Lecture 2-A
Lecture 2-A
Lecture 2-A
Measurement
is a method (device or calculation) used to obtain
information (values) related to physical quantity such as:
Electrical measurements
are the methods used to measure electrical quantities
Why measurements
Industrial manufacturing
to improve the quality of the product
Installing devices
such as quality of wires ,specifications of devices
Maintenance
to remove faulted parts such as diode ,transistor
Design
to get optimum performance of projects
Evaluation
of devices such as power consumption استهالكof devices
Acquire
data or information to apply a required analysis
Types of measuring instruments
(a) Electrical measuring instruments measure electrical quantities voltage, current,…
Standard Classifications
Measurement standards are classified in four levels;
international standards,
primary standards,
secondary standards, and
working standards.
International standards
are defined by international agreements, and are maintained at the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France. These are as accurate
as it is scientifically possible to achieve. They may be used for comparison with
primary standards, but are otherwise unavailable for any application.
Primary standards
They are also constructed for the greatest possible accuracy,
and their main function is checking the accuracy of secondary
standards.
Secondary standards
are employed in industry as references for calibrating high-accuracy equipment
and components, and for verifying the accuracy of working standards.
Secondary standards are periodically checked at the institutions that maintain
primary standards.
Working Standards
Electrical measurement standards are precise resistors, capacitors, inductors,
voltage sources, and current sources, which can be used for comparison purposes
when measuring electrical quantities.
For example,
resistance can be accurately measured by means of a
Wheatstone bridge which uses a standard resistor .
Similarly,
standard capacitors and inductors can be employed in
bridge (or other) methods to accurately measure capacitance
and inductance.
In summary,
working standards are used as measurement references on a day-to-
day basis in virtually all electronics laboratories.
Secondary standards are more accurate than working standards, and
are used throughout industry for checking working standards, and
for calibrating high-accuracy equipment.
Primary standards are more accurate than secondary standards.
They are maintained to the highest possible accuracy by national
institutions as references for calibrating secondary standards.
Interactional standards
are maintained by international agreement, and may be used for
checking primary standards.
Classification of instruments
1.Active/Passive instruments
2.Analog/Digital instruments
3.Null/Deflection type instrument
4.Monitoring/Control instruments
5.Absolute/Secondary instrument
Classification 1
Passive Instruments
The instrument output is entirely produced by the quantity being measured
Active Instruments
The quantity being measured simply modulates (adapts to) the magnitude of
some external power source.
•Digital instrument
has an output that varies in discrete steps and only have a finite number of values
Classification 3
Deflection Type Instruments
In these types of instruments, pointer of the electrical measuring
instrument deflects to measure the quantity. The value of the quantity
can be measured by measuring the net deflection of the pointer from its
initial position. As moving coil ammeter
Monitoring instruments
monitor the process to indicate the values to study
Control instrument
Used in automatic control process and have electrical output
and feedback
Classification 5
Absolute instrument
These instruments give output in terms of physical constant
of the instruments
Secondary instrument
These instruments are constructed with the help of absolute
instruments. Secondary instruments are calibrated by comparison with
an absolute instruments.
Sensor:
Electronic transducer that converts physical quantity
into an electrical signal
Transducer:
A device that converts one form of energy to another.
Transducer
Active transducer
• No extra power required.
• Self generating
• Draw power from input applied
• Eg. Piezo electric x’tal used for acceleration measurement
Accuracy
The degree of closeness to the true value of the quantity under
measurement .. Accuracy used for instruments
Error
The deviation (higher or lower) from true value of the measured value.
1-Absolute error (value )
Rang = Value ± error value (error value is represented as
value not percentage)
2-Relative error
Error is represented as percentage value
Sensitivity
The response of the instrument to any change of input or measured
variable.
Resolution
Precision
Refers to the degree of agreement within a group of measurements
or instruments
Tolerance
It is defined as the maximum error that is to be expected in some
value.
Gross Errors (human errors)
Human errors may include :-
• Misreading of instruments.
• Incorrect adjustment (un-calibration in case analogue devices).
• Computational mistakes.
• Incorrect recording.
• Use unsuitable instruments.
Systematic Errors (device error)
Errors in the output readings of a measurement system (instrument) due to shortcomings of the instruments,
such as
defective parts and effects of the environment on the equipment of instruments.
1. Instrumental errors, defined as shortcomings of the instrument due to Mechanical structure in case analogue
devices Low response in reading in case of digital devices
2. Environmental errors, due to external conditions affecting the measurement such as temperature, humidity
Random Errors
These errors are due to random variations in the parameter or the system of measurement and occur although
all systematic errors have been accounted for.
Solution
To obtain the best approximation of the true value of the quantity under measurement Increasing the number
of readings Using statistical means