MA1301 Chapter 2

MA1301 Introductory Mathematics
Chapter 2
Derivatives
TAN BAN PIN
National University of Singapore
TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 1 / 104

Overview
Derivative - using the concept of limit
Derivative - Gradient of tangent line
Derivative - Instantaneous rate of change of function
Rules of Differentiation
Implicit Differentiation
Higher Order Derivative
Parametric Equations and Differentiation
Tangent and Normal
Linear Approximation
Connected Rate of Change
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Stationary Points
First Derivative Test
Concavity Test
Points of Inflection
Second Derivative Test
Applications
Derivative
y = xn f (x) = xn
dy
= nxn−1 f 0 (x) = nxn−1
dx
The derivative of y with respect to x.

The derivative of f (x) with respect to x.
with respect to —– w.r.t

f 0 (x) or simply f 0 is called the derivative (or gradient function) of f (x) or
f.
dy df
When y = f (x), f 0 (x) is also commonly written as dx (or dx ).
0
The process of finding f (x) of a function f is called differentiation.

Some results
d
dx (c) = 0, where c is any constant.
d n n−1 ,
dx (x ) = nx where n is any constant.
d 1 d x x
dx (ln x) = x dx (e ) = e
Trigonometry Functions
d d
dx (sin x) = cos x dx (cos x) = − sin x
d 2 d
dx (tan x) = sec x dx (cot x) = − csc2 x
d d
dx (sec x) = sec x tan x dx (csc x) = − csc x cot x
Question: How to derive these results? Using limits

1. Derivative — using the concept of limit
f (x) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
x→a x−a
2. Derivative — (Geometrically) Gradient (Slope) of the tangent line
3. Derivative — instantaneous rate of change of the function

m —– gradient (slope) of the line
c —– y-intercept

Straight line — find gradient
y2 − y1
gradient (slope) = m =
x2 − x1

Curve — to find gradient
gradient at A = gradient of tangent line at A

f (x) − f (a)
= f 0 (a) = lim
x→a x−a

Question: Why we define
f (x) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
x→a x−a

Why we define
f (x) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
x→a x−a
y2 − y1
gradient of line AB =
x2 − x1
f (x) − f (a)
=
x−a

gradient at A 6= gradient of line AB

Why we define
f (x) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
x→a x−a
y2 − y1
gradient of line AB =
x2 − x1
f (x) − f (a)
=
x−a
If we choose B close to A, then
choosing B closer and closer to A is
gradient of line AB ≈ gradient of
the same as letting x approaches a.
tangent line at A
Taking limit, we have, gradient at A = lim (gradient of AB)

x→a
f (x) − f (a)
= lim
x→a x−a

f (x) − f (a)
= lim
x→a x−a
Similarly, gradient at A gives instantaneous rate of change of the function
f (x).

Derivative
Let f (x) be a function.

The derivative of f at a is defined to be
f (x) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
x→a x−a
provided the limit exists.
If f 0 (a) exists, we say that f is differentiable at x = a.

If f is differentiable at any point a in the domain of f , we say that f is
differentiable.

Function Derivative
(f (x))n nf 0 (x)(f (x))n−1
cos(f (x)) −f 0 (x) · sin(f (x))
sin(f (x)) f 0 (x) · cos(f (x))
tan(f (x)) f 0 (x) · sec2 (f (x))
sec(f (x)) f 0 (x) · sec(f (x)) tan(f (x))
csc(f (x)) −f 0 (x) · csc(f (x)) cot(f (x))
cot(f (x)) −f 0 (x) · csc2 (f (x))
ef (x) f 0 (x) · ef (x)
f 0 (x)
ln(f (x)) f (x)
0
sin−1 (f (x)) √ f (x) 2
1−(f (x))
0
cos−1 (f (x)) − f (x) 2
√
1−(f (x))
f 0 (x)
tan−1 (f (x)) 1+(f (x))2

Derivative - Rules of Differentiation
Product Rule
d du dv
(uv) = v+u
dx dx dx

Quotient Rule
d u v du − u dv
( ) = dx 2 dx
dx v v

Chain Rule
dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx

Quotient Rule
d u v du dv
−u dx
dx ( v ) = dx
v2
d
Show that dx tan x = sec2 x.
u = sin x
d
d d sin x (sin x) = cos x
tan x = dx
dx dx cos x
cos x · cos x − sin x(− sin x)
= v = cos x
cos2 x
1 d
= (cos x) = − sin x
cos2 x dx
= sec2 x
cos2 x + sin2 x = 1

Example
Differentiate with respect to x:

(i) x2 tan−1 x (ii) cos−1 lnxx (iii) (sin−1 (ex ))4

The Chain Rule - Example
d
Find dx sin(x3 ).
Fix a value for x
Let x = π
Step 1. π 3
d
sin(x3 ) Step 2. sin(π 3 )
dx
d 3
= cos(x3 ) · x
dx
=3x2 cos(x3 )

d
Find dx sin5 (ex ). Note: y = sin5 (ex ) = (sin(ex ))5 .
To find derivative, go Reverse order
Fix a value for x ex → sin( )→( )5

Let x = π
Step 1. eπ
Step 2. sin(eπ )
Step 3. (sin(eπ ))5

d
Find dx sin5 (ex ). Note: y = sin5 (ex ) = (sin(ex ))5 .

dy
Let y = (x5 + cos(3x2 ))9 . Find dx .
dy d 5
= (x + cos(3x2 ))9
dx dx
d 5
= 9(x5 + cos(3x2 ))8 · (x + cos(3x2 ))
dx
= 9(x5 + cos(3x2 ))8 (5x4 − sin(3x2 ) · 6x)
= 9x(x5 + cos(3x2 ))8 (5x3 − 6 sin(3x2 ))

Other Types of Differentiation

Cartesian equation — An equation connecting x and y
√
y = x3 + 4x y = x2 + x x2 + y 2 = 9
dy dy 1 Use Implicit
= 3x2 + 4 = 2x + √
dx dx 2 x Differentiation

Ordinary differentiation Implicit differentiation
d 2 d 2 dy
dx (x ) = 2x dx (y ) = 2y dx
d n n−1 d n n−1 dy
dx (x ) = nx dx (y ) = ny dx
d d dy
dx (sin x) = cos x dx (sin y) = cos y dx
d x x d y y dy
dx (e ) = e dx (e ) = e dx
d 1 d 1 dy
dx (ln x) = x dx (ln y) = y dx
d d dy
dx (x) = 1 dx (y) = 1 dx

Example
d 5 6
dx (x y ) =

Example
dy
Find dx if x ln y + y ln x = 2x + 3y

Implicit Differentiation - Example
dy
Find dx if 2y = x2 + sin y.
Differentiate both sides with respect to x,
dy dy
2 = 2x + cos y ·
dx dx
So,
dy dy 2x
(2 − cos y) = 2x ⇒ =
dx dx 2 − cos y

dy
Find dx
(a) x3 + y 3 − 9xy = 0
(b) x3 ey + cos(xy) = 0

Implicit Differentiation - Example
dy
Find dx if x3 ey + cos(xy) = 2021.
Differentiate both sides with respect to x,
Applying product rule to x3 ey
z }| {
3 y dy dy

2 y
3x e + x e − sin(xy) x + y = 0.
dx dx
dy dy 3x2 ey −y sin(xy)
Solving for dx , we get dx = x sin(xy)−x3 ey

d x
What is dx x , where x > 0?
Let y = xx .
Then ln y = ln xx
= x ln x. Note: ln ab = b ln a
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x yields

1 dy
= 1 + ln x
y dx
So,
dy
= y(1 + ln x) = xx (1 + ln x) = xx + xx ln x
dx
.
d
To differentiate dx f (x)g(x)
g(x)
Let y = f (x) .
Consider ln y = ln f (x)g(x)
= g(x) ln f (x)
Implicit differentiation and product rule

Example
d x
a = ax ln a
dy dx
Let y = 5x ln x . Find dx .
d g(x)
a = ag(x) (g 0 (x) ln a)
dx

Example
dy
Let y = (x2 − e3x )4 tan x . Find dx .

Example
Differentiate 6x cos x with respect to x.

Higher Order Derivatives

Higher order derivatives are obtained when we differentiate repeatedly. Let
y = f (x), then the following notation is used:
d dy d2 y

= = f 00 (x) = D2 f (x),
dx dx dx2
!
d d2 y d3 y
= = f 000 (x) = D3 f (x).
dx dx2 dx3

d dy d2 y

= = f 00 (x) = D2 f (x),
dx dx dx2
!
d d2 y d3 y
= = f 000 (x) = D3 f (x).
dx dx2 dx3
d4 y d5 y
= f 0000 (x) = f 00000 (x)
dx4 dx5
d2021 y
= f 00000 · · ·000 (x)
dx2021

In general, the n-th derivative is denoted by

dn y
or f (n) (x) or Dn f (x)
dxn

Higher Order Derivatives - Example
√
Let f (x) = x. Compute f 000 (x)
1 1 1 3 3 5
f 0 (x) = x− 2 , f 00 (x) = − x− 2 , f 000 (x) = x− 2
2 4 8

Example
dy d2 y dn y
Let y = xex . Find dx , dx2 and dxn .

Example
d3 y
If y = x ln x, find dx3
.

Cartesian equation — An equation connecting x and y
√
y = x3 + 4x y = x2 + x x2 + y 2 = 9
Parametric equations
1. x = 2t and y = t2 + 1
2. x = sin θ + 2 and y = cos θ − 5
3. x = 1 + et and y = e2t

Parametric Differentiation
Given y = f (x), where (
y = u(t)
x = v(t),
we have
dy
dy dt u0 (t)
= = .
dx dx
dt
v 0 (t)

Parametric Differentiation - Example
dy
Let x = a(t − sin t) and y = a(1 − cos t). Find dx .
dy a sin t
=
dx a(1 − cos t)
2 sin 2t cos 2t

=
2 sin2 2t

t

= cot
2

dy
dy dt u0 (t)
x = v(t) y = u(t) = =
dx dx
dt
v 0 (t)
Pause and Think!!!

True or false??
d2 y
d2 y dt2 u00 (t)
= =
dx2 d2 x v 00 (t)
dt2

Chain Rule
dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx
d d du
(y) = (y) ·
dx du dx

Pause and Think!!!
True or false??
d2 y d dy

= dy dy dt
dx 2 dx dx = ·
! dx dt dx
d dy dt

= · d d dt
dt dx dx (y) = (y) ·
dx dt dx
d dy dt

= ·
dt dx dx

Parametric Differentiation - Example
dy
Let x = a(t − sin t) and y = a(1 − cos t). Find dx .
dy a sin t
=
dx a(1 − cos t)
2 sin 2t cos 2t d2 y

= Find also .
2 sin2 2t dx2

t

= cot
2

Example
Let x = 1 − cos 2t, y = 2t − sin 2t.

dy d2 y
Show that dx = tan t and find dx 2.

m —– gradient (slope) of the line
c —– y-intercept

Point - Slope form
y − b = m(x − a)

Tangent and Normal

Result:
(gradient of tangent line) × (gradient of normal line) = −1

Tangent and Normal
Result:
Let y = f (x) and let m = f 0 (x0 ). At (x0 , y0 )

Tangent: y − y0 = m(x − x0 )
1
Normal: y − y0 = − m (x − x0 )

Tangent and Normal
Result:
Recall that the straight line passing through point (a, b) with slope m is:
y−b
x−a = m; or equivalently, y = m(x − a) + b
Let y = f (x) be a function.
Tangent Line of y = f (x) at x = a:
It is the line passing through point (a, f (a)) with slope f 0 (a).
y = f 0 (a)(x − a) + f (a)
Normal Line of y = f (x) at x = a:
It is the line passing through point (a, f (a)) and Perpendicular to the
tangent line at x = a, i.e., of slope − f 01(a) .
1
y=− (x − a) + f (a)
f 0 (a)

Find equation of lines which are tangent and normal to the curve y = x2
at x = 1 respectively.
dy dy
dx= 2x x = 1, dx =2
gradient of tangent = 2
gradient of normal = − 12
Equation of tangent: y − 1 = 2(x − 1)

Equation of normal: y − 1 = − 21 (x − 1)

Example
Find the coordinates of the points of the curve x2 + 3xy + y 2 + 4 = 0 at

which the tangents are parallel to the line y = x + 7.

dy
Tangent // x-axis dx =0
dy
Tangent // y-axis dx = ±∞

Example
A curve C has equation
y 2 − 4xy + 8x2 = 100.

dy
(i) Find dx in terms of x and y.
(ii) Find the equations of the two tangents which are parallel to the y-axis.
(iii) Find the equation of the normal to the curve C at the point (0, 10).

Example
Given that 4x2 + 8x + 9y 2 − 36y + 4 = 0,

dy
(i) find dx .
(ii) Write down the equation(s) of the tangent(s) to the curve that are
parallel to
(a) the x-axis (b) the y-axis.

How to Approximate the value of a function at given point?

If x ≈ a, then f (x) ≈ f (a). Is this a good approximation?
√ √
√ ≈ 100 ⇒ 101 ≈ 100 = 10.
101
101 = 10.04988 · · · . Error ≈ 0.5%.
101 ≈ 100 ⇒ 1012 ≈ 1002 = 10000.
1012 = 10201. Error ≈ 2%.
Recall: f 0 (a) is the rate of change of y = f (x) at x = a.
f (x)−f (a)
x≈a⇒ x−a
≈ f 0 (a) = dy
dx
.
x=a
f (x) ≈ f 0 (a)(x − a) + f (a).
Note that y = f 0 (a)(x − a) + f (a) is the Tangent Line of y = f (x) at
x = a.

Let y = f (x) be a function.
If x ≈ a, then f (x) ≈ f 0 (a)(x − a) + f (a).
In other words, for x near a, the value of a function at x can be
approximated by the Tangent Line of the function at a. (The nearer, the
better!)

Example
Approximate 1012 .
y = f (x) = x2 at x = 100.
1 dy
dx
= 2x ⇒ dy
dx
= f 0 (100) = 200.
x=100
2 Tangent line at x = 100 is given by y = 200 · (x − 100) + 1002 .
3 1012 ≈ 200 · (101 − 100) + 10000 = 10200.
√
Approximate 101.
√
y = f (x) = x at x = 100.
1 −1
1 dy
dx
= 2
x 2 ⇒ dy
dx
= f 0 (100) = 1
20
= 0.05.
x=100 √
2 Tangent
√ line at x = 100 is given by y = 0.05 · (x − 100) + 100.
3 101 ≈ 0.05 · (101 − 100) + 10 = 10.05.

Example
√
Let y = f (x) = x.
dy 1 dy 1
1
dx = √
2 x
⇒ dx = √
2 a
.
x=a
1 √
2 Tangent line at x = a: y = 2√ a
(x − a) + a.
√ 1 √
3 x ≈ a ⇒ x ≈ 2√a (x − a) + a.
√
In order
√ to approximate x, we shall find a number a near x, such
that a can be easily evaluated.
√
2 : 2 ≈ 1.96 = 1.42 . Use a = 1.4.
√ 1
2≈ 2·1.4
(2 − 1.96) + 1.4 ≈ 1.414 · · ·

Example
√
Let y = f (x) = x.
dy 1 dy 1
1
dx = √
2 x
⇒ dx = √
2 a
.
x=a
1 √
(x − a) + a.
√ 1 √
3 x ≈ a ⇒ x ≈ 2√a (x − a) + a.
√
In order
√
3 : 3 ≈ 2.89 = 1.72 . Use a = 1.7.
√ 1
3≈ 2·1.7
(3 − 2.89) + 1.7 ≈ 1.732 · · ·

Example
√
Let y = f (x) = x.
dy 1 dy 1
1
dx = √
2 x
⇒ dx = √
2 a
.
x=a
1 √
(x − a) + a.
√ 1 √
3 x ≈ a ⇒ x ≈ 2√a (x − a) + a.
√
In order
√
23 : 23 ≈ 23.04 = 4.82 . Use a = 4.8.
√ 1
23 ≈ 2·4.8
(23 − 23.04) + 4.8 ≈ 4.796 · · ·


dy dy dx
= ·
dt dx dt
relates the rate of change of y to rate of change of x.

Example
A conical flask, initially empty and of base radius 10 cm and vertical

height 25 cm, is being filled with water at a rate of 4 cm3 s−1 . Let h be
the height of the water t seconds later. Show that the volume V cm3 of
water at time t is given by
4πh3
V =
75
Hence, calculate the rate at which h is changing when V = 180π cm3

Example
The surface area of a sphere is decreasing at 2 cm2 s−1 . Find the rate at
which the volume sphere is changing at the instant when the surface area
is 16π cm2 .

Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Increasing functions
Let f be a function defined on an interval I.
f is increasing on I if u > v ⇒ f (u) > f (v)

Bigger x value, bigger f (x) value
y increases as x increases

Decreasing functions
Let f be a function defined on an interval I.
f is decreasing on I if u > v ⇒ f (u) < f (v)

Bigger x value, smaller f (x) value
y decreases as x increases

Question:
How to check a function f (x) is increasing/decreasing??

Pause and Think!!!
What does the sign of m tell you?
m>0 m<0
y increases as x increases y decreases as x increases

dy
What does the sign of dx tell you?
For both graphs, y is increasing.

dy
For both graphs, dx > 0.
dy
∴ y increases if dx > 0.
∴ f (x) increases if f 0 (x) > 0.

dy
What does the sign of dx tell you?
For both graphs, y is decreasing.

dy
For both graphs, dx < 0.
dy
∴ y decreases if dx < 0.
∴ f (x) decreases if f 0 (x) < 0.

Test for Increasing/Decreasing function
f 0 (x) > 0 for all values of x in I,

then f is increasing on I.
f 0 (x) < 0 for all values of x in I,

then f is decreasing on I.

f 0 (x) > 0 for all values of x in I, f 0 (x) < 0 for all values of x in I,
then f is increasing on I. then f is decreasing on I.
For x > 0, f 0 (x) = 2x > 0, f (x) is increasing

For x < 0, f 0 (x) = 2x < 0, f (x) is decreasing

Example
f (x) = 23 x3 + x2 + 2x + 1
Prove that f (x) is an increasing function.
f 0 (x) = 2x2 + 2x + 2
2 !
1 3

=2 x+ + (Completing square)
2 4
For all x, f 0 (x) > 0, f (x) is increasing

Example
f (x) = x3 (x − 1)2 .
Determine the intervals on which f (x) is increasing/decreasing.
Then f 0 (x) = x3 (2)(x − 1) + 3x2 (x − 1)2

= x2 (x − 1)(5x − 3)
Set f 0 (x) = 0, we have x = 0, 1 or 35 .

Stationary Points
dy
f has a stationary point at x = c if dx = 0 at x = c.
3 types of stationary points:
(i) local maximum point
(i) local minimum point
(i) saddle point

Suppose that f has a stationary point at x = c, i.e., f 0 (c) = 0

(i) f 0 (x) > 0 for x ∈ (a, c) and f 0 (x) < 0 for x ∈ (c, b),
then f (c) is a local maximum.
(ii) f 0 (x) < 0 for x ∈ (a, c) and f 0 (x) > 0 for x ∈ (c, b),
then f (c) is a local minimum.
Note: f 0 (x) changes sign

(i) f 0 (x) > 0 for x ∈ (a, c) and f 0 (x) < 0 for x ∈ (c, b),
then f (c) is a local maximum.
f 0 changes sign from + to − at c

(that is, f changes from increasing to decreasing at c)

(ii) f 0 (x) < 0 for x ∈ (a, c) and f 0 (x) > 0 for x ∈ (c, b),
then f (c) is a local minimum.
f 0 changes sign from − to + at c

(that is, f changes from decreasing to increasing at c)

f 0 does not change sign at c, we say that

f has a saddle point at c.

Example
(i) Find the interval(s) on which the given function is

(a) increasing
(b) decreasing
(ii) Find the stationary points and state their nature.
f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 − 36x + 11.

Concave Upward and Concave Downward

Concavity

Concavity Test

Concavity Test
f 00 (x) > 0 concave up
f 00 (x) < 0 concave down

Concavity
f 0 (x) determines if f is increasing or decreasing.
f 00 (x) determines if f is concave up or down.
f 0 (x) > 0 f 0 (x) > 0

f 00 (x) > 0 f 00 (x) < 0

Concavity

A point c is a point of inflection of the function f if f is continuous at c
and there is an open interval containing c such that the graph of f changes
from concave up (or down) before c to concave down (or up) after c.
d2 y
At point of inflection, dx2
changes sign
Second Derivative Test for Local Extreme Values
If f 0 (c) = 0 and f 00 (c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at x = c.
If f 0 (c) = 0 and f 00 (c) > 0, then f has a local minimum at x = c.

Second Derivative Test - Note
If f 0 (c) = 0 and f 00 (c) = 0, then the test fails.
Note: In all 3 cases, y 0 (0) = y 00 (0) = 0

Example
Apply the Second Derivative Test to the function

(i) f (x) = x2 (x − 2)
(ii) g(x) = x3 (x − 2)

Example
Determine the intervals on which the function

f (x) = −2x3 + 15x2 − 24x + 7 is
(i) increasing
(ii) decreasing
(iii) concave upward
(iv) concave downward.

Applications of Maxima and Minima
Problems typically require you to

Identify and construct the function to be maximized/minimized
Find the derivative of the function and set it to ZERO
Calculate the required quantities
Perform derivative test (If the Q asks for it)

Example
ABC is a right-angled triangle with ∠B = 90◦ , AC = 34 cm and

BC = 16 cm.
Find the largest rectangle P BQR that can be inscribed in triangle ABC.

Example
The solid prism shown below has a total surface area of 450 cm3 .
Show that its volume V cm3 is given by
675
V = x − 18x3
2
Deduce the stationary value of V .
Determine whether this is a maximum or a minimum value.

Example
A rectangle is inscribed in a circle of fixed radius r as shown in the
diagram. One vertex of the rectangle has coordinates (x, y), as shown
below.
The Cartesian equation of the circle is x2 + y 2 = r2 .
Find the area of the rectangle in terms of x only. Hence, show that the
maximum area of the rectangle occurs when x = y (that is, the rectangle
is a square) and find the maximum area in terms of r.

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MA1301 Introductory Mathematics

TAN BAN PIN

National University of Singapore

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 1 / 104

The derivative of y with respect to x.

with respect to —– w.r.t

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 3 / 104

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 4 / 104

Question: How to derive these results? Using limits

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 5 / 104

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 6 / 104

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 7 / 104

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 8 / 104

gradient at A = gradient of tangent line at A

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 9 / 104

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 10 / 104

gradient at A = gradient of tangent line at A

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 11 / 104

Taking limit, we have, gradient at A = lim (gradient of AB)

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 12 / 104

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 13 / 104

Let f (x) be a function.

If f 0 (a) exists, we say that f is differentiable at x = a.

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 14 / 104

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 15 / 104

TAN BAN PIN MA1301 Introductory Mathematics 16 / 104

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Differentiate with respect to x:  

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Fix a value for x ex → sin( )→( )5

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Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x yields

Implicit differentiation and product rule

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Differentiate 6x cos x with respect to x.

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Higher Order Derivatives

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In general, the n-th derivative is denoted by

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Differentiate with respect to x: