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AY2018-19 Semester 1 MA1511 Engineering Calculus

MA1511 Engineering Calculus

Chapter 4 Vector Fields
4.1 Vector Fields
Vector Fields in Two Dimensions
Let 𝐷 be a region in the two-dimensional space R2. A vector field on 𝐷 is a vector function F that
assigns to each point (𝑥, 𝑦) in 𝐷 a vector 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)𝐢 + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦)𝐣.

In other words, a vector field in two dimensions a two-dimensional vector-valued function whose
component functions are functions of two variables. We can think of a 2-D vector field 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦) as a
variable force which depends on the position of the point (𝑥, 𝑦) at which it acts.

Vector Fields in Three Dimensions

Let 𝐷 be a region in the three-dimensional space R3. A vector field on 𝐷 is a vector function F that
assigns to each point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in 𝐷 a vector

𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐢 + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐣.+ +𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐤

In other words , a vector field in three dimensions is a three-dimensional vector-valued function

whose component functions are functions of three variables. We can think of a 3-D vector field
𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) as variable force which depends on the position of the point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) at which it acts.
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AY2018-19 Semester 1 MA1511 Engineering Calculus

An example of a 3-D vector field is the gravitational force between two objects in the three-
dimensional space. Specifically, if an object, A of mass 𝑚1 is located at the point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and
another object, B of mass 𝑚2 is located at the origin (0, 0, 0), then the force acting on object A by
object B is given by

𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺𝑥 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺𝑦 𝑚 𝑚 𝐺𝑧
𝐆(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = − |𝐱|3
𝐱 = (− 3 ,− 3 , − (𝑥 2 +𝑦1 2 +𝑧
2
2 )3/2
)
(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )2 (𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )2

where x = 𝑥𝐢 + 𝑦𝐣 + 𝑧𝐤.

Another example of a vector field is the gradient field (or gradient vector), denoted by ∇𝑓 , of any
differentiable scalar function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) ( respectively 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ) defined by
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
∇𝑓 = 𝛻𝑓 = 𝜕𝑥 𝐢 + 𝜕𝑦 𝐣 + 𝐤
𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
( respectively 𝛻𝑓 = 𝜕𝑥 𝐢 + 𝜕𝑦 𝐣 )

Video Example 4.1.1

Find 𝛻𝑓 if 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)= 100 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 , where 𝛻𝑓 = 𝑓𝑥 𝐢 + 𝑓𝑦 𝐣 + 𝑓𝑧 𝐤 .

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AY2018-19 Semester 1 MA1511 Engineering Calculus

4.2 Line Integrals of Vector Fields

Let F be a continuous vector field (that is, all component functions are continuous) defined on a
smooth curve 𝐶 : r(𝑡), 𝑎 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑏.
The line integral of F along C, denoted by  F  dr , is defined by
C

If 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)𝐢 + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦)𝐣 and 𝐫(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝐢 + 𝑦(𝑡)𝐣 , then
𝐫′(𝑡) = 𝑥 ′ (𝑡)𝐢 + 𝑦′(𝑡)𝐣

𝐅(𝐫(𝑡)) = 𝑃(𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡))𝐢 + 𝑄(𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡))𝐣

and hence,
b

 F  dr   Px(t ), y(t )  x' (t )  Qx(t ), y(t )  y' (t ) dt

C
a

Similarly, if

𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐢 + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐣 +𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) k and 𝐫(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝐢 + 𝑦(𝑡)𝐣 + 𝑧(𝑡)𝐤 , then

 F  dr   Px(t ), y(t ), z(t )  x' ((t )  Qx(t ), y(t ), z(t )  y' (t )  Rx(t ), y(t ), z(t )  z' (t ) dt
C
a

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Line Integrals and Work Done

Suppose the vector field F represents a force in space (e.g. gravitational field, electromagnetic field)
and 𝐶 : 𝐫(𝑡), 𝑎 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑏, is a smooth curve.
The line integral of F along 𝐶 gives the total work done by F in moving a particle along 𝐶 .

The following two examples illustrate the computation of line integrals of vector fields ( 2-D vector
field in Video Example 4.2.1 and 3-D vector field in Video Example 4.2.2) over smooth curves.

Video Example 4.2.1

Find the work done by the vector field F(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑦 2 𝐢 − 𝑥𝑦 𝐣
in moving a particle along the semi-circular path 𝐫(𝑡) = (cos 𝑡) i +(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡) j , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝜋.

Video Example 4.2.2

𝑥𝑦 𝑡
Find  G  dr
C
where 𝐺(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑦𝑧 ) and 𝐶 is the curve r(𝑡) = (𝑡 2 ) , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1
𝑧𝑥 𝑡3

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AY2018-19 Semester 1 MA1511 Engineering Calculus

4.3 Conservative Fields

Conservative Vector Fields and Potential Functions
A vector field F is said to be conservative if there is a scalar function 𝑓 such that

F = 𝛻𝑓,

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
where 𝛻𝑓 = 𝐢+ 𝐣 ( for 2-dimensional fields)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝛻𝑓 = 𝐢+ 𝐣 + 𝐤 (for 3- dimensional fields)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

The scalar function 𝑓 is called a 𝐩𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐟𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 for 𝐅

Obviously, if 𝑓 is potential function for F, then so is (𝑓 + 𝑐) for any constant 𝑐.

A well-known example of a conservative field is the gravitational field. Newton’s law of Gravitation
states that the magnitude of the force between two objects of masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 is
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺
|𝐅| =
𝑟2
where 𝑟 is the distance between the two objects and G is the gravitational constant.
If the object (object A) with mass 𝑚1 is located at the origin (0, 0, 0) and the object (object B) with
mass 𝑚2 is positioned at the point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) , the force F that object B exerts on object A acts towards
the origin and is given by

𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺𝑥 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺𝑦 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺𝑧
𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = − 𝐱 = (− 3 ,− 3 ,− )
|𝐱|3
(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )2 (𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )2 (𝑥 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )3/2
2

We can easily verify that

𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺
𝐅 = 𝛻𝑓 , where 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) =
√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
Hence, F is conservative.

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AY2018-19 Semester 1 MA1511 Engineering Calculus

Finding Potential Functions of a 2-D Conservative Field

Let 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)𝐢 + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦)𝐣 be a two-dimensional conservative field. Then , any potential
function , 𝑓 for F must satisfy

𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∇𝑓 = (𝑓𝑥 ) 𝐢 + (𝑓𝑦 ) 𝐣 .

It follows that
𝑓𝑥 = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑓𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦)

Hence, the functions 𝑓 can be determined from the above pair of differential equation, as shown in the
following example.

Video Example 4.3.1

Find a potential function for the two-dimensional conservative vector field

𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑦 3 − 6𝑥𝑦)𝐢 + (3𝑥𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑦)j

The method of determining the potential functions of 3-D conservative fields will be demonstrated in
the next section (Video Example 4.4.2).

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4.4 Line Integrals in Conservative Fields

A well-known property of a conservative field F is that the line integral of F along a smooth curve
joining a point A to another point, B depends only on the positions of A and B and not on the path
joining them.

Result 4.4A (Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals)

Given a conservative field F = 𝛻𝑓 for some differentiable scalar function 𝑓 and a smooth
curve C : 𝐫(𝑡), 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏 joining the point r(𝑎) to the point r(𝑏),

 F  dr  f r(b)  f r(a)
C

Hence, when calculating the line integral of a conservative field over any curve, no integration is
required. All we need to do is to find the values of 𝑓 at the two end points and take the difference.

The following result is an immediate consequence of the above result for the case when the curve is
closed, that is, the initial point coincides with the terminal point.
Result 4.4B (Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals for Closed Curves)
Given a conservative field F = 𝛻𝑓 for some differentiable scalar function 𝑓 and a smooth
closed curve C: 𝐫(𝑡), 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏 where r(𝑎) = r(𝑏),

 F  dr  0
C

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A Notation for Line Integrals Along Closed Curves

When a curve 𝐶 is closed, it is customary to write  F  dr

C
as

 F  dr
C

Remarks on the Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals

1. Since the line integral  F  dr

C
of a conservative field F does not depend on the path 𝐶
joining the two end points, we say that the integral is path independent.

2. The Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals is analogous to the following well-known result
from one-variable Calculus :
𝑏

∫ 𝑔′(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑏) − 𝑔(𝑎)

𝑎

known as the Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus .

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AY2018-19 Semester 1 MA1511 Engineering Calculus

Video Example 4.4.1

Let F = 𝛻𝑓 where 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥𝑦 and let C: r (𝑡), 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏 be a smooth curve from

A(-1, 2) to B(2, 3). Find  F  dr

C

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Test for Conservative Fields

Let 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐢 + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐣 +𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐤 be a vector field.

It can be shown ( in Tutorial 4 ) that if F is conservative, then the following hold

𝑃𝑦 = 𝑄𝑥 , 𝑄𝑧 = 𝑅𝑦 and 𝑅𝑥 = 𝑃𝑧 .

Remark

For the case of a two-dimensional vector field 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)𝐢 + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦)𝐣, the following holds if
F is conservative :
𝑃𝑦 = 𝑄𝑥 .

In fact, the converse of the above result is true under additional conditions on both F and its domain
which are beyond the scope of this course. We shall assume such conditions always hold.
Result 4.4C (Test for Conservative Fields)

𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐢 + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐣 +𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐤 is conservative if and only if
𝑃𝑦 = 𝑄𝑥 , 𝑄𝑧 = 𝑅𝑦 and 𝑅𝑥 = 𝑃𝑧

𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)𝐢 + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦)𝐣 is conservative if and only if

𝑃𝑦 = 𝑄𝑥

For example, the vector field 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑦 3 − 6𝑥𝑦)𝐢 + (3𝑥𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑦)j in Example 4.3.1 can
be easily verified to be conservative.
Indeed, we have
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑦 3 − 6𝑥𝑦, 𝑃𝑦 = 3𝑦 2 − 6𝑥

𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦) = 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑦, 𝑄𝑥 = 3𝑦 2 − 6𝑥

Hence, 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑄𝑥 .

Finding Potential Functions of a 3-D Conservative Field

Let 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐢 + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐣 + 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐤 be a three-dimensional conservative field.
Then , any potential function , 𝑓 for F must satisfy

𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ∇𝑓 = (𝑓𝑥 ) 𝐢 + (𝑓𝑦 ) 𝐣 + (𝑓𝑧 ) 𝐤

It follows that
𝑓𝑥 = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) , 𝑓𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and 𝑓𝑧 = 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

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Hence, the functions 𝑓 can be determined by solving the above system of differential equation, as
shown in the next example.

Video Example 4.4.2

It is given that

𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (2𝑥𝑧 + sin 𝑦)𝐢 + (𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦)𝐣 + 𝑥 2 𝐤

is conservative.
Find a potential function for 𝐅, and hence, calculate  F  dr , where C is the curve
C

𝐫(𝑡) = (cos 𝑡)𝐢 + (sin 𝑡)𝐣 + 𝑡𝐤 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋.

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AY2018-19 Semester 1 MA1511 Engineering Calculus

Path Independence & Conservative Fields (Optional – for Interest Only)

Definition (Path Independence)

Let F be a vector field (two- or three-dimensions) defined on an open region 𝐷 (“open” means
excluding the boundary points). We say that  F  dr
C
is path independent if, for any two points 𝐴
and 𝐵 in the region 𝐷 and for any two paths , 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 that join 𝐴 to 𝐵,

 F  dr   F  dr
C1 C2

Path Independence & Conservative Fields

Theorem (Path Independence & Conservative Fields)
Let F be a vector field (in two dimensions or three dimensions) whose component functions are
continuous on an open connected and simply connected region 𝐷 in space. Then,

F is conservative if and only if  F  dr

C
is path independent.

Remark (About “open connected regions”)

A region is open if it consists entirely of interior points only .

A region is connected if any two points in the region can be joined by a path that lies entirely in the
region

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AY2018-19 Semester 1 MA1511 Engineering Calculus

4.5 Green’s Theorem in Two Dimensions

Green’s Theorem, named after English mathematical physicist George Green (1793 – 1841), relates a
line integral around a simple closed curve to a double integral over the region enclosed by the curve.
Before presenting this result, we discuss a few related concepts.

Line Integrals in Component Form

Let 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)𝐢 + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦)𝐣 .

We introduce an alternative way of writing the line integral ∫𝐶 𝐅 • 𝑑𝐫 in terms of the components 𝑃
and 𝑄.

If 𝐶 is a smooth curve ∶ 𝐫(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝐢 + 𝑦(𝑡)𝐣 , 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏, then

b

 F  dr   F r(t )  r' (t ) dt
C
a
b
  Pr(t ) i  Q r(t ) j  x' (t )i  y' (t )i dt
a
b
  Pr(t )  x' (t )  Q r(t )  y ' (t ) dt
a

We can therefore write ∫𝐶 𝐅 • 𝑑𝐫 in the so-called component form :

 F  dr   P dx  Q dy
C C

Remarks
For 3-D vector fields, a similar representation can be derived.

Let 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐢 + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐣 + 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐤 and 𝐶 : 𝐫(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝐢 + 𝑦(𝑡)𝐣 + 𝑧(𝑡)𝐤.

Then, we can write ∫𝐶 𝐅 • 𝑑𝐫 in its component form :

 F  dr   P dx  Q dy  R dz
C C

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Positive Orientation of a Simple Closed Curve in 2-D

A simple closed curve is one that does not cross itself. The positive orientation of a simple closed
curve refers to a single counterclockwise traversal of the curve.
If 𝐶 has representation 𝐫(𝑡), then as 𝑡 increases, the point 𝐫(𝑡) moves in an anti-clockwise sense.

Result 4.5A (Green’s Theorem)

Let 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)𝐢 + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦)𝐣 .

If 𝐷 is a region enclosed by a simple closed positively oriented curve 𝐶 and 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) , 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦) are
functions with continuous partial derivatives, then
 Q P 
C Pdx  Qdy  D  x  y  dA

Remarks
1. If 𝐶 is negatively oriented, then

 Q P 
 C
Pdx  Qdy    
D x

  dA
y 

2. The Green’s theorem is particularly useful for finding

∮𝐶 𝑃 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄 𝑑𝑦 ,

when the closed curve 𝐶 is made up of two or more curves : 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , …. .

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For example, if the closed curve 𝐶 is the boundary of the above shaded region D, then calculating the
line integral ∮𝐶 𝑃 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄 𝑑𝑦 involves finding the sum of three line integrals :

∮𝐶 𝑃 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄 𝑑𝑦 = ∮𝐶 𝑃 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄 𝑑𝑦 + ∮𝐶 𝑃 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄 𝑑𝑦 + ∮𝐶 𝑃 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄 𝑑𝑦 .
1 2 3

By virtue of the Green’s Theorem, we can avoid the above tedious computations by calculating a
single double integral
𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑃
∬𝐷 − 𝑑𝐴.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

The following two examples illustrate the use of the Green’s Theorem.

Video Example 4.5.1

Evaluate the line integral
 C
x 4 dx  xydy
where 𝐶 is the triangular path from the origin to (1,0), from (1, 0) to (0, 1), and from (0, 1)
back to the origin.

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AY2018-19 Semester 1 MA1511 Engineering Calculus

Video Example 4.5.2

 e  y 3 dx  cos 3 y  x3 dy

4x
Evaluate the line integral
C

where 𝐶 is the positively oriented circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1.

Dr NG Wee Seng
 Page 17
AY2018-19 Semester 1 MA1511 Engineering Calculus

4.6 Curl and Divergence

The Curl Vector

Let 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐢 + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐣 +𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐤 be a vector field in three-dimensions.
The curl of 𝐅 , denoted by curl F, is the vector defined by
𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑃
( − )𝐢 + ( − )𝐣 + ( − )𝐤
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

It turns out that the curl vector can be written symbolically as a vector ( cross ) product
𝜕
𝜕𝑥 𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
𝜕 𝑃 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻×𝐅= × (𝑄 ) = | |
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑅
𝜕 𝑃 𝑄 𝑅
( 𝜕𝑧 )

where 𝛻 is the vector differential operator ( sometimes known as the del operator)

defined by
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
∇𝑓 = 𝜕𝑥 𝐢 + 𝜕𝑥 𝐣+ 𝜕𝑥 𝐤.

Video Example 4.6.1

If 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥𝑧)𝐢 + (𝑥𝑦𝑧)𝐣 − 𝑥 2 𝐤, find curl F.

Dr NG Wee Seng
 Page 18
AY2018-19 Semester 1 MA1511 Engineering Calculus

The Divergence

Let 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐢 + 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐣 +𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐳 be a vector field in three-dimensions.
The divergence of F , denoted by div F, is a scalar defined by
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑅
div 𝑭 = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑅
We can think of div 𝑭 = + + as a scalar (dot) product between the del operator
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝐢 + 𝜕𝑦 𝐣 + 𝜕𝑧 𝒌 and 𝐅 = 𝑷𝐢 + 𝑸𝐣 +𝑹 k
𝜕𝑥

We can thus write the div of F symbolically as

div 𝐅 = 𝛻  𝐅
Video Example 4.6.2
A vector field F is called incompressible if div F = 0. Prove that curl (F) is incompressible
that is,
div (curl ( F ) ) = 0

End of Chapter 5

"If people do not believe that mathematics is simple,

it is only because they do not realize how complicated life is."

– John von Neumann

Dr NG Wee Seng