Minister for Tourism in Tamil Nadu, Vellamandi N. Natarajan, emphasised the importance of addressing the demand
during the meeting. A representative from the state tourism department has confirmed that the funds have not been released yet. The plan
to harness the tourism potential of Mamallapuram has yet to be implemented as it remains confined to written documents.
The Minister for Rural Industries, TM Anbarasan, recently visited the "Craft Tourism Village" under construction in Mamallapuram, Chennai.
The Crant Tourism Village was constructed with a budget of Rs. 5.6 crore. Its purpose is to facilitate the connection between tourists and
sculptors who wish to sell their handmade products. In a recent press release, it was announced that the minister has inspected various
projects aimed at beautifying the area. These projects include the sculpting studios on Five Rathas Road, the sculptor cottages in Karanai
Village, and a memorial plaque at the entrance of the Craft Tourism Village in Mamallapuram. The total cost of setting up these projects
amounts to Rs. 1.8 crore. The announcement states that relevant officials have been given instructions to construct these amenities with
great attention to detail. The goal is to emphasise the importance of Mamallapuram and make it attractive to foreign tourists. According to
the news statement, an assessment was conducted on a new display complex that consists of 36 pavilions dedicated to marketing
craftsmen's goods. The Minister of Tamil Nadu recently conducted a review of the 'Craft Tourism Village' project in Mamallapuram.
Craft Cultural Extravaganza
A four-week cultural festival at Mamallapuram showcases the finest dance forms of India in accordance with the rich Indian cultural
tradition. Dancers from various regions of India come together to showcase a diverse range of classical and folk dance styles. The
soothing sounds of the wind and waves accompany their performances as they take place among lovely sculptures. Tourists are quite
fond of these two attractions, as well as the lively and enthusiastic Pongal harvest festival. Stone Carving and the Concept of Craft
According to the identity cards of the stone carvers in Mamallapuram, stone carving is considered a craft. These cards classify them as
"artisans" and confirm their registration with the Tamil Nadu Handicrafts Development Corporation, which is under the administration of
the Tamil Nadu government. Stone carving holds official status as a craft within a political context. However, it is also regarded as a
religious practice based on the Shilpa Shastras and the longstanding Hindu tradition of stone carving. Labelling stone carvers as artists,
artisans, or craftsmen can have political and national implications, as these labels can be used to serve the interests of various groups.
India has a rich history of utilising traditional crafts, particularly weaving, as a means of promoting nation-building and national ideology
during colonial struggles (McGowan, 2009). Traditional crafts have continued to maintain their political connotations throughout history.
According to Stephen Inglis (1999b: 8), contemporary craftspeople are at the forefront of artistic exploration as they delve into the artistic
traditions of their ancestors as well as the contemporary practices of other cultures. He further argues that as we develop a greater global
awareness, we also become more conscious of and protective of our local ideologies (ibid.). In her book Craft Matters: Artisans,
Development, and the Indian Nation (2009), Umhya Venkatesan explores the various descriptions and prevalent imagery used to depict
craft producers and their work in present-day representation. nine distinct ways of representing craft: the craft producer as a "natural
being"; craft as a valuable natural resource; craft production symbolising the simplicity of village life and technology; the traditional and
isolated rural craft producer; craft as an economic and political challenge; an uneducated craft producer who desires to change their
occupation; a cunning artisan seeking excessive profit from their work; craft that unifies the Indian nation and represents collective
heritage; and lastly, craft objects that embody connections between past and present, socially and physically distant individuals, and
diverse social groups. These representational elements, along with Inglis' (1999b) statement, are relevant to the stone carvers at
Mamallapuram, particularly in relation to tourism fantasies, as explored in Chapter 2. In both a historical and modern context, stone
carving is a crucial component of Mamallapuram and its reputation as a centre for stone carving, and without the current activity, much of
its appeal would be lost. However, from the viewpoint of tourism, the most essential component is that stone carvers, like the Pallavas,
who are said to be their forefathers, work with stone; whether they are classified as artists or artisans is not as crucial. Stone carvers are
craftspeople, which makes them vulnerable to national and government efforts that are influenced by how the skill is viewed as a national
treasure and a component of Indian identity in opposition to colonialism's past (cf. McGowan 2009). Stone carvers are located within
significant national and societal discourses in this way, but they have limited control over these discourses themselves. Practically
speaking, these titles worry the carvers most when it comes to potential advantages like getting free health insurance or being qualified for
a government loan. Although the modern Mamallapuram stone carving practice has similarities to the classic Indian Hindu stone carving
described above, it has also evolved with the times. The development of electric tools, which have made granite carving less labour- and
time-intensive, is one of the more recent improvements. But since these sculptures were largely created without ceremonial objectives,
soft stone carving represents a new niche within the context of traditional, sacred Hindu stone carving. The majority of Mamallapuram's
soft stone sculptures are still hand-carved, so they resemble more conventional carving methods. The specifications and guidelines were,
however, interpreted more loosely in soft stone carving than in traditional carving instructions. Additionally, new meanings have been
added to traditional Hindu imagery to make it more marketable to Western tourists. As a result, carvings made in Mamallapuram can be
broadly categorised into two groups: soft stone carvings made by hand for tourists as decorations and without strict adherence to the
proper forms and measurements; and granite carvings made with electric tools for Indian people for religious purposes based on
traditional iconography and a proportion system. Despite the fact that this does not necessarily reflect their educational background, the
majority of stone carvers were experts in just one type of carving. Stone carving has grown in popularity in Mamallapuram alongside the
development of tourism, and it has always been a leisure activity that is open to people from all social strata. Only a small portion of the
stone carvers at Mamallapuram really belonged to the Viswakarma caste, despite the fact that it was still perceived as a traditional art and
skill and a hereditary employment of this caste. In this regard, the Government Sculpture College's function has been significant since it
has opened up stone carving to individuals from diverse backgrounds. Despite the lack of caste-based connections with stone carving, it
has become a hereditary profession in many families since the college's founding in 1957, since more than one generation of students had
access to instruction in carving. However, due to their particular interests, many carvers also hail from families that had no prior carving
knowledge. .
CONCLUSION Stone carving is more than just a skill; it is a testament to human ingenuity and creativity. Its ability to transform the inert
into the sublime is a reflection of our capacity to shape the world around us. This research document has attempted to capture the
essence of stone carving—its rich history, intricate techniques, and profound impact—while also recognising the challenges and
opportunities that lie ahead. It serves as a bridge between artistic expression and societal identity. Its role in cultural preservation,
architectural embellishment, and public commemoration underscores its contribution to the very fabric of societies around the world. In
the grand tapestry of human artistic endeavours, stone carving stands as a resilient and timeless thread. Its continuation relies on the
collective commitment of artists, artisans, scholars, and enthusiasts to ensure that its legacy endures, inspiring generations to come.
This research document has delved comprehensively into the intricate world of stone carving, uncovering its historical significance, artistic
evolution, technical processes, and enduring cultural impact. Through a thorough examination of diverse stone carving techniques, tools,
and artistic styles, we have gained valuable insight into the immense skill and creativity required to transform raw stone into exquisite
works of art.
APPENDICES:
APPENDIX 1: Glossary
Term Pronunciation and Definition
Akshamala Akṣamālā The akshamala denotes a string (Noun) made up of beads where each bead represents the 50 letters of the alphabet,
from a (अ) to ksha (क ् ष), Hence, it is known as Aksha Malika Upanishad.
Anthropomorphic an-thruh-puh-mawr-fik A suggestion of human characteristics (Noun) for animals or inanimate things.
Caryatid kar-ee-at-id A Caryatid is a sculpted female figure (Noun) serving as an architectural support, taking the place of a column or
pillar supporting an entablature on her head.
Garbhagriha garbhagṛha A garbhagriha is the innermost sanctuary of Hindu and Jain temples, what may be called the "holy of holies." or
"sanctum sanctorum". The term garbhagriha comes from Sanskrit words garbha for womb and griha for house.
Kalasa Kalaśa Kalasa is a pitcher, the pinnacle of a (Noun) Temple.
Kataka Mudra kah-tuh-kah This Mudra is called Kapittha, (Noun) which means Goddess Lakshmi and Saraswati. It is also used to portray
milking cows, holding cymbals, or holding a flower.
Neolithic nee-uh-lith-ik The Neolithic, or New Stone Age, (Adjective) is an archaeological period, the final division of the Stone Age in
Europe, Asia, and Africa. It saw the Neolithic Revolution, a wide-ranging set of developments that appear to have arisen independently in
several parts of the world.
Pagoda puh-goh-duh A pagoda is an Asian tiered tower with (Noun) multiple eaves common to Nepal, China, Japan, Korea, Myanmar,
Vietnam, and other parts of Asia.
Palaeolithic pælɪəʊˈlɪθɪk The Palaeolithic, or Palaeolithic, also (Adjective) called the Old Stone Age, is a period in human prehistory that is
distinguished by the original development of stone tools and which represents almost the entire period of human prehistoric Technology.
Pasupata Pāśupata The word Pashupata (also spelled as (Noun) Pashupatha or Pasupata) is derived from the word Pashupati (or Pasupathi),
which is a popular epithet of Lord Shiva, meaning the lord of the animals or the lord of all living beings (jiv tool,as).
Pneumatic tool noo-mat-ik A pneumatic tool, air tool, air-powered (Adjective) tool or pneumatic-powered tool is a type of power
tool,driven by compressed air supplied by an air compressor. Pneumatic tools can also be driven by compressed carbon dioxide (CO2)
stored in small cylinders,llowing for portability.
Prakara prakara Prakara is a Sanskrit word referring to (Noun) the high walls surrounding the temple Grounds.
Somaskanda Somāskanda Somaskanda is a mediaeval form of (Noun) Hindu iconography, a representation of Shiva with his consort Uma
and their son Skanda, depicted as a child.
Stonemasons stoʊnˌmeɪ.sən Stonemasons cut and prepare stone (Noun) to build or repair stone structures. These may include homes,
historical buildings, monuments, headstones, and statues. Stonemasons may also use a range of other natural materials, such as granite
and quartz.
Theriomorphic Theriomorphous Theriomorphic means having an (Adjective) animal form.
Uyyala uyya-l-a Uyyala refers to a cradle, a swinging (Noun) bed.
Variegated VAIR-ee-uh-gay-tu Having a pattern of different colours (Adjective) or marks.
Vaishnavites Vaish·na·vities Vaishnavas (sometimes known as (Noun) Vaishnavites) are Hindus who follow Vishnu and want to show Vishnu
that he is the most special deity . They focus their worship on the ten incarnations of Vishnu, which include Rama and Krishna. This kind of
Hinduism is called Vaishnavism . APPENDIX 2- Bibliography
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Introduction. (2015, October 9). D’Source. https://www.dsource.in/resource/stone-carving-mahabalipuram/introduction
Stone Artists of Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, India. (2009, August 16). Travel Thru History | Historical and Cultural Travel Experiences.
http://travelthruhistory.com/the-stone-artists-of-mahabalipuram/ “Quality Control.” n.d. Accessed August 5, 2023.

sreenivasaraos. “Temple Architecture – Devalaya Vastu – Part Nine (9 of 9).” sreenivasarao’s blogs, September 10, 2012.
https://sreenivasaraos.com/2012/09/10/temple-architecture-devalaya-vastu-part-nine-9-of-7/.
Purana Vedas. “Vedic Paintings & Sculpture,” January 29, 2021. https://www.puranavedas.com/paintings-and-sculpture/.
Stone Carving of Uttar Pradesh – Asia InCH – Encyclopedia of Intangible Cultural Heritage. “Stone Carving of Uttar Pradesh – Asia InCH
– Encyclopedia of Intangible Cultural Heritage,”
n.d. https://asiainch.org/craft/stone-carving-of-uttar-pradesh/.
45
Hit and source - focused comparison, Side by Side
Submitted text As student entered the text in the submitted document.
Matching text As the text appears in the source.
1/30 SUBMITTED TEXT 14 WORDS 76% MATCHING TEXT 14 WORDS
the Shore Temple in Mahabalipuram and the Kanchi Kailasanathar the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram and the Kanchi Kailasanathar
Temple in Kanchipuram, both Temple at Kanchipuram both
https://wikimili.com/en/Pallava_art_and_architecture
Pallavas in Mahabalipuram occupy a special place in Indian Pallavas in Mahabalipuram occupy a special place in Indian
history. The sculptures history. The sculptures
https://www.gktoday.in/stone-craft-in-india/Stone
Arjuna asking for penance on one knee, the hunting of pigeons, Arjuna asking for penance on one knee, the hunting of pigeons,
giant open-air rock relief known as the Descent of the Ganges. giant open-air rock reliefs such as the famous Descent of the
Lastly, the Shore Temple Ganges, and the Shore Temple,
https://www.flickr.com/photos/tags/rockcutcavetemples/
the port was a bustling hub of global trade in the late classical the port as an active hub of global trade in the late classical
period. Two Pallava coins bearing period. Two Pallava coins bearing
the port to launch trade and diplomatic expeditions to Sri Lanka the port to launch trade and diplomatic missions to Sri Lanka and
and Southeast Asia. Southeast Asia.
an 8th-century Tamil text, Thirumangai Alvar vividly described this An 8th-century Tamil text written by Thirumangai Alvar described
location as "Sea Mountain." this place as Sea Mountain ‘
GROUP OF MONUMENTS AT MAHABALIPURAM The Group of Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram The Group of
Monuments at Mahabalipuram is a collection of 7th- and 8th- Monuments at Mahabalipuram is a collection of 7th- and 8th-
century CE religious monuments century CE religious monuments
mandapas (cave sanctuaries), large open-air reliefs such as the mandapas (cave sanctuaries), giant open-air rock reliefs such as
famous 'Descent of the Ganges,' and the temple of Rivage, which the famous Descent of the Ganges, and the Shore Temple, with
has thousands of sculptures thousands of sculptures
Pancha Rathas (Dharmaraja Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Bhima Ratha, Pancha Rathas • Dharmaraja Ratha • Arjuna Ratha • Bhima Ratha •
Draupadi Ratha, Nakula Sahadeva Ratha, and Ganesha Ratha). Nakula Sahadeva Ratha • Ganesha Ratha 01
https://wikimili.com/en/Arjuna_Ratha
Draupadi Ratha The Draupadi Ratha is a structure in the Pancha Draupadi Ratha The Draupadi Ratha is a monument in the Pancha
Rathas complex in Mahabalipuram Rathas complex at Mahabalipuram,
Ratha. It is carved from a single, long stone of pink granite, ratha), it is carved out of a single, long stone of pink granite.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/tags/dharmaraja/
rock-cut cave temple, in the late 7th century. The rock-cut cave rock-cut architecture dating from the late 7th century, of the
temple is located on a hill near a lighthouse in Mamallapuram, Pallava dynasty. It is a rock-cut cave temple located on a hill, near
along with other caves. a lighthouse, along with other caves
The Descent of the Ganges (also known as Arjuna's Penance or the Descent of the Ganges (also known as Arjuna's Penance or
Bhagiratha's Penance). Bhagiratha's Penance),
https://wiki2.org/en/Group_of_Monuments_at_Mahabalipuram
are considered by The Hindu to be "one of the marvels of the are considered by The Hindu as "one of the marvels of the
sculptural art of India." Descent Of The Ganges sculptural art of India]' 104 ! Descent of the Ganges
https://archive.org/download/MahabalipuramTemplesAndMonuments/Mahabalipuram%20temples%20and%20mon ...
and Arjuna's penance in stone. The relief is a canvas of Indian and Arjuna's Penance are portrayed in stone at the Pallava
rock-cut sculpture at its best, unrepresented in India. heritage site. The relief is more of a canvas of Indian rock cut
sculpture at its best not seen anywhere in India.
https://wikimili.com/en/Arjuna_Ratha
as Mamallan, the "great wrestler" or "great warrior". His father, as Mamallan, the "great wrestler" or "great warrior". His father was
Mahendravarman I, switched from Jainism to Hinduism. The king Mahendravarman I who converted from Jainism to Hinduism.
The
King Rajasimha (700–28 AD), also known as Narasimhavarman II, King Rajasimha (700–28 AD), also known as Narasimhavarman II,
of the Pallava Dynasty, is of the Pallava Dynasty. It is
are Kshatriyasimha Pallaveshvara-graham, Rajasimha, and are as Kshatriyasimha Pallaveshvara-griham, Rajasimha

Pllikondaruliya-devar. The entire temple is Jalashayana. This Pallaveshvara-griham and Pllikondaruliya-devar. The entire temple
proves the Vishnu shrine was dug first. complex is called as Jalashayana (lying in water). This confirms
that the Vishnu shrine was the first
also features the reclining Vishnu. The complex is dedicated to also has the reclining Vishnu in the Shore Temple complex. The
Shiva. The base is carved from bedrock and has sixteen sides. miniature shrine is also dedicated to Shiva. It has sixteen-sided
Lions are depicted on the pilasters. It is a unique base which is carved from bedrock. The circular wall and
superstructure are of structural type. There are lions depicted on
the pilasters. It is reported as a unique
into the ocean to rescue Bhudevi; the depiction shows this. The into the ocean to rescue Bhudevi or mother earth. The symbolism
act symbolises the myth when the temple is underwater, below of this act denotes the myth, only when the temple is submerged
ground level. The in water, as it is below the ground level. The
from the sea. It also features an inscription in Pallava-Grantha from the sea also has an inscription on the topmost layer, in
script, equating the king with Arjuna. Pallava-Grantha script, which equates the king with Arjuna.
Temple. Built in the 17th century, it overlooks the temple. Built in the 8th century, it is situated directly above the
Mahishasuramardini mandapa on a hillside with stunning views of Mahishasuramardini mandapa on a hillock which provides scenic
the town. views of the town.
spears, javelin points, and hammers. These implements were used spears javelin points and hammers are made out of stone. These
for both hunting and cooking. As time passed, stone carving tools were used both for hunting and cooking. As the time passed,
evolved into a form of art. stone carving evolved into a form of art.
https://www.indianholiday.com/orissa/arts-and-crafts/stone- https://www.indianholiday.com/orissa/arts-and-crafts/stone-
carving.html carving.html
https://www.indianholiday.com/orissa/arts-and-crafts/stone-carving.htmlStone
https://www.stoneworld.com/articles/85376-exploring-the- https://www.stoneworld.com/articles/85376-exploring-the-
stone-carving-traditions-of- stone-carving-traditions-of-
https://www.stoneworld.com/articles/85376-exploring-the-stone-carving-traditions-of-indiaToday,
Stone Crafts of Rajasthan Issues and Analysis @ abhipedia Stone Crafts of Rajasthan Issues and Analysis @ abhipedia
Powered by ABHIMANU IAS. (1960, Powered by ABHIMANU IAS 7
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Stone Artists of Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, India. (2009, August Stone Artists of Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, India Travel Thru
16). Travel Thru History | Historical and Cultural Travel Experiences. History Historical and cultural travel experiences •
http://travelthruhistory.com/the-stone-artists-of-mahabalipuram/
Stone Carving of Uttar Pradesh – Asia InCH – Encyclopedia of Stone Carving of Uttar Pradesh – Asia InCH – Encyclopedia of
Intangible Cultural Heritage. “Stone Carving of Uttar Pradesh – Intangible Cultural Heritage Select
Asia InCH – Encyclopedia of Intangible Cultural Heritage,” LanguageArabicChineseEnglishFrenchGermanHindiJapaneseKore
anPortugueseSpanishTamil AN INITIATIVE OF CRAFT REVIVAL
TRUST. Since 1999 Skip to content Asia InCH – Encyclopedia of
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