Designation: E446 − 15

Standard Reference Radiographs for

Steel Castings Up to 2 in. (50.8 mm) in Thickness1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E446; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the U.S. Department of Defense.

1. Scope six categories of graded discontinuities of increasing severity

1.1 These reference radiographs illustrate various 2 level and four categories of ungraded discontinuities. Refer-
categories, types, and severity levels of discontinuities occur- ence radiographs containing ungraded discontinuities are pro-
ring in steel castings that have section thicknesses up to 2 in. vided as a guide for recognition of a specific casting disconti-
(50.8 mm) (see Note 2). The reference radiograph films are an nuity type where severity levels are not needed. Following is a
adjunct to this standard and must be purchased separately from list of discontinuity categories, types and severity levels for the
ASTM International, if needed (see 2.2). Categories and adjunct reference radiographs of this standard:
severity levels for each discontinuity type represented by these 1.3.1 Category A—Gas porosity; severity levels 1 through 5.
reference radiographs are described in 1.3. 1.3.2 Category B—Sand and slag inclusions; severity levels
1 through 5.
NOTE 1—The basis of application for these reference radiographs 1.3.3 Category C—Shrinkage; 4 types:
requires a prior purchaser supplier agreement of radiographic examination
attributes and classification criterion as described in Sections 4, 6, and 7 1.3.3.1 Ca—linear shrinkage—Severity levels 1 through 5.
of this standard. 1.3.3.2 Cb—feathery shrinkage—Severity levels 1 through
NOTE 2—Reference radiographs previously used for this thickness 5.
range carried the designation E71, but included a now rarely used gamma 1.3.3.3 Cc—sponge shrinkage—Severity levels 1 through 5.
source, that is, radium. The current document is also updated by inclusion
of several recognized shrinkage or C categories and by elimination of the 1.3.3.4 Cd—combinations of linear, feathery and sponge
crack and hot tear categories except for one example of each of these shrinkage—Severity levels 1 through 5.
discontinuity types. Reference radiographs for thicker sections may be 1.3.4 Category D—Crack; 1 illustration.
found in Reference Radiograph standards E186 and E280. Reference 1.3.5 Category E—Hot tear; 1 illustration.
Radiograph standards E446 and E186 provide some overlap of severity
levels for similar discontinuity categories within the same energy level 1.3.6 Category F—Insert; 1 illustration.
range (see 4.2, 5.1, and 6.3). 1.3.7 Category G—Mottling; 1 illustration.
1.2 These film reference radiographs are not intended to NOTE 3—The reference radiographs consist of the following:
illustrate the types and degrees of discontinuities found in steel Volume I: Medium Voltage (nominal 250 kVp) X-ray Reference
castings when performing digital radiography. If performing Radiographs—set of 34 illustrations (nominal 5 by 7 in.) in a 15 by 17-in.
ring binder.
digital radiography of steel castings up to 2 in. (50.8 mm) in
Volume II: 1-MV X-rays and Iridium-192 Reference Radiographs—Set

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thickness, refer to Digital Reference Image Standard E2868. of 34 illustrations (nominal 5 by 7 in.) in a 15 by 17-in. ring binder.
1.3 These reference radiographs consist of three separate Volume III: 2-MV to 4-MV X-rays and Cobalt-60 Reference
Radiographs—Set of 34 illustrations (nominal 5 by 7 in.) in a 15 by 17-in.
volumes (see Note 3) as follows: (I) medium voltage (nominal ring binder.
250-kV) X-rays. (II) 1-MV X-rays and Iridium-192 radiation, NOTE 4—Although Category G–Mottling is listed for all three volumes,
and (III) 2-MV to 4-MV X-rays and cobalt-60 radiation. Unless the appearance of mottling is dependent on the level of radiation energy.
otherwise specified in a purchaser supplier agreement (see 1.1), Mottling appears reasonably prominent in Volume I; however, because of
each volume is for comparison only with production radio- the higher radiation energy levels mottling may not be apparent in Volume
II nor Volume III.
graphs produced with radiation energy levels within the thick-
ness range covered by this standard. Each volume consists of 1.4 From time to time, there may be minor changes to the
process for manufacturing of the reference radiograph adjunct
1
materials. These changes could include changes in the films or
These reference radiographs are under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee
E07 on Nondestructive Testing and are the direct responsibility of Subcommittee processing chemicals used, changes in the dies or printing for
E07.02 on Reference Radiological Images. the cardboard mats, etc.; however, in all cases, these changes
Current edition approved Sept. 1, 2015. Published September 2015. Originally are reviewed by the Illustration Monitoring Subcommittee and
approved in 1972. Last previous edition approved in 2014 as E446 – 14. DOI:
all reference radiographs are reviewed against a fixed prototype
10.1520/E0446-15.
2
For ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code applications see related Reference image to ensure that there are no changes to the acceptance
Radiographs SE-446 in Section V of that Code. level represented by the reference radiographs. Therefore, the

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 E446 − 15
adjunct reference radiographs remain valid for use with this and distribution” present on the reference radiograph. Ex-
standard regardless of the date of production or the revision ample: a severity level of “1” is more restrictive (requires a
level of the text standard. higher level of workmanship fabrication quality) than a sever-
1.5 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded ity level of “2”.
as standard. The values given in parentheses are mathematical 3.2.5 discontinuity class—an assigned workmanship fabri-
conversions to SI units that are provided for information only cation quality rating characterized by a discontinuity type,
and are not considered standard. category and severity level. For example: “Ca 2” is a discon-
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the tinuity class comprised of linear shrinkage with a severity level
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the of “2”.
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- 3.2.6 classification specification—a set of user defined ac-
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica- ceptance criterion that prescribes the radiographic workman-
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. ship discontinuity class requirements for a specified user
2. Referenced Documents casting service application (see Sections 6 and 7).

2.1 ASTM Standards:3 3.2.7 graded illustration—a category of discontinuity that is

E94 Guide for Radiographic Examination assigned a severity level.
E186 Reference Radiographs for Heavy-Walled (2 to 41⁄2-in. 3.2.8 ungraded illustration—a category of discontinuity
(50.8 to 114-mm)) Steel Castings without an assigned severity level.
E242 Reference Radiographs for Appearances of Radio-
3.2.9 prorating—assignment of quantity, size and distribu-
graphic Images as Certain Parameters are Changed
tion on a production radiograph in proportion to a similar size
E280 Reference Radiographs for Heavy-Walled (41⁄2 to 12-
area of a reference radiograph. For example: a production
in. (114 to 305-mm)) Steel Castings
radiograph covers an area that is smaller than the unit area of
E1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations
a reference radiograph and the extent of discontinuity on the
E2868 Digital Reference Images for Steel Castings up to 2
applicable reference radiograph is reduced proportionately.
in. (50.8 mm) in Thickness
2.2 ASTM Adjuncts:4
Reference Radiographs for Steel Castings Up to 2 in. (50.8 4. Significance and Use
mm) in Thickness: 4.1 Graded reference radiographs are intended to provide a
Volume I, Medium Voltage (Nominal 250 kVp) X-Rays5 guide enabling recognition of specific casting discontinuity
Volume II, 1-MV X-Rays and Iridium-1926 types and relative severity levels that may be encountered
Volume III, 2-MV to 4-MV X-Rays and Cobalt-607 during typical fabrication processes. Reference radiographs
containing ungraded discontinuities are provided as a guide for
3. Terminology recognition of a specific casting discontinuity type where
3.1 Definitions—For definitions of terms relating to radio- severity levels are not needed. These reference radiographs are
graphic examination, see Terminology E1316. intended as a basis from which manufacturers and purchasers
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard: may, by mutual agreement, select particular discontinuity
3.2.1 production radiograph—a radiograph under review classes to serve as standards representing minimum levels of
for compliance with this standard. acceptability (see Sections 6 and 7).
3.2.2 discontinuity type—a specific discontinuity character- 4.2 Reference radiographs represented by this standard may
ized by its cause and appearance. For example: linear shrink- be used, as agreed upon in a purchaser supplier agreement, for
age is a specific discontinuity type. energy levels, thicknesses or both outside the range of this
3.2.3 discontinuity category—a nomenclature system used standard when determined applicable for the casting service
for grouping discontinuity types. For example: linear shrinkage application. Severity levels of similar discontinuity categories
is assigned category “Ca” where “C” represents the general and energy level range of E186 reference radiographs may
shrinkage category and “a” represents the specific linear alternatively be used, as determined appropriate for the casting
shrinkage discontinuity type. service application, if so agreed upon in the purchaser supplier
agreement (see Note 2 and 5.1).
3.2.4 discontinuity severity level—a relative rank in terms of
“quantity, size and distribution” of a collection of discontinui- 4.3 Procedures for evaluation of production radiographs
ties where “1” is the least and “5” is the greatest “quantity, size using applicable reference radiographs of this standard are
prescribed in Section 8; however, there may be manufacturing-
3
purchaser issues involving specific casting service applications
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
contact ASTM Customer Service at [email protected]. For Annual Book of ASTM where it may be appropriate to modify or alter such require-
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on ments. Where such modifications may be appropriate for the
the ASTM website.
4
casting application, all such changes shall be specifically
Available from ASTM Headquarters.
5
called-out in the purchaser supplier agreement or contractual
Order RRE044601.
6
Order RRE044602. document. Section 9 addresses purchaser supplier requisites for
7
Order RRE044603. where weld repairs may be required.
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 E446 − 15
5. Method of Preparation interest in accordance with Guide E94 and a specified mini-
5.1 The original radiographs used to prepare the adjunct mum radiographic sensitivity (quality level) of 2 % (2-2T).
reference radiographs were produced on ASTM Class I or II Other radiographic quality levels or optical densities may be
film systems by the respective use of 250-kV X-ray, Iridium- designated, but then a corresponding change in severity level
192 and Cobalt-60 sources of radiation. The original radio- for each discontinuity category should be anticipated and hence
graphs were made with penetrameter sensitivity as determined specified.
by ASTM penetrameters (see Guide E94) of 2-2T. The adjunct
7. Classification Specifications
reference radiographs are reproductions prepared to an optical
density of 2.00 to 2.25 and have substantially retained the 7.1 The applicable radiographic discontinuity classification
contrast of the original radiographs. In preparing these refer- should be designated by the contracting agency in formal
ence radiographs, the objective was to obtain progressively specifications or on drawings and in specific contracts or
graduated severity levels for each graded discontinuity cat- orders. The specifications, drawings, contracts, or order should
egory of this standard. Additionally, some overlap of severity also designate the sampling plan for the castings to be
levels may occur for discontinuity categories of this standard radiographed and the extent of radiographic coverage, radio-
and similar discontinuity categories of E186 reference radio- graphic practice to be followed (Guide E94), image quality
graphs within the same energy level range. For example, desired (Note 5) as well as the severity of the acceptable
aggregate gas porosity severity level 5 of this standard exceeds discontinuity for the graded categories.
aggregate gas porosity severity level 1 of Reference Radio- NOTE 5—For description of radiographic sensitivity or quality levels,
graph E186 (see 6.3). see Guide E94 and Reference Radiographs E242.
5.2 Film Deterioration—Radiographic films are subject to 8. Evaluation Procedure
wear and tear from handling and use. The extent to which the
image deteriorates over time is a function of storage 8.1 Compare the production radiographs of the casting
submitted for evaluation with the reference radiographs ex-

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conditions, care in handling and amount of use. Reference
radiograph films are no exception and may exhibit a loss in posed at an equivalent energy range within the thickness range
image quality over time. The radiographs should therefore be of this standard (unless otherwise specified—see Section 4).
periodically examined for signs of wear and tear, including 8.2 When the severity level of discontinuities in the produc-
scratches, abrasions, stains, and so forth. Any reference radio- tion radiograph being evaluated is equal to or less than the
graphs which show signs of excessive wear and tear which severity level in the specified reference radiograph, that part of
could influence the interpretation and use of the radiographs the casting represented by the production radiograph shall be
should be replaced. acceptable. If the production radiograph shows discontinuities
of greater severity than the reference radiograph, that part of
6. Determination of Radiographic Classification the casting shall be rejected.
6.1 For purposes of evaluation of castings, a determination 8.3 A unit area on the production radiograph shall be
must be made of the radiographic discontinuity classifications evaluated to a unit area of like size on the reference radiograph.
to be assigned to individual castings or specific areas of Any unit evaluation area that shares a discontinuity with an
castings. The determination of the applicable radiographic adjacent unit evaluation area shall meet the minimum unit area
discontinuity classification shall be based on an evaluation of acceptability requirements within the combined unit area.
the casting applications, design, and service requirements. In When the unit area of interest of a production radiograph is less
these evaluations, consideration shall be given to such factors than the unit area of the applicable reference radiograph, such
as pressure, temperature, section thickness, applicable design unit area of the production radiograph shall be prorated to the
safety factor (preferably based on stress analysis), vibration, reference radiographic area.
shock, resistance to corrosion, involvement of penetrating
radiations or radiation products, and involvement of dangerous 8.4 When two or more categories of discontinuity are
gases or liquids. present in the same production radiograph, the predominating
discontinuites, if unacceptable, shall govern without regard to
6.2 For each individual casting or specific area of a casting the other categories of discontinuity and the casting rejected.
to be radiographed, the discontinuity class must be clearly
specified. For example, severity level 2 might be specified for 8.5 When two or more categories of discontinuity are
linear shrinkage, Category Ca, and severity level 3 for gas present to an extent equal to the maximum permissible level as
porosity, Category A, since the latter are generally much less shown in the applicable standards for each category, then that
deleterious to tensile properties (see Section 7). part of the casting shall be judged unacceptable. When two or
more categories of discontinuity are present in the same
6.3 When determining discontinuity severity levels for in- radiograph to an extent less than the maximum permissable
dividual castings spanning multiple thickness ranges outside level, as shown in the applicable standards for each category,
the range of this standard, consideration should be given to the the severity shall be evaluated by the overall aggregate
potential for overlaping severity levels as described in 4.2 and condition. The aggregate condition is defined as the balance of
5.1. quantity, size and distribution of the collection of discontinui-
6.4 Production radiographs which are compared to refer- ties and shall not exceed the aggregate condition of the
ence radiographs should have an optical density in the area of applicable reference radiograph.

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 E446 − 15
8.6 Reference radiographs are provided showing a variety line of the radiation beam to a slightly different location from
of shrinkage discontinuity types. Production radiographs show- the first exposure. Indications from any porosity, shrinkage, or
ing shrinkage shall be judged by the most representative other discontinuity will move only slightly, while any mottling
reference radiograph. patterns present will change dramatically. If it is necessary or
8.7 This standard does not specify limiting criteria for a desirable to eliminate the mottling, the kV may be raised to
single size of discontinuity, maximum number of discontinui- reduce the amount of diffraction radiation. However, caution
ties per unit area evaluated, specific dimensional spacing should be used so that the kV is not raised to the point that
and/or alignment criterion between individual discontinuities sensitivity is reduced excessively. If diffraction mottling is
or any other undefined discontinuitiy patterns. Unless other- demonstrated to be present on a radiograph, this condition shall
wise specified by a purchaser supplier agreement (see Section not be considered as prejudicial in evaluating the radiograph.
4), these discontinuity conditions on production radiographs NOTE 6—Mottling is often associated with thin sections of austenitic
shall be evaluated as aggregate conditions as defined in 8.5. steels, and copper base alloys such as copper nickel, tin bronzes, and
nickel copper.
8.8 In general, there is no limit as to the extent of acceptable
discontinuities in a casting, provided that no unit evaluation 8.11 Hot tears and cracks exhibited on production radio-
area throughout the casting contains discontinuities that exceed graphs may at times resemble linear type shrinkage. When
the severity of discontinuities in the applicable reference doubt exists whether such indications are cracks or tears, or are
radiographs. linear shrinkage, all surfaces in the area of interest shall be
ground and magnetic particle or liquid penetrant inspected as
8.9 Reference radiographs in this standard do not illustrate applicable. The extent and depth of grinding may require
elongated or “worm hole” type of gas discontinuities. When engineering judgment. If the indication does not appear on the
this condition occurs in a production radiograph, it shall be surface, that indication shall be considered shrinkage.
evaluated by comparison with the most representative refer-
ence radiograph. 8.12 The radiographic density of discontinuities in compari-
8.9.1 When the exposing radiation source has been placed son with background density is a variable dependent on
perpendicular to the length of the gas hole, evaluate the technical factors. It shall not be used as a criterion for
production radiograph with a shrinkage reference radiograph. acceptance or rejection in comparison with reference radio-
8.9.2 When the exposing radiation source has been placed graphs.
diametrically or“into” the diameter of the gas hole, evaluate the
9. Weld Repair of Castings
production radiograph with a gas reference radiograph.
9.1 When radiographic quality castings are repaired by
8.10 A diffraction mottling pattern can occur on films of
welding, the reference radiographs to be used in the evaluation
parts and sections where the grain size is large enough to be an
of the repaired sections must be specifically agreed upon
appreciable fraction of the material thickness (Note 6). If
between purchaser and supplier.
diffraction mottling is suspected, there are a number of ways to
demonstrate its presence. The diffraction mottling pattern 9.2 When casting discontinuities are removed for repairs,
shown in these cases is dependent principally upon the crystal only the extent of discontinuity required to meet applicable
geometry and the orientation of the crystals to the incident reference standards need be removed.
radiation. Therefore, for a given specimen, any change in this
orientation will affect the diffraction pattern dramatically. This 10. Keywords
can be accomplished by a slight, 1 to 5° tilt of the part, with 10.1 discontinuity classification criterion; gamma ray; ref-
respect to the radiation beam or simply by shifting the center erence radiographs; steel castings; x-ray

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