Unit 1: Measurement system

UNIT 1

MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Topics
• Measurement system
• Functional elements of an Instrument
• Measurement terminologies
• Classification of Instruments
• Types of Instruments
• Instruments used to display electrical parameters
• Advantages of Electronic Instrument
• Functional elements of a Medical Instrument
• Salient features of Medical Instruments.

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Measurements

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Measurements
• The measurement of a given
quantity is essentially an act
(or) the result of comparison
between the quantity and a
predefined standard. Two
quantities are compared and
result is expressed in
numerical values.

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Measurement units
• A standard quantity used to express a physical quantity is known as a
Measuring unit. For example, we use inches, i.e., “in” to measure the
length of small objects like pencil, pen or matchstick.

• Units are the tools to measure and compare different things. Comparison
becomes easy when all the units for the measurement are the same.
Different units can be classified depending on their use.

• To obtain objective, reproducible, and quantitative results, instruments

should be used where the results are given as the output of the
measurement system.

• The physical characteristics of the output depend on the type of instrument

used.

• When electronic instruments are used, the output will be in the form of an
electric potential. This output can also be converted into digital values if
desired. 5
Unit 1: Measurement system

Measurements
Need of Measurement Requirements
• Establish standard • For the results of the measurements to be
meaningful, there are 2 basic requirements:
• Interchange ability
1. The standard used for comparison
• Validate the design purposes must be accurately defined and
should be commonly accepted
• Physical parameter into meaningful
2. The apparatus used and the method
numbers adopted must be provable.
• True dimension
• Evaluate the performance
• Customer satisfaction
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Unit 1: Measurement system

Methods of Measurement
Direct Method Comparative Method Coincidence Method

Indirect Method Complementary Method Deflection Method

Unit 1: Measurement system

International System of Units (SI) units

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Measurement terminologies
• Measured Variable: Is the physical quantity or condition, which is to be measured. Common
measured variables are: Temperature, pressure, rate of flow, level, speed, etc
• Measured Signal: Is the electrical, mechanical, pneumatic, or other variable applied to the input
of a device. A measured signal is normally produced by the primary element (sensing element) of
an instrument.
• Range: Is the region between the limits within which a quantity is measured. Expressed by
stating the lower and upper range-value. -20 to + 2000C ; 20 to 1500C ; 4mA to 20mA
• Span: Is the algebraic difference between the upper and lower range-values. Range: -20 to
2000C, Span is 2200C;
• Repeatability: Ability of an instrument to give identical indications or responses for repeated
applications of the same value of the quantity measured under the same conditions of use. Good
repeatability does not guarantee accuracy.

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Measurement terminologies
• Sensitivity: Is the ratio of the change in transducer output to the corresponding change in the
measured value, i.e. sensitivity = (change of output signal) / (change of input signal). For
example: A pressure-to-current converter could have a sensitivity of 0.1 mA / mbar.
• Accuracy: Accuracy is the conformity of an indicated value to an accepted standard value, or true
value. It is a number or quantity, which defines the limit that errors will not exceed, when the
device is used under reference operating conditions. Percentage of true value (% of
T.V.)=((Measured value – True value)/True value) *100
• Absolute Error: Algebraic difference between the indication and the true value of a quantity to
be measured. Absolute Error = indication - true value.
• Relative Error: Ratio between the absolute error and the true value of the quantity to be
measured.

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Measurement terminologies
• Calibration: The procedure of comparing and determining the performance accuracy is called
calibration. To configure a device so that the required output represents (to a defined degree of
accuracy) the respective input.
• Gain: This is the ratio of the change of the output to the change in the applied input.
• Reliability: The probability that a device will perform within its specifications for the number of
operations or time period specified.
• Reproducibility: The similarity of one measurement to another over time, where the operating
conditions have varied within the time span, but the input is restored.
• Resolution: The smallest interval that can be identified as a measurement varies.

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Measurement terminologies
• Hysteresis: Hysteresis is the difference in the output
for given input when the input is increasing and
output for same input when input is decreasing.
When input of any instrument is slowly varied from
zero to full scale and then back to zero, its output
varies as shown in the diagram.
• Linearity: Linearity expresses the deviation of the
actual reading from a straight line.

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Instruments
• Measurements involve using an instrument as a physical means of determining a quantity or variable.
• An Instrument can be defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable.
• An instrument may be also be defined as a device or a system which is designed to maintain a functional
relationship between prescribed properties of physical variables and must include ways and means of
communication to a human observer.

3 essential elements of modern instruments:

• A detector (a transducing element which converts the quantity to be measured in analogous form)
• An intermediate transfer device (processing the measured data)
• An indicator, recorder, or a storage device (present the results of the measurement)

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Classification of Instruments
• Mechanical instruments (mechanical
moving parts, slow measurements)
• Electrical instruments (electrical output but
based on mechanical meter movement,
slow response)
• Electronic instruments (based on
semiconductors, fast response, reliable and
compact)

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Classification of Instruments
• Absolute Instruments: These instruments give the
magnitude of the quantity under measurements in
terms of physical constants of the instruments.
Example: Tangent Galvanometer. Takes a lot of
time to compute the magnitude of the quantity
under measurement.
• Secondary Instruments: These instruments are
constructed that the quantity being measured can
only be measured by observing the output
indicated by the instrument. These instruments
are calibrated by comparison with an absolute
instrument or another secondary instrument that
has already been calibrated against an absolute
instrument. Example: voltmeter, a glass
thermometer and a pressure gauge. Secondary
instruments are most commonly used.

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Classification of Instruments
Signals that vary in a continuous fashion and
take on an infinity of values in any given range
are called analog signals. The devices which
produce these signals are called analog devices.

In contrast, the signals which vary in discrete

steps and take up only finite different values in a
given range are called digital signals. The
devices that produce such signals are called
digital devices.

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Classification of Instruments
A null instrument employs the null method for
measurement. In this technique, the instrument exerts
an influence on the measured system so as to oppose the
effect of the measurand. The influence and the
measurand are balanced until they are equal but
opposite in value, yielding a null measurement.

A deflection instrument employs the deflection

technique for measurement. A deflection instrument is
influenced by the measurand so as to bring about a
proportional response within the instrument. This
response in an output reading that is a deflection or a
deviation from the initial condition of the instrument.

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Classification of Instruments
Classification based upon the functions they perform:
• Indicating Instruments: Information about the
variable quantity under measurement as a deflection
of a pointer. Example: voltmeter, ammeter.
• Recording Instruments: the instrument that makes a
written record, usually on paper, of the value of the
quantity under measurement against time or against
some other variable. Example: energy meters,
thermoscope, ECG machine, etc.
• Integrating Instrument: The instrument which
measures the total energy supplied at a particular
interval of time is known as the integrating
instrument. Example: watt-hour meter

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Types of Instruments

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Instrument used to display electrical parameters

• Electrical
measuring instruments are all the devices used to measure the
magnitude of an electric current with different objectives. The values that
are usually measured with this equipment are current, voltage, resistance,
and power. Each is expressed in different units: amps, volts, ohms, and
watts, respectively.

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Main electrical measuring instruments

• Galvanometer: indicates the intensity of the flow of electric current through a circuit.
• Voltmeter: used to measure the potential difference between two points of a closed electrical
circuit
• Ammeter: measures the intensity (i.e. amps) of current circulating through an electrical circuit.
• Ohmmeter: records the ohms, or the electrical resistance, in a circuit.
• Multimeter: a meter that brings together the capabilities of the other meters: it incorporates
the tools necessary to measure voltages, resistances, capacitances, etc.
• Oscilloscope: a measuring instrument and graphical display of electrical signals that vary over
time.
• Spectrum analyzer: measuring equipment that displays the components and spectral ranges of
electrical signals coming from any wave, whether electromagnetic, mechanical, acoustic, or
optical.

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Advantages of Electronic Instrument

1. Different physical quantities can be converted into electrical signal by
transducers.
2. Electrical signal can be amplified, multiplexed, filtered and measured
easily.
3. Electrical signal can be converted from A/D or D/A signal.
4. Electrical signals can be transmitted over long distances by wire or radio
link.
5. Many measurements can be carried out simultaneously.
6. Digital signal are compatible with computers.
7. High sensitivity, low power consumption, high reliability.
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Unit 1: Measurement system

Functional elements of an Instrument

Contains three main functional elements:
1. Primary Sensing Element
2. Variable Conversion element
3. Data Presentation element

Functional elements of an Instrument

Primary Variable Variable Data Data

Quantity to
sensing conversion manipulation transmission presentation
be measured
element element element element element

Data conditioning element

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Primary Sensing Element

• The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with the primary sensing element of a
measurement system.
• Measurand is first detected by the primary sensor. Then immediately followed by the conversion
of measurand into an analogous electrical signal.
• A transducer is defined as a device which converts energy from one form to another. Usually
transducer converts a physical quantity into an electrical quantity.
• The physical quantity to be measured, in the first place is sensed and detected by an element
that gives the output in a different analogous form. This output is then converted into an
electrical signal by a transducer.
• Hence, the first stage of a measurement system is known as the detector transducer stage.

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Variable conversion element

• Output from the sensor is not suited to the direct measurement system.
• Output signal from the primary element could be a mechanical or electrical signal. Example:
current or frequency.
• Necessary to convert this output signal from the sensor to some other suitable form without
losing information.
• For example, in an ammeter, the output from the coil is current. We place a magnet to get a
deflection due to the current passing in the coil. So here the magnet acts as a variable conversion
element, converting current into physical movement which is the deflection and by measuring
the amount of deflection we can measure the amount of current.

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Variable manipulation element

• Variable manipulation means a change in the numerical value of the signal.
• The function of a variable manipulation element is to manipulate the signal presented to this
element while preserving the original nature of the signal.
• For example, a voltage amplifier acts as a variable manipulation element. The amplifier accepts a
small voltage signal as input and produces an output signal which is also voltage but of greater
magnitude. The variable manipulation element could be either placed after the variable
conversion element or it may precede the variable conversion element.
Functional elements of an Instrument

Primary Variable Variable Data Data

Quantity to
sensing conversion manipulation transmission presentation
be measured
element element element element element

Data conditioning element 28

Unit 1: Measurement system

Data conditioning element

• The output signal of transducers contains information which is further processed by the system.
• Electrical signal from Transducers is of very low voltages, may be of the order of mV and some even µV.
• Contains noise - May interfere with the original output signal.
• Highly distorted results which are far from its true value.
• Removal of interfering noise / sources before transmission to next stage.
• The operations performed on the signal, to remove the signal contamination or distortion, is called Signal
Conditioning. The term signal conditioning includes many other functions in addition to variable conversion and
variable manipulation.
• Many signal conditioning processes may be linear, such as, amplification, attenuation, integration,
differentiation, addition and subtraction. Some may be non-linear processes, such as, modulation, filtering,
clipping, etc.
• Signal to bring it to the desired form for further transmission to next stage in the system.
• The element that performs this function in any instrument or instrumentation system is known as Signal
Conditioning Element.

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Data transmission element

Functional elements of an Instrument

Primary Variable Variable Data Data

Quantity to
sensing conversion manipulation transmission presentation
be measured
element element element element element

Data conditioning element

• This is used for instruments with physically separated primary and secondary elements. In such
situations, there is a need to transmit data from one element to another.
• The element that performs this function is called a Data Transmission Element.
• Example, Control signals are transmitted from earth station to Space-crafts by a telemetry
system using radio signals. Here telemetry system is act as data transmission element.
• The signal conditioning and transmission stage is commonly known as Intermediate Stage.
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Unit 1: Measurement system

Data presentation element

• To convey the information about the quantity under measurement to the personnel handling the
instrument or the system for monitoring, control, or analysis purposes.
• The information conveyed must be in a convenient form.
• In case data is to be monitored, visual display devices are needed (May be analogue or digital
indicating instruments)
• Examples: Ammeters, voltmeters, etc.
• In case the data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, high speed camera and T.V.
equipment; storage type C.R.T., printers, analogue and digital computers may be used. For
control and analysis purpose computers and the control elements are used.
• The final stage in a measurement system is known as terminating stage.

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Functional elements of a Medical Instrument

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Functional elements of a Medical Instrument

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Unit 1: Measurement system

Salient features of a medical instrument

For mobility, medical equipment must satisfy three important needs: it must be able to
withstand disinfectants, it must be tough and durable with lasting aesthetics, and it must
be light weight.
To be able to offer such features, the materials used for such equipment must be
chemically resistant and structurally strong.
Materials also must be tough so that "when equipment is banged into a wall--which
happens with mobile devices--the number of scuff and stress marks are minimized,".
Finally, materials must be light weight to facilitate device portability, without sacrificing
strength.
Hospital beds, wheel chairs, and other patient-transport devices, too, can benefit from
lighter-weight, high-strength plastics that are able to replace metals.

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