UNIT I

CASTING
 Steps involved in making casting
The basic steps in making sand castings are,
 Pattern making,
 Core making,
 Moulding,
 Melting and pouring,
 Cleaning
 Advantages of casting process
 Molten material can flow into very small sections so
that intricate shapes can be made by this process. As
a result, many other operations, such as machining,
forging, and welding, can be minimized.
 Possible to cast both ferrous and non ferrous
materials
 Tools are very simple and expensive
 Useful for small lot production
 Weight reduction in design
 No directional property
 There are certain parts (like turbine blades) made
from metals and alloys that can only be processed
this way. Turbine blades: Fully casting + last
machining.
 Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for
the casting process.
 Limitations:-
• Accuracy and surface finish are not very good for final
application
• Difficult to remove defects due to presence of moisture
• Metal casting is a labor intensive process
• Automation: a question
Application:-
• Cylindrical bocks, wheels, housings, pipes, bells, pistons,
piston rings, machine tool beds etc.
Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the
mould is formed. Depending upon the position of the flask in the moulding
structure, it is referred to by various names such as:
drag – lower moulding flask,
cope – upper moulding flask,
cheek – intermediate moulding flask used in three piece moulding.
• Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made.
The mould cavity is made with the help of pattern.
• Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two
moulding flasks that makes up the mould.
• Moulding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without
losing its permeability to air or gases. It is a mixture of
silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate
proportions.
• Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous
material sprinkled on the inner surface of the mould
cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
• Bottom board – Board used to start mould making
(wood)
• Backing sand – used and burnt sand
• Core: A separate part of the mould, made of sand and
generally baked, which is used to create openings and
various shaped cavities in the castings.
• Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the
mould into which the molten metal is poured.
• Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the
pouring basin, reaches the mould cavity. In many cases it controls
the flow of metal into the mould.
• Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried
from the sprue to the gate.
• Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mould
cavity.
• Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mould
cavity to take care of its own weight and overcome the
metallostatic force.
• Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mould to feed the
castings as it shrinks and solidifies. Also known as “feed head”.
• Vent: Small opening in the mould to facilitate escape of air and
gases.
 Making a simple sand mould
1) The drag flask is placed on the board
2) Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board
3) Drag half of the pattern is located on the mould
board. Dry facing sand will provide a non-sticky
layer.
4) Molding sand is then poured in to cover the
pattern with the fingers and then the drag is
filled completely
5) Sand is then tightly packed in the drag by
means of hand rammers. Peen hammers (used
first close to drag pattern) and butt hammers
(used for surface ramming) are used.

6) The ramming must be proper i.e. it must neither be too hard or soft. Too soft ramming
will generate weak mould and imprint of the pattern will not be good. Too hard
ramming will not allow gases/air to escape and hence bubbles are created in casting
resulting in defects called ‘blows’. Moreover, the making of runners and gates will be
difficult.
7) After the ramming is finished, the excess sand is leveled/removed with a straight bar
known as strike rod.
8)Vent holes are made in the drag to the full
depth of the flask as well as to the pattern
to facilitate the removal of gases during
pouring and solidification. Done by vent rod.
9)The finished drag flask is now made
upside down exposing the pattern.
10)Cope half of the pattern is then placed
on the drag pattern using locating pins. The
cope flask is also located with the help of
pins. The dry parting sand is sprinkled all
over the drag surface and on the pattern.
11)A sprue pin for making the sprue
passage is located at some distance from
the pattern edge. Riser pin is placed at an
appropriate place.
12)Filling, ramming and venting of the cope
is dRo.GnaneeshiNnaratyhanean, sIITaG me manner.
 Pour basin

13) The sprue and riser are removed and a pouring basin is made at the
top to pour the liquid metal.
14) Pattern from the cope and drag is removed.
15)Runners and gates are made by cutting the parting surface with a
gate cutter. A gate cutter is a piece of sheet metal bent to the desired
radius.
16)The core for making a central hole is now placed into the mould
cavity in the drag. Rests in core prints.
17) Mould is now assembled and ready for pouring.
 PATTERNS
• The pattern is not the exact replica of the object to
be made by metal casting process but some
modifications are provided on the pattern to take
care of various process aspects such as shrinkage,
hot tear, distortion, stress, core seat etc.
• For a hollow casting core patterns are needed to
produce. The pattern can be made out of various
material.
• The cost of the pattern is reflected on the cost of
the casting. hence use of expensive pattern should
be limited to the case when a large quantity of
castings need to be produced.
Functions of the Pattern
1. A pattern is used to prepares a mold cavity
2. For hollow casting core prints are added to the
pattern to support the core in the mould cavity
3. Gates, Riser, and channels may become the part
of the casting. however, in most of the cases they
are not an integral part of the pattern
4. Efforts should be made to provide all allowances
in a proper manner on the pattern and the
surface of the pattern need to be made smooth.
It results into less casting defects and low cost.
5. A properly constructed pattern minimizes the
overall cost of the castings.
Pattern Material
• The pattern can be made out of various material. Some
of the materials used for making the patterns are
wood, metals and alloys, plastic, plaster of Paris, plastic
and rubbers, wax, and resins. the every material has its
own advantages and disadvantages of being used as a
pattern. In general the pattern material should posses
the following characteristics:
1. Easily worked, shaped and joined
2. Light in weight
3. Strong, hard and durable
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion
5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in
temperature and humidity
7. Available at low cost
1. Wood
Wood is the most popular and commonly used material for pattern making.
Advantages of wooden patterns
1 Wood can be easily worked.
2 It is light in weight.
3 It is easily available.
4 It is very cheap.
5 It is easy to join.
6 It is easy to obtain good surface finish.
7 Wooden laminated patterns are strong.
8 It can be easily repaired.
Disadvantages
1 It is susceptible to moisture.
2 It tends to warp.
3 It wears out quickly due to sand abrasion.
4 It is weaker than metallic patterns.
In the light of above qualities, wooden patterns are preferred only
when the numbers of castings to be produced are less. The main
varieties of woods used in pattern-making are shisham, kail, deodar,
teak and mahogany.
 2. Metal
• Metallic patterns are preferred when the number of
castings required is large enough to justify their use.
These patterns are not much affected by moisture as
wooden pattern.
• The wear and tear of this pattern is very less and
hence posses longer life. Moreover, metal is easier to
shape the pattern with good precision, surface finish
and intricacy in shapes.
• It can withstand against corrosion and handling for
longer period. It possesses excellent strength to weight
ratio.
• The main disadvantages of metallic patterns are higher
cost, higher weight and tendency of rusting.
• It is preferred for production of castings in large
quantities with same pattern.
• The metals commonly used for pattern making are cast
iron, brass and bronzes and aluminum alloys.
3. Plastic

Plastics are getting more popularity now a days

because the patterns made of these materials are
lighter, stronger, moisture and wear resistant, non
sticky to molding sand, durable and they are not
affected by the moisture of the molding sand.
Moreover they impart very smooth surface finish on
the pattern surface.
These materials are somewhat fragile, less resistant
to sudden loading and their section may need metal
reinforcement.
The plastics used for this purpose are thermosetting
resins. Phenolic resin plastics are commonly used.
4. Plaster
This material belongs to gypsum family which can be easily
cast and worked with wooden tools and preferable for
producing highly intricate casting. The main advantages of
plaster are that it has high compressive strength and is of
high expansion setting type which compensate for the
shrinkage allowance of the casting metal. It is also
preferred for production of small size intricate castings and
making core boxes.
5. Wax
Patterns made from wax are excellent for investment
casting process. The materials used are blends of several
types of waxes, and other additives which act as
polymerizing agents, stabilizers, etc. The commonly used
waxes are paraffin wax, shellac wax, bees-wax, cerasin wax,
and micro-crystalline wax. Such patterns are generally used
in the process of investment casting where accuracy is
linked with intricacy of the cast object.
 TYPES OF PATTERN

The types of the pattern and the description of each

are given as under.
1. One piece or solid pattern
2. Two piece or split pattern
3. Cope and drag pattern
4. Three-piece or multi- piece pattern
5. Loose piece pattern
6. Match plate pattern
7. Follow board pattern
8. Gated pattern
9. Sweep pattern
10. Skeleton pattern
 Single-piece or solid pattern
Solid pattern is made of single piece without
joints, partings lines or loose pieces. It is the
simplest form of the pattern.
Single-piece or solid pattern
Two-piece or split pattern
When solid pattern is difficult for withdrawal
from the mold cavity, then solid pattern is
splited in two parts. Split pattern is made in
two pieces which are joined at the parting
line by means of dowel pins. The splitting at
the parting line is done to facilitate the
withdrawal of the pattern. Two-piece or split pattern
Cope and drag pattern
In this case, cope and drag part of the mould are prepared separately. This is done
when the complete mould is too heavy to be handled by one operator. The
pattern is made up of two halves, which are mounted on different plates.

Cope and drag pattern

Three-piece or multi-piece pattern
Some patterns are of complicated kind in shape and hence
cannot be made in one or two pieces because of difficulty
in withdrawing the pattern. Therefore these patterns are
made in either three pieces or in multi- pieces. Multi
molding flasks are needed to make mold from these
patterns.

Three-piece or multi-piece pattern

Loose-piece pattern
A single piece are made to have loose piece in easy to
allow withdrawal from the mold the molding process
are completed, after the main pattern is withdrawn
leaving from that piece in the sand. After the
withdrawal of piece from mold, it cavity separately
formed by the pattern. It loose piece pattern is highly
skilled job and expensive.

Loose-piece pattern
 Match plate pattern

pattern

Match plate pattern

Follow board type pattern
In casting process some portions
are structurally weak. It is not
supported properly and may be
break under the force of
ramming. In this stage the special
pattern to allow the mold may be
such as wooden material.
Gated Pattern
In the mass production of casings,
multi cavity moulds are used. Such
moulds are formed by joining a
number of patterns and gates and
providing a common runner for
the molten metal. These patterns
are made of metals, and metallic
pieces to form gates and runners
are attached to the pattern.
 Sweep Pattern
Sweep patterns are used for forming
large circular moulds of symmetric kind
by revolving a sweep attached to a
spindle. Actually a sweep is a template
of wood or metal and is attached to the
spindle at one edge and the other edge
has a contour depending upon the
desired shape of the mould. The pivot
end is attached to a stake of metal in
the center of the mould.
Skeleton Pattern
When only a small number of large and heavy
castings are to be made, it is not economical to
make a solid pattern. In such cases, however, a
skeleton pattern may be used. This is a ribbed
construction of wood which forms an outline
of the pattern to be made. This frame work is
filled with loam sand and rammed. The surplus
sand is removed by strickle board. For round
shapes, the pattern is made in two halves
which are joined with glue or by means of
screws etc.
 Pattern Allowances
• Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the
dimensional characteristics of the casting. Thus, when the
pattern is produced, certain allowances must be given on the
sizes specified in the finished component drawing so that a
casting with the particular specification can be made. The
selection of correct allowances greatly helps to reduce
machining costs and avoid rejections.
The allowances usually considered on patterns and core boxes
are as follows:
1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance
2. Draft or taper allowance
3. Machining or finish allowance
4. Distortion or camber allowance
5. Rapping allowance
Shrinkage Allowance
In practice it is found that all common cast metals shrink a
significant amount when they are cooled from the molten
state. The total contraction in volume is divided into the
following parts:
1. Liquid contraction, i.e. the contraction during the period
in which the temperature of the liquid metal or alloy falls
from the pouring temperature to the liquidus temperature.
2. Contraction on cooling from the liquidus to the solidus
temperature, i.e. solidifying contraction.
3. Contraction that results there after until the temperature
reaches the room temperature. This is known as solid
contraction.
The first two of the above are taken care of by proper
gating and risering. Only the last one, i.e. the solid
contraction is taken care by the pattern makers by giving a
positive shrinkage allowance. This contraction allowance is
different for different metals.
Rate of Contraction of Various Metals
• Machining or Finish Allowance
The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting
are generally poor and therefore when the
casting is functionally required to be of good
surface finish or dimensionally accurate, it is
generally achieved by subsequent machining.
Machining or finish allowances are therefore
added in the pattern dimension. The amount of
machining allowance to be provided for is
affected by the method of molding and casting
used viz. hand molding or machine molding, sand
casting or metal mold casting. The amount of
machining allowance is also affected by the size
and shape of the casting; the casting orientation;
the metal; and the degree of accuracy and finish
required.
Machining Allowances of Various Metals
 Draft or Taper Allowance
• By draft is meant the taper provided by the pattern maker
on all vertical surfaces of the pattern so that it can be
removed from the sand without tearing away the sides of
the sand mold and without excessive rapping by the
molder. Figure 1 shows a pattern having no draft allowance
being removed from the pattern. In this case, till the
pattern is completely lifted out, its sides will remain in
contact with the walls of the mold, thus tending to break it.
Figure 2 is an illustration of a pattern having proper draft
allowance. Here, the moment the pattern lifting
commences, all of its surfaces are well away from the sand
surface. Thus the pattern can be removed without
damaging the mold cavity. Draft allowance varies with the
complexity of the sand job. But in general inner details of
the pattern require higher draft than outer surfaces. The
amount of draft depends upon the length of the vertical
side of the pattern to be extracted; the intricacy of the
pattern; the method of molding; and pattern material
Figure 1Pattern Having No Draft on Vertical Edges

Figure 2 Pattern Having Draft on Vertical Edges

Draft Allowances of Various Metals
• Distortion or Camber Allowance
• Sometimes castings get distorted, during solidification, due
to their typical shape. For example, if the casting has the
form of the letter U, V, T, or L etc. it will tend to contract at
the closed end causing the vertical legs to look slightly
inclined. This can be prevented by making the legs of the U,
V, T, or L shaped pattern converge slightly (inward) so that
the casting after distortion will have its sides vertical
• The distortion in casting may occur due to internal stresses.
These internal stresses are caused on account of unequal
cooling of different section of the casting and hindered
contraction. Measure taken to prevent the distortion in
casting include: i. Modification of casting design ii.
Providing sufficient machining allowance to cover the
distortion affect iii. Providing suitable allowance on the
pattern, called camber or distortion allowance (inverse
reflection)
Distortions in Casting
• Rapping Allowance
Before the withdrawal from the sand mold, the
pattern is rapped all around the vertical faces to
enlarge the mold cavity slightly, which facilitate
its removal. Since it enlarges the final casting
made, it is desirable that the original pattern
dimension should be reduced to account for this
increase. There is no sure way of quantifying this
allowance, since it is highly dependent on the
foundry personnel practice involved. It is a
negative allowance and is to be applied only to
those dimensions that are parallel to the parting
plane.
• Core and Core Prints Castings are often required to have holes, recesses,
etc. of various sizes and shapes. These impressions can be obtained by
using cores. So where coring is required, provision should be made to
support the core inside the mold cavity. Core prints are used to serve this
purpose. The core print is an added projection on the pattern and it forms
a seat in the mold on which the sand core rests during pouring of the
mold. The core print must be of adequate size and shape so that it can
support the weight of the core during the casting operation. Depending
upon the requirement a core can be placed horizontal, vertical and can be
hanged inside the mold cavity. A typical job, its pattern and the mold
cavity with core and core print is shown in Figure

A Typical Job, its Pattern and the Mold Cavity

• Choice of moulding materials depends on processing
properties.
1) Refractoriness- Ability to withstand high temperature of
molten metal so that it does not cause fusion
Refractory materials - silica, zirconia, alumina
2) Green strength- Moulding sand containing moisture is
known as green sand. The strength of the green sand is
known as green strength.
3) Dry strength- When moisture is completely expelled
from the moulding sand, it is known as dry sand and the
strength of the sand is the dry strength.
4) Hot strength- After moisture elimination, the sand is
exposed to higher temperature of molten material.
Strength of sand to hold the shape of mould cavity at this
higher temperature is known as hot strength.
5) Permeability – Moulding sand is porous, so it escapes
gases through it. This gas evolution capability of moulding
sand is known as permeability. Other properties include
collapsibility, reusable, good thermal conductivity etc.
 Pouring, Gating design

• A good gating design should ensure proper distribution of

molten metal without excessive temperature loss,
turbulence, gas entrapping and slags.
• If the molten metal is poured very slowly, since time taken
to fill the mould cavity will become longer, solidification will
start even before the mould is completely filled. This can be
restricted by using super heated metal, but in this case
solubility will be a problem.
• If the molten metal is poured very faster, it can erode the
mould cavity.
• So gating design is important and it depends on the metal
and molten metal composition. For example, aluminium
can get oxidized easily. Gating design is classified mainly
into two (modified: three) types: Vertical gating, bottom
gating, horizontal gating.
• Vertical gating: the liquid metal is poured
vertically, directly to fill the mould with
atmospheric pressure at the base end.
• Bottom gating: molten metal is poured from
top, but filled from bottom to top. This
minimizes oxidation and splashing while
pouring.
• Horizontal gating is a modification of bottom
gating, in which some horizontal portions are
added for good distribution of molten metal
and to avoid turbulence
 Riser
• Riser is a source of extra metal which flows from riser to mold
cavity to compensate for shrinkage which takes place in the casting
when it starts solidifying. Without a riser heavier parts of the
casting will have shrinkage defects, either on the surface or
internally. Risers are known by different names as metal reservoir,
feeders, or headers. Shrinkage in a mold, from the time of pouring
to final casting, occurs in three stages.
1. during the liquid state
2. during the transformation from liquid to solid
3. during the solid state
• First type of shrinkage is being compensated by the feeders or the
gating system. For the second type of shrinkage risers are required.
Risers are normally placed at that portion of the casting which is
last to freeze. A riser must stay in liquid state at least as long as the
casting and must be able to feed the casting during this time.
Functions of Risers
Provide extra metal to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage
Allow mold gases to escape
Provide extra metal pressure on the solidifying mold to reproduce
mold details more exact

Design Requirements of Risers

1. Riser size: For a sound casting riser must be last to freeze. The ratio
of (volume / surface area)2 of the riser must be greater than that of the
casting. However, when this condition does not meet the metal in the
riser can be kept in liquid state by heating it externally or using
exothermic materials in the risers.
2. Riser placement: the spacing of risers in the casting must be
considered by effectively calculating the feeding distance of the risers.
3. Riser shape: cylindrical risers are recommended for most of the
castings as spherical risers, although considers as best, are difficult to
cast. To increase volume/surface area ratio the bottom of the riser can
be shaped as hemisphere.
Riser Design
The riser is a reservoir in the mold that serves as a source of liquid metal
for the casting to compensate for shrinkage during solidification. The riser
must be designed to freeze after the main casting in order to satisfy its
function Riser Function is to feed liquid metal to the casting during
freezing in order to compensate for solidification shrinkage. To function,
the riser must remain molten until after the casting solidifies.
Chvorinov’s rule can be used to compute the size of a riser that will satisfy
this requirement. The riser represents waste metal that will be separated
from the cast part and re-melted to make subsequent castings. It is
desirable for the volume of metal in the riser to be a minimum. Since the
geometry of the riser is normally selected to maximize the V/A ratio, this
tends to reduce the riser volume as much as possible Risers can be
designed in different forms. A top riser is one that is connected to the top
surface of the casting. Risers can be open or blind. An open riser is
exposed to the outside at the top surface of the cope. This has the
disadvantage of allowing more heat to escape, promoting faster
solidification.
Types of Riser:-
(a) top riser- This type of riser is open to the atmosphere. It
is very conventional & convenient to make. It looses heat to
the atmosphere by radiation & convention. To reduce this,
insulation is provided on top such as plaster of paris and
asbestos sheets.
(b) blind riser :- This type of riser is surrounded by the
moulding sand and looses heat very slowly.
(c) Internal riser:- It is surrounded on all sides by casting
such that heat from casting keeps the metal in the riser hot
for a longer time. These are used for cylindrical shapes or
hollow cylindrical portions casting.
Chill:- Metallic chills are used to provide progressive
solidification or to avoid the shrinkage cavities. These are
large heat sinks. Use of chill will form a hard spots, which
needs further machining.
 Melting Practices
• Melting is an equally important parameter for
obtaining a quality castings. A number of
furnaces can be used for melting the metal, to
be used, to make a metal casting. The choice
of furnace depends on amount & the type of
metal to be melted.
 CUPOLA
• It consists of a cylindrical steel shell with its interior lined
with heat resisting fire bricks.
• There is a drop door at the bottom after closing which
proper sand bed could be prepared. This sand bed provides
proper refractory bottom for molten metal & coke.
• Above the sand bed, there is a metal tapping hole which
will be initially closed with clay known as ”bot”. Opposite &
above the metal tapping hole, there is a slag hole where
slag is trapped.
• Above the slag hole, there is a wind box which is connected
to air blowers. Air enters to the cupola through the tuyeres.
Above the charging platform, there is a charging hole
through which charge is put into the cupola.
• The charge consists of the pig iron, scrap iron, coke and
fluxes.
Operation:-
First the drop door at the bottom is closed. Sand bed with slope
towards tap hole is rammed. Coke bed of suitable height is
prepared above the sand bed and is ignited through the tap hole.
After proper ignition, alternate layers of charge, flux & coke are fed
through the charge door. Then the charge is allowed to soak in the
heat and the air blast is turned on. Within 5 to 10mins, the molten
metal is collected through the tap hole. When enough metal is
collected in the well of the cupola, the slag is drained off through
the slag hole. Then the molten metal is collected in the ladles and
is transported to the moulds with a minimum time loss.
Fluxes are added in the charge to remove the oxides & other
impurities present in the metal. The flux commonly used is lime
stone (CaCO3) in a proportion of 2 to 4% of the metal charge.
Others fluxes used are dolomite, sodium carbonate, calcium
carbide. Flux reacts with oxides to form compounds having low
melting point and lighter so that it will float on the metal pool.
Charge calculations:-
Carbon:- When charge comes through the coke bed,
some amount of
carbon is picked up by the metal depending on the
temperature and the time when the metal is in contact
with the coke. It is of the order of 0.15% carbon.
Silicon:- It is Oxidised in the cupola and there will be a
loss of 10% silicon. It may be as high as 30%. To increase
the silicon content, ferrosilicon is added to the metal.
Manganese:- There is a loss of 15 to 20% manganese
during melting
process. The content of manganese can be increased by
the addition of ferromanganese.
Sulphur- There will a sulphur pick up in a range of 0.03
to 0.05%.
Other furnaces:
Other furnaces include
Open hearth furnace
Rotary furnace
Crucible furnace
Immersion heated furnace
Based on the source of heating, they can be classified as
Electrical heating furnace (arc, resistance or induction)
Fossil full fired furnace (solid, oil/gaseous fuel)