Mechanics and Properties of Matter1

Mechanics And Properties Of Matter George Whyte
1
MEASURMENTS AND DIMENSION
1.1 Measurement seconds is the unit of measurement for time.
The mks system of units is also called the
This is an attribute of a quantity that is used 𝑺. 𝑰 unit.
to compare the quantity with some standard.
Physical quantities are of two types , the
The measurement of a physical quantity is fundamental quantities and the derived
of two parts, a number and its unit of quantities.
measurement. Without the unit of
measurement , a physical quantity is not Fundamental Quantities: These are
complete. For instance 40kg, 92m,79N, e.t.c. physical quantities that are not dependent on
In these , 40,92 and 79 are the numbers or other physical quantities for their
the magnitude while kg,m and N are their measurements. The units of these quantities
respective units of measurement. are called the fundamental units .
The unit of measurement of a physical The three basic fundamental quantities are
quantity is the primary identification key of the Mass , Length and Time, however ,
the quantity; it is used to distinguish there are other fundamental quantities , such
between two physical quantities having the as Temperature , Luminous intensity,
same numerical values. For instance , 40kg Amount of Substance , e.t.c. Below is a
and 40km.From their units of measurements table showing the fundamental quantities,
, we can say , though they are of the same their unit of measurements and their
magnitude but the former is the symbols.
measurement of the mass of some quantity
while the later is the distance or Fund. Qty Symbol S.I unit
displacement of some physical quantity. Mass M Kilogram(Kg)
Generally, without the unit of measurement Length L Meter (m)
the measurement of a physical quantity Time T Seconds (s)
makes no sense . Temperature T Kelvin (K)
Amount of N Mole (Mol.)
There are different systems of Substance
measurements, this includes cgs and the Amount of I Ampere (A)
mks. In the cgs system of measurement electric current
,centimeter is the unit of measurement for Luminous L.I Candela (cd)
Length , grams is the unit of measurement intensity
for mass and seconds is the unit of
measurement for time. However, the
universally agreed system of unit , also Now, let’s define some of these fundamental
called the International System Of Units is quantities.
the mks system , in which meter is the unit
of measurement for Length , Kilograms is Mass :The mass of a substance is the
the unit of measurement for mass and amount of elementary quantities in the body;
Page 1 of 70
DETERMINATION and FOCUS are part of the keys to SUCCESS. Build INTEREST in what ever you do and it will be hard for failure to be your
attendant. Just know that “YOU CAN, ONLY IF YOU THINK YOU CAN” For Enquiries ,call GEORGE WHYTE: 08165335988 or
it’s a scalar quantity and is a constant for a small measurement (Less than one), we use
given body. submultiples.
Length :This is the distance between two Below are tables for multiples, submultiples
points , taken along any path. and their respective values.
Time :It is that which records or Multiples
distinguishes events as to before or after.
Prefix Value symbol Example
Derived Quantities: These are physical Deka- 101 Da 20dam
quantities that are dependent on the Hecto- 102 H 49hg
fundamental quantities. They are obtained as Kilo- 103 K 76km
a result of multiplication and division of Mega- 106 M 56Mg
these fundamental quantities. Giga- 109 G 12Gf
Tera 1012 T 9Tb
Derived Formula Sym S.I
Qties bol unit
Area Length×breadth A m2 Submultiples
Volume Length×bradth V m3
×width Prefix Value Symbol Example
Speed Distance/Time V m/s Deci- 10-1 D 89dm
Accelera Velocity/time A m/s2 Cent- 10-2 C 23cg
tion Milli- 10-3 M 7mm
Force Mass×accelerati F Kg- Micr0- 10-6 𝜇 5𝜇f
on m/s2 Nano- 10-9 N 3nm
or N Picco- 10-12 P 78pf
Pressure Force/Area P N/m2
or
Pascal The basic things to know from these tables
(Pasc. are their symbols and their values; this is
) because they will be needed in the method
Density Mass/Volume 𝜌 Kg/m of conversion I’m about to introduce to us.
3
1.1.2 Unit Conversion
Work Force×Disance W Nm or
Joules Measurements of physical quantities can be
(J) converted from prefix of multiple or
submultiple to another, to do these
conversions , it is advised that you master
There are so many derived quantities. The the symbols and the values of these prefixes
table above displays just a few of them that .
will be encountered in this text.
The general method of conversion is “ to
1.1.1 Multiples and Submultiple Units add a prefix , divide by its value” and “to
When a measurement is too large , then it remove a prefix, multiply by its value”.
will be convenient to express this
measurement in other units aside the S.I unit
, these are called multiples while for very
Page 2 of 70
Example 1.1 We have 150km/hr. this is the same as

150𝑘𝑚 (150(1000)𝑚)
Convert 20cm to km. = = 41.67𝑚/𝑠.
1ℎ𝑟 60×60𝑠𝑒𝑐
Solution 1.2 Dimension
In this , we are asked to convert from cm to This is the analysis of how other physical
km, that is we are to remove the prefix, quantities relates to the fundamental
centi- and attach the prefix, kilo-. Now lets , quantities in terms of the symbols T for
see how this is done. time, L for length and M for mass.
First we remove the prefix centi- by To obtain the dimension of a physical

substituting its value, quantity, express the quantity in terms of the
fundamental quantities , then replace each
i.e 20cm=20(10-2)m=0.2m. fundamental quantity by its dimension.
Below are some illustrations.
Next ,we attach the prefix kilo- by dividing
through with its value (103). The dimension of velocity is
𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡) 𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡)
0.2 =
i.e 20cm=0.2m=1000 𝑘𝑚 = 0.0002𝑘𝑚. 𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒) 𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒)
= 𝐿/𝑇 = 𝐿𝑇 −1
Example 1.2
The dimension of acceleration is
Convert 351kg to Mg.
Solution 𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦) 𝐿⁄𝑇 𝐿𝑇 −1

= =
𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒) 𝑇 𝑇
We follow the same steps like we did in the = 𝐿𝑇 −2
other case, i.e first we remove the prefix
kilo-, then attach the prefix mega-. The dimension of force is 𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠) ×
𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2
351kg=351(103 )𝑔 = 351000𝑔
The dimension of work is 𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒) ×
351000
= 𝑀𝑔 = 0.351𝑀𝑔 𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒) = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 × 𝐿
106
= 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2
The process is as simple as that, simple
multiplication and division solves the The dimension of area is 𝐿2
problem.
The dimension of volume is 𝐿3
Example 1.3: (Question 1,Section A ,
2010/2011) 𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)
The dimension of pressure is
𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎)
What is the equivalent of 150km/hr in meter
per second? 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2
= 2
= 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2
𝐿
(A)150m/s (B) 2.5m/s (C)0.41m/s (D)
𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘)
41.67m/s The dimension of power is 𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒)
Solution 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2
= = 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3
𝑇
Page 3 of 70
The dimension of gravitational constant is The displacement of a particle is given by

𝐷𝑖𝑚 [𝑚
𝐹𝑑2
]=
𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 𝐿2
=
𝐿𝑇 −2 𝐿2
= 𝑆 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑡 + 𝐶𝑡 2 , obtain the dimensions of
1 𝑚2 𝑀.𝑀 𝑀 the parameters , 𝐴 , 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶.
𝐿3 𝑇 −2 𝑀−1and so on.
Solution
Dimension analysis can be used to do
basically three things From the concept of dimension analysis , it
should be known that when two or more
1. To determine the S.I units of terms are in a formula, then the terms must
physical quantities. be of the same dimension.
2. To verify the correctness of physical
quantities. In this , the dimension of 𝑆, 𝐴, 𝐵𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑡 2
3. To obtain the exact physical must be the same .
relationship between two or more
parameters from statement of Now , we have it that 𝑆 is the displacement
dependency. of a particle , then all other terms must have
th same dimension as 𝑆, i.e 𝐿.
Example 1.4
We can now confidently say that the
Derive the dimension, hence the S.I units of dimension of 𝐴 is L.
the following quantities.
For 𝐵𝑡, we let 𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝐵). 𝑇 = 𝐿
a. Density
b. Young’s modulus ⇒ dim(𝐵) = 𝐿/𝑇.
c. Universal gravitational constant.
For 𝐶𝑡 2 , we let 𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝐶). 𝑇 2 = 𝐿
Solution
⟹ 𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝐶) = 𝐿/𝑇 2 .
dim[𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠]
a. The dim[density]=dim[𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒] Example 1.6:
= 𝑀/𝐿3 = 𝑀𝐿−3, hence the unit of
measurement is kgm-3 . Using dimension Analysis, verify whether or
b. The dimension of young’s modulus: not the following physical quantities are
The young’s modulus is defined as correct
𝐹 𝑀𝐿𝑇−2
𝐴
𝑒 , hence the dimension is 𝐿2
𝐿
a. 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2
𝐿 𝐿 b. 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠
= 𝑀𝐿1−2 𝑇 −2 = 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2, hence the 6𝑚𝑠
c. 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑡 + 𝑡𝑣
S.I unit is 𝑘𝑔𝑚−1 𝑠 −2.
c. Universal gravitational constant is
𝐹𝑟 2
Where 𝑠 is distance ,𝑡 is seconds, 𝑎 is
𝐺= . The dimension is acceleration, 𝑊 is work,𝑚 is mass and 𝑝 is
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 .𝐿2 momentum.
= 𝑀−1 𝐿3 𝑇 −2 . The S.I unit is
𝑀.𝑀
kg-1 m3s-2 . Solution
As can be seen from these illustration , the We use the concept of example 1.5 to solve
S.I units of physical quantities can be this. To verify the correctness of these
obtained using dimension analysis. formulae, we obtain the dimensions of each
of the terms. If the dimensions are the same,
Example 1.5
Page 4 of 70
then the formula is correct, otherwise, not (i) Work is mathematically defined
correct. as the product of force and
distance , hence the dimension of
a. For the formula, 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2 , work is 𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒) ×
we determine the dimension of each 𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒) = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ×
of the terms. 𝐿 = 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2
𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑆) = 𝐿 (ii) ***************************
𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑢𝑡) = 𝐿𝑇 −1 𝑇 = 𝐿 ***************************
𝐷𝑖𝑚(1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2 ) = 𝐿𝑇 −2 . 𝑇 2 = 𝐿 ***************************
Since the dimension of all terms are ***************************
the same, we say that the formula is ***************************
correct. Example 1.7
Note: in getting the dimension of
terms , the constant coefficients are From experiments, it was observed that the
neglected. period(𝑇) of oscillation of a simple
b. For 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠 pendulum depends on the mass(𝑚) of the
𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑊) = 𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝐹). 𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑑) bob, the length(𝑙) of the string and
= 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 . 𝐿 acceleration due to gravity 𝑔. Use the
= 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 method of dimension analysis to obtain the
𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑚𝑣 2 ) = 𝑀(𝐿𝑇 −1 )2 = correct relation.
𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 .
𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑠) = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −1 . 𝐿 = 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 . Solution
Since the dimension of all terms are From the given statement, we have
the same , the formula is correct.
6𝑚𝑠
c. For 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑡 + 𝑡𝑣 𝑇 = 𝑘𝑚 𝑥 𝑙 𝑦 𝑔 𝑧 , where 𝑘 is a constant.
𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 Now, we express each of the terms in terms
Dim(𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒) =
𝐿2 of their dimensions.
−1 −2
= 𝑀𝐿 𝑇
𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑚𝑣) = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −1 . Since the i.e𝑇 = 𝑘𝑀 𝑥 𝐿𝑦 (𝐿𝑇 −2 ) 𝑧 = 𝑘𝑀 𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑧 𝑇 −2𝑧
dimension of these terms are not the
same there’s no need to test for the = 𝑘𝑀 𝑥 𝐿𝑦+𝑧 𝑇 −2𝑧
last term .the formula is not correct.
i.e𝑇 = 𝑘𝑀 𝑥 𝐿𝑦+𝑧 𝑇 −2𝑧 .
Next , let’s see how dimension analysis can
All we need to do is equate powers.
be used to obtain relation between physical
quantities. 𝑀}: 𝑥 = 0. Since there’s no 𝑀 on the left ,
its power is zero.
Example (Question 1a,Section
B;2015/2016) 1
𝑇} : − 2𝑧 = 1 ⇒ 𝑧 = −
From the fundamental quantities 2
𝑀, 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇, derive the dimensions of (i) 𝐿}: 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 . Same as that for 𝑇.
Work and (ii) Pressure gradient
1 1
But 𝑧 = − 2 ⇒ 𝑦 = −𝑧 = 2
Solution
Page 5 of 70
Next we substitute these into our 𝐹 = 𝑘𝜂1 𝑣 1 𝑟 1

assumption.
𝐹 = 𝑘𝜂𝑣𝑟
1 1
− 1 𝑙
i.e𝑇 = 𝑘𝑚0 𝑙 𝑔 2 2 = 𝑘√𝑙. = 𝑘√𝑔 Example 1.9
√𝑔
𝑙
The resonance frequency 𝑓 of a closed air
𝑇 = 𝑘√𝑔. column is known to depend on the pressure
𝑝, the density 𝜌 of air and the length of air
Example 1.8 column 𝑙, how are these quantities related?
The viscous force (𝐹) of a ball of radius (𝑟) Solution

falling through a liquid of viscousity 𝜂 at the
From the statement given , let 𝑓 = 𝑘𝑝 𝑥 𝜌𝑦 𝑙 𝑧 .
rate 𝑣 are related by the relation = 𝑘𝜂𝑐 𝑣 𝑏 𝑟 𝑎
, where 𝑘 is a dimensionless constant, obtain The dimension of pressure is 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2
the physical relation between these
quantities. The dimension of density is 𝑀𝐿−3
Solution We have the expression in terms of

1
dimension as 𝑇 = 𝑘(𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 )𝑥 (𝑀𝐿−3 )𝑦 𝐿𝑧
We have it that 𝐹 = 𝑘𝜂𝑐 𝑣 𝑏 𝑟 𝑎 . The
dimension of viscosity,𝜂 = 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 . 𝑇 −1 = 𝑘𝑀 𝑥 𝐿−𝑥 𝑇 −2𝑥 𝑀𝑦 𝐿−3𝑦 𝐿𝑧
Now , we express all in terms of dimensions.
𝑇 −1 = 𝑘𝑀𝑥+𝑦 𝑇 −2𝑥 𝐿−𝑥−3𝑦+𝑧
i.e𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 = 𝑘(𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 )𝑐 (𝐿𝑇 −1 )𝑏 𝐿𝑎 Equating powers, we have
= 𝑘𝑀𝑐 𝐿−𝑐 𝑇 −𝑐 𝐿𝑏 𝑇 −𝑏 𝐿𝑎 1
𝑀} : − 2𝑥 = −1 ⇒ 𝑥 =
𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 = 𝑘𝑀𝑐 𝐿−𝑐+𝑏+𝑎 𝑇 −𝑐−𝑏 2
1
Equating powers, we have 𝑇}: 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = −𝑥 = − .
2
𝑀}: 𝑐 = 1
𝐿} : − 𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
𝑇}: −𝑐 − 𝑏 = −2 1 3
⇒− + +𝑧 =0
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑐 = 1 ⇒ −1 − 𝑏 = −2 2 2
−𝑏 = −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 = 1 𝑧 = 1.
1 1
1
𝐿}: −𝑐 + 𝑏 + 𝑎 = 1 Therefore, 𝑓 = 𝑘𝑝2 𝜌−2 𝑙1 = 𝑘 √𝑝. .𝑙
√𝜌
−1 + 1 + 𝑎 = 1
𝑝
𝑎=1 𝑓 = 𝑘𝑙 √
𝜌
Substitute these into the equation, we have
Page 6 of 70
2
VECTORS AND SCALARS
Physical quantities can be generally direction as two or more vectors. It is the
classified as scalars or vectors. This chapter sum of two or more vectors.
is dedicated to vector quantities and their
manipulations. To obtain the resultant of two or more
vectors , we shall consider two methods, the
2.1 Scalar Quantities parallelogram law of vectors and addition in
terms of components.
These are physical quantities having only
magnitude. Example of scalar quantities are If two vectors are in the same direction ,
mass , temperature , energy, area, distance , then their resultant is their sum , i.e if force
speed , e.t.c. of 39𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 78𝑁 acts on a body in the same
direction , then their resultant is 117𝑁 in
Scalar quantities can be summed as normal their common direction.
to obtain a single value , for instance a
distance of 49km can be added to another of If they are in opposite direction, then their
69km to obtain 49km+69km=118km. resultant is the difference between the
vectors.
2.2 Vector Quantities
However, if they act at a given angle to each
These are quantities having magnitude, other , then the resultant force is obtained
direction and orientation in space. They are using some other procedure. If the angle is
expressed geometrically by directed line 900, then Pythagoras’s theorem is
segments , where the length of the line is convenient.
proportional to the magnitude of the vector.
Equal vectors: Two or more vectors are
Examples of vector quantities are velocity, said to be equal if they have the same
displacement , acceleration ,momentum , magnitude and direction.
force, e.t.c.
Equivalent vectors: Two or more vectors
2.2.1 Types of Vector are said to be equivalent if they have the
Null vector: This is a vector having a same magnitude only.
magnitude of zero . Parallel vectors: Two or more vectors are
Unit vector : This is a vector having said to be parallel if one is a constant
multiple of the other. That is , given two
magnitude of one . if 𝐴⃗ is a vector , then a
vectors ,𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗⃗, they are said to be parallel
unit vector having the same direction as 𝐴⃗ is
if 𝐴⃗ = 𝑐𝐵
⃗⃗, for some constant 𝑐.
denoted as 𝐴̂. The cap or caret is necessary
in specifying unit vectors.
Resultant vector: This is a single vector
having the same effect in magnitude and
Page 7 of 70
2.3 Parallelogram Law of Vectors 2.4 Magnitude of a Vector

Parallelogram law of vectors is a law used to All vectors can be expressed in terms of the
obtain the resultant of two vectors that are unit vectors .the unit vectors in the 𝑥, 𝑦 and
inclined to each other at an angle. 𝑧 axes are 𝑖, 𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 respectively.
The parallelogram law of vectors states that If 𝐴⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 , 𝐴𝑧 ), then it can be expressed
if two vectors are represented by the in terms of the unit vectors as
adjacent sides of a parallelogram , then the
diagonal drawn from their point of 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘, where
intersection is the resultant of the vectors 𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑧 are the 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧
and have the same effect in magnitude and
compnents.
direction as the two vectors.
From the parallelogram law of vectors , if For example 𝐴⃗ = (4, ,8, −6)
the vectors are 𝐹1 ,𝐹2 and the angle between = 4𝑖 + 8𝑗 − 6𝑘
them is 𝜃, then the resultant vector `𝑅 is
𝑅 = √𝐹12 + 𝐹22 + 2𝐹1 𝐹2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 The magnitude of a vector is the length of
the vector from the origin. The magnitude of
Example 2.1 the vector is also called the absolute value or
its modulus.
If the angle between thevectors , 40N and
59N is 600 , obtain the resultant vector. Given the vector 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘, its
Solution 59N magnitude is |𝐴⃗| = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2,
40N
i.e the square root to the sum of the squares
40N of its component.
120
60 𝛼
0 59N Example 2.2
From the formula above, the resultant vector Determine the magnitude of the vectors 𝐴⃗ =
would be 𝑅 = 2𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 𝑘.
√402 + 592 + 2(40)(59)𝑐𝑜𝑠60
Solution
= 86.26𝑁
To obtain the angle between them , we use Using the formula |𝐴⃗| = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2
the sine rule ,
We have |𝐴⃗| = √22 + (−3)2 + 12
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛120
i.e =
40 𝑅
= √4 + 9 + 1 = √14
34.64
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = = 0.4016 Example2.3: (Question 3, Section A,11/12)
86.26
𝛼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (0.4016) = 23.670 . The If 𝐴 = 2𝑖 − 𝑗 − 2𝑘and 𝐵 = 4𝑖 − 3𝑘, then
resultant vector makes an angle of 23.670 |𝐴| + |𝐵| is equal to ?
with the 59N vector.
(A)5 (B) 8 (C) 3 (D) 2
Page 8 of 70
Solution 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 )𝑖 + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )𝑗 +
(𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 )𝑘 and
From the formula , we have
𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 − 𝐵𝑥 )𝑖 + (𝐴𝑦 − 𝐵𝑦 )𝑗
|𝐴⃗| = √22 + (−1)2 + (−2)2
+ (𝐴𝑧 − 𝐵𝑧 )𝑘
⃗⃗ | =
= √4 + 1 + 4 = 3and|𝐵 As stated earlier, the sum of two or more
√42 + 02 + (−3)2 = √16 + 9 vectors is called its resultant.
=5 Example 2.5: (Question 1, Section A;
2009/2010)
∴ |𝐴| + |𝐵| = 3 + 5 = 8 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
Given the vectors 𝐴⃗ = 5𝑖 + 4𝑗 + 11𝑘 and
Example 2.4
⃗⃗ = 3𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 4𝑘, find 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
𝐵 ⃗⃗ .
For what value of 𝑥 is the absolute value of
the vector 𝐴 = 2𝑖 − 𝑥𝑗 + 4𝑘 5𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠? (A)4𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 𝑘 (B) 8𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 4𝑘
Solution (C) 5𝑖 − 𝑗 + 𝑘 (D) 8𝑖 + 𝑗 + 15𝑘
Given that |𝐴| = 5, but |𝐴| = Solution

√22 + (−𝑥)2 + 42 = √4 + 𝑥 2 + 16 From the given,
⇒ √20 + 𝑥 2 = 5 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗
20 + 𝑥 2 = 25 = (5𝑖 + 4𝑗 + 11𝑘) + (3𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 4𝑘),

taking like terms , it becomes
𝑥 2 = 5 , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 = ±√5
𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 5𝑖 + 3𝑖 + 4𝑗 − 3𝑗 + 11𝑘 + 4𝑘
2.5 Arithmetic Operations on Vectors
= 8𝑖 + 𝑗 + 15𝑘
There are three basic operation that can be
performed on vectors , these are Example 2.6
i. Addition If 𝐴⃗ = 3𝑖 − 𝑗 + 𝑘and 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 2𝑘, find
ii. Subtraction and 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵⃗⃗ .
iii. Multiplication
Solution
Note : Vectors can not be divided.
𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ = (3𝑖 − 𝑗 + 𝑘) − (𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 2𝑘)
2.5.1 Addition/Subtraction of Vectors
= 3𝑖 − 𝑗 + 𝑘 − 𝑖 − 3𝑗 − 2𝑘, on taking like
Given the vectors ,𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘 terms , it becomes
⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘, to perform the
and 𝐵
operation of addition and subtraction , we 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 3𝑖 − 𝑖 − 𝑗 − 3𝑗 + 𝑘 − 2𝑘
simply identify corresponding components ,
= 2𝑖 − 4𝑗 − 𝑘
then sum or subtract appropriately. i.e 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗
= (𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘) + (𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘)
Page 9 of 70
Example 2.7 i. Multiplication by a scalar

quantity
Find the vector sum of the following vectors ii. Vector to vector multiplication
,𝑎 = 3𝑖 − 𝑗 + 7𝑘, 𝑏 = 𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 3𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = a. Scalar product
−5𝑘 b. Vector product
Solution Multiplication by Scalar:Given the vector
The sum is 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = (3𝑖 − 𝑗 + 7𝑘) + ,𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘, if 𝑐 is a scalar
(𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 3𝑘) + (−5𝑘) quantity , then 𝑐𝐴⃗ = c(𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 +
𝐴𝑧 𝑘) =, 𝐴⃗ = 𝑐𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑐𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑐𝐴𝑧 𝑘, i.e the
= 3𝑖 + 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 3𝑗 + 7𝑘 + 3𝑘 − 5𝑘
scalar will be used to multiply each
= 4𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 2𝑘 component of the vector.
Example 2.8 Example 2.9
If the resultant of the vectors 𝐴 = 8𝑖 + If 𝐴 = 3𝑖 + 𝑗 − 2𝑘and𝐵 = 𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 𝑘, find

2𝑎𝑗 + 𝑘 and 𝐵 = −2𝑖 + 5𝑗 + (𝑠 + 2)𝑘is the following
6𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 𝑘, find the value of 𝑎 and 𝑠.
a. 𝐴 + 3𝐵
Solution b. 3𝐵 − 2𝐴
From the given vectors ,𝐴 + 𝐵 = Solution

(8𝑖 + 2𝑎𝑗 + 𝑘) + (−2𝑖 + 5𝑗 + (𝑠 + 2)𝑘) =
a. 𝐴 + 3𝐵 = 3𝑖 + 𝑗 − 2𝑘 +
6𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 𝑘
3(𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 𝑘)
8𝑖 − 2𝑖 + 2𝑎𝑗 + 5𝑗 + 𝑘 + (𝑠 + 2)𝑘 = 3𝑖 + 3𝑖 + 𝑗 + 9𝑗 − 2𝑘 − 3𝑘
= 6𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 𝑘 = 6𝑖 + 10𝑗 + 7𝑘
b. 3𝐵 − 2𝐴
6𝑖 + (2𝑎 + 5)𝑗 + (1 + 𝑠 + 2)𝑘 = 3(𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 𝑘) − 2(3𝑖 + 𝑗 − 2𝑘)
= 6𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 𝑘 = 3𝑖 + 9𝑗 − 3𝑘 − 6𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 4𝑘
= −3𝑖 + 7𝑗 + 𝑘.
When two vectors are equal , then their
corresponding components must be. Scalar Product: The scalar product or dot
Equating corresponding components, we product of two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗⃗, denoted as
have 𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ is a product that results to a scalar
quantity.
2𝑎 + 5 = 3 ⇒ 2𝑎 = 3 − 5 = −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎
= −1 Given the vectors 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘 and
⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘, then
𝐵
𝑠 + 3 = −1 ⇒ 𝑠 = −4
∴the values of 𝑎 and 𝑠 are −1 and −4 𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ =
respectively.
(𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘). (𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘)
2.5.2 Multiplication of Vectors
= 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧
We shall consider the multiplication of
vectors under two headings
Page 10 of 70
The dot product is the sum of the product of = 28 − 15 − 6 = 7.0 [Option B]

corresponding components.
Example 2.12
Generally,𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ = |𝐴⃗|. |𝐵
⃗⃗ |𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, where 𝜃 is
Show that the vectors 𝑎 = 9𝑖 + 𝑗 − 4𝑘 and
the angle between the vectors,
𝑏 = 3𝑖 − 7𝑗 + 5𝑘 are perpendicular.
𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ 𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗
Solution
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑜𝑟 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( )
|𝐴⃗|. |𝐵
⃗⃗ | |𝐴⃗|. |𝐵
⃗⃗ |
If the vectors are perpendicular then their
Note:When two vectors are perpendicular dot product must be zero.
or orthogonal , then their dot product
equals zero, also scalar product of vectors Now,𝐴. 𝐵 = 9(3) + 1(−7) − 4(5) = 27 −
7 − 20 = 0
is commutative,i.e ⃗𝑨⃗. ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗ = ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗. ⃗𝑨⃗. And
Since the dot product is zero , the vectors are
𝑖. 𝑖 = 𝑗. 𝑗 = 𝑘. 𝑘 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖. 𝑗 = 𝑗. 𝑖 = 𝑖. 𝑘 perpendicular.
= 𝑗. 𝑘 = 𝑘. 𝑖 = 0
Example 2.13: (Question 1a,Section B,
Example 2.10: (Question 5,Section A, 2010/2011)
2010/2011)
Given 𝐴 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 𝑘and 𝐵 = −𝑖 + 𝑗 +
If 𝐴 = 7𝑖 + 7𝑗 + 2𝑘and𝐵 = 4𝑖 + 5𝑗 + 3𝑘, 2𝑘, find the angle between the vectors.
find 𝐴. 𝐵.
Solution
(A)7 (B) 69 (C) 49 (D) -7
To obtain the angle between the vectors we
Solution use the formula 𝐴. 𝐵 = |𝐴||𝐵|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.
Given 𝐴 = 7𝑖 + 7𝑗 + 2𝑘 and 𝐴.𝐵
i.e𝜃 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 (|𝐴||𝐵|), where 𝐴. 𝐵 =
𝐵 = 4𝑖 + 5𝑗 + 3𝑘 2(−1) + 3(1) − 1(2) = −2 + 3 − 2 = −1
𝐴. 𝐵 = 7(4) + 7(5) + 2(3)
|𝐴| = √(2)2 + (3)2 + (−1)2 = √4 + 9 + 1
= 28 + 35 + 6 = 69. = √14 𝑎𝑛𝑑
Example2.11:Question |𝐵| = √(−1)2 + 12 + 22 = √1 + 1 + 4

9,SectionA;2015/2016 = √6
Find the scalar product of the two vectors 1
𝐴 = 7𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 2𝑘 and 𝐵 = 4𝑖 + 5𝑗 − 3𝑘, ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (− ) = 96.30.
√6×√14
then 𝐴. 𝐵 is ?
Example 2.14
(A)7.1 (B) 7.0 (C) 7.9 (D) 50
If the vectors 𝐴 = 4𝑖 − 𝑗 + 𝑘 and 𝐵 = 3𝑖 +
Solution 𝑎𝑗 + 7𝑘 are perpendicular , find the value of
𝑎.
From the given ,
Solution
𝐴. 𝐵 = 7(4) + (−3)(5) + 2(−3)
Page 11 of 70
Since the vectors are perpendicular ,𝐴. 𝐵 = Using the formula above, we have
0
+ − +
⇒ 4(3) + (−1)(𝑎) + (−1)(7) = 0
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
12 − 𝑎 − 7 = 0 𝑎 × 𝑏 = |2 −4 2|
3 6 5
𝑎 = −5.
−4 2 2 2 2 −4
= 𝑖| |−𝑗| |+𝑘| |
Vector Product: The vector product or 6 5 3 5 3 6
cross product of two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗⃗,
= 𝑖(−4(5) − 2(6)) − 𝑗(2(5) − 2(3))
denoted as 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗ or 𝐴⃗ ∧ 𝐵
⃗⃗ is a product that
+ 𝑘(2(6) − 3(−4))
results to a vector quantity.
= 𝑖(−32) − 𝑗(4) + 𝑘(12 + 12)
An easy way to obtain the vector product of
two vectors is to use the concept of = −32𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 24𝑘
determinants.
Example 2.16
Given the vectors 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘and
⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘, Obtain the vector product of the vectors 𝐴 =
𝐵
2𝑖 + 8𝑗 + 𝑘and 𝐵 = 7𝑗 + 𝑘.
then + − +
Solution
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
⃗ ⃗⃗ = |𝐴𝑥
𝐴×𝐵 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 | Using the formula above, we have
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
+ − +
𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 𝐴 𝐴𝑧 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦
= 𝑖| |−𝑗| 𝑥 |+𝑘| | 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧 𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑧 𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐴 × 𝐵 = |2 8 1|
= 𝑖(𝐴𝑦 . 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 . 𝐵𝑦 ) − 𝑗(𝐴𝑥 . 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 . 𝐵𝑥 ) 0 7 1
+ 𝑘(𝐴𝑥 . 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 . 𝐵𝑥 ) 8 1 2 1 2 8
= 𝑖| |−𝑗| |+𝑘| |
7 1 0 1 7 1
Generally,𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗ = |𝐴⃗|. |𝐵⃗⃗ |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑛̂, where 𝑛̂
= 𝑖(8(1) − 7(1)) − 𝑗(2(1) − 1(0))
is the unit vector in the plane containing 𝐴⃗
+ 𝑘(2(1) − 7(8))
and 𝐵 ⃗⃗ and |𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗ | = |𝐴⃗|. |𝐵
⃗⃗ |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑖 − 2𝑗 − 54𝑘
Note: If two vectors are parallel, then their
vector product equals zero and cross Example 2.17
product is not commutative , i.e𝑨 ⃗⃗ × 𝑩⃗⃗⃗ ≠
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑨
⃗⃗⃗, however 𝑨
⃗⃗ × 𝑩
⃗⃗⃗ = −𝑩
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑨
⃗⃗⃗. Show that (𝐴 × 𝐵). (𝐴 × 𝐵) + (𝐴. 𝐵)2
𝑩
= |𝐴|2 |𝐵|2
Example 2.15
Solution
Find the cross product of the vectors
𝑎 = 2𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 2𝑘and𝑏 = 3𝑖 + 6𝑗 + 5𝑘. We gave it that 𝐴. 𝐵 = |𝐴||𝐵|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃and 𝐴⃗ ×

⃗⃗ = |𝐴⃗|. |𝐵
𝐵 ⃗⃗ |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑛̂, hence
Solution
Page 12 of 70
(𝐴 × 𝐵). (𝐴 × 𝐵) + (𝐴. 𝐵)2 𝐶𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐶𝑧 𝑘, then their scalar triple product is

= (|𝐴|. |𝐵|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑛̂). (|𝐴|. |𝐵|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑛̂) best obtained as
+ (|𝐴||𝐵|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
= |𝐴|2 |𝐵|2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + |𝐴|2 |𝐵|2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 ⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗ × 𝐶 ) = | 𝐵𝑥
𝐴. (𝐵 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧 |
𝐶𝑥 𝐶𝑦 𝐶𝑧
= |𝐴|2 |𝐵|2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃+𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) = |𝐴|2 |𝐵|2
Unit Vector: As stated earlier , a unit vector Example 2.19
is a vector with a unit magnitude. Given the vectors 𝑎 = 3𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 𝑘,
Given the vector, 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘, a 𝑏 = 𝑖 + 𝑗 − 𝑘and = 2𝑖 + 𝑘 , obtain 𝑎. (𝑏 ×
unit vector in the direction of 𝐴⃗, hence 𝑐).
𝐴⃗
parallel to 𝐴⃗ is 𝐴̂ = . i.e the vector
|𝐴⃗| Solution
divided by its magnitude.
+ − +
Example2.18: 3 −3 1
Find a unit vector in the direction of the (𝑏
𝑎. × 𝑐) = |1 1 −1|
vector, 𝐴 = 𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 2𝑘. 2 0 1
1 −1 1 −1 1 1
Solution = 3| | − (−3) | | + 1| |
0 1 2 1 2 0
Given that the vector is 𝐴, let the required = 3(1 − 0) + 3(1 + 2) + 1(0 − 2)
𝐴
unit vector be 𝐴̂ = |𝐴|, where
= 3 + 9 − 2 = 10
|𝐴| = √12 + (−2)2 + 22 = 3, therefor the Example 2.20
𝑖−2𝑗+2𝑘 𝑖 2 2
unit vector is 𝐴̂ = = − 𝑗 + 𝑘.
3 3 3 3 Are the vector 𝐴 = −5𝑖 + 6𝑗 − 3𝑘,
1 2 2
The terms 3, − 3 and 3 are called the 𝐵 = 7𝑖 + 8𝑗 + 4𝑘and𝐶 = 4𝑖 − 𝑗 − 82𝑘
direction cosine of the vectors. They are coplanar?
respectively of the 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 axes.
Solution
Scalar Triple Product and Vector Triple
Product If the vectors are co-planar , then their
vector triple product , taken in any order
The scalar triple product of the three vectors would give zero.
𝐴⃗, 𝐵
⃗⃗ and 𝐶⃗ is expressed as 𝐴⃗. (𝐵
⃗⃗ × 𝐶⃗) and it
+ − +
is termed the volume of a parallelepiped.
−5 6 −3
When the scalar triple product is zero, then
𝐴. (𝐵 × 𝐶) = | 7 8 4 |
the vectors are said to be co-planar (i.e they
4 −1 −82
all lie on the same plane).
8 4 7 4
= −5 | | − 6| |
If the vectors are given as 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + −1 −82 4 −82
⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘and 𝐶⃗ = 𝐶𝑥 𝑖 + 7 8
𝐴𝑧 𝑘, 𝐵 + (−3) | |
4 −1
Page 13 of 70
= −5(−656 − (−4)) − 6(574 − 16) Vector Triple Product

− 3(−7 − 32)
The scalar triple product of the three vectors
= −5(−656 + 4) − 6(558) − 3(−39) 𝐴⃗, 𝐵
⃗⃗ and 𝐶⃗ is expressed as 𝐴⃗ × (𝐵
⃗⃗ × 𝐶⃗).
= 29
Example 2.21
Since the scalar triple product is not zero ,
the vectors are not coplanar. Obtain the product 𝐴 × (𝐶 × 𝐵) for the
vectors 𝐴 = 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘, 𝐵 = 2𝑖 − 7𝑗 +
Example 2.21 2𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 𝑖 + 𝑘.
If the vectors 𝐴 = 2𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘, Solution
𝐵 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑗 + 7𝑘and𝐶 = −𝑗 + 2𝑘 are All we need to do is obtain the vector

coplanar , find the value of 𝑥. product of the bracket , then the whole,
i.e + − +
Solution
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
Since the vectors are co-planar, their vector 𝐶 × 𝐵 = |2 −7 2|
triple product must be zero. 1 0 1
i.e 𝐴. (𝐵 × 𝐶) = 0 −7 2 2 2 2 −7
= 𝑖| |−𝑗| |+𝑘| |
0 1 1 1 1 0
+ − +
= 𝑖(−7 − 0) − 𝑗(2 − 2) + 𝑘(0 + 7)
2 1 1
𝐴. (𝐵 × 𝐶) = |𝑥 1 7| 𝐶 × 𝐵 = −7𝑖 + 7𝑘, hence
0 −1 2
+ − +
1 7 𝑥 7 𝑥 1
= 2| | − 1| | + 1| | 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
−1 2 0 2 0 −1
𝐴 × (𝐶 × 𝐵) = | 1 1 1|
= 2(2 − (−7)) − 1(2𝑥 − 0) + 1(−𝑥 − 0) −7 0 7
= 2(9) − 1(2𝑥) − 1(−𝑥) = 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 𝑖| |−𝑗| |+𝑘| |
0 7 −7 7 −7 0
18 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0
= 𝑖(7 − 0) − 𝑗(7 + 7) + 𝑘(0 + 7)
−𝑥 = −18
= 7𝑖 − 14𝑗 + 7𝑘
∴ 𝑥 = 18.
3
LINEAR KINEMATICS OF PARTICLES
Kinematics is the branch of mechanics that In kinematics, we study the equations of
studies particles in motion without making motion, their relationships and applications.
reference to the force causing them.
Page 14 of 70
This chapter will be focused on this part of a. The distance covered by the man is
mechanics. the total length from point 𝐴 to point
𝐶 through point 𝐵.
In the study of kinematics, the following i.e distance covered from point 𝐴 to
concepts are very important. point 𝐶 is 30km+40km=70km.
Motion :This is the physical movement of a b. The displacement of the man is the vector
particle from one point to another (or back from point 𝐴 to point 𝐶. To obtain the
to its point of origin). magnitude of the displacement, we use
Particle: A particle is a body with Pythagoras’s theorem
negligible dimension or size . |𝐴𝐶|2 = |𝐴𝐵|2 + |𝐵𝐶|2
Distance: This is the length between two |𝐴𝐶|2 = 302 + 402 = 900 + 1600 = 2500
points. It’s a scalar quantity and its unit of
measurement is the meter (m). ⇒ 𝐴𝐶 = √2500 = 50𝑘𝑚
Displacement: This is the shortest distance The magnitude of the vector is not enough to
between two points, it’s distance in a given describe it, hence we need to obtain the
direction. It’s a vector quantity having the direction.
same unit as distance. The displacement is
usually expressed as a function of time as 40
From the figure above ,𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 50
𝑥(𝑡)or 𝑆(𝑡). The difference between these
two is illustrated with the example below. 4
⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 53.130
Example3.1 If a man walks 30km from a 5
point 𝐴 to a point 𝐵 due north , then walked Example 3.2: (Question 10, Section A;
from the point 𝐵 to a point 𝐶 , 40km due 2011/2012)
east. Obtain
If the coordinates of the blood cell in a given
a. The distance covered part of the body are 𝑥 = 2𝑡 − 3𝑡 2 and
b. The displacement of the man
𝑦 = 4𝑡 2 + 𝑡 3 ., find an expression for the
Solution displacement vector at 𝑡 = 2.0𝑠
The diagram for the journey of the man is as (a)𝑥(2) = −8𝑖 + 24𝑗
shown below
(b) 𝑥(2) = 16𝑖 + 24𝑗
B 40km C (c) 𝑥(2) = −10𝑖 + 24𝑗
(d)𝑥(2) = −10𝑖 + 22𝑗
Solution
30km
Let the displacement vector be
𝜃
𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑖 + 𝑦(𝑡)𝑗,
A
i.e𝑟(𝑡) = (2𝑡 − 3𝑡 2 )𝑖 + (4𝑡 2 + 𝑡 3 )𝑗.
Page 15 of 70
At 𝑡 = 2, Instantaneous Velocity: This is the velocity

of a body at a particular instant or time of
𝑟(2) = (2(2) − 3(2)2 )𝑖 + (4(2)2 + 23 )𝑗 motion. It’s usually referred to as the
gradient of the tangent of the particle curve
= −8𝑖 + 24𝑗
at a particular point.
Position :This is a point where a particle or
Mathematically, instantaneous velocity is
body is, at a given time with reference to a ∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥
given frame. The position vector is usually 𝑣 = lim ∆𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑥→0
denoted as 𝑥(𝑡).
𝑑𝑥
i.e𝑣 = .
Speed: This is defined as the rate of chance 𝑑𝑡
of distance with respect to time. It’s a scalar In order words, instantaneous velocity is the
quantity and its unit of measurement is time derivative of the displacement function
meters per second (m/s). at a particular time.
∆𝑥 𝑥(𝑡)−𝑥(𝑡0 )
Mathematically, speed (𝑣)= = Average Velocity: The term average
∆𝑡 𝑡−𝑡0
velocity is the same as the velocity of a body
Where 𝑥(𝑡0 ) is the position of the vector at , it is used to cover for all discrepancies that
𝑡0 ; it’s ithe initial position of the particle. could arise due to inconsistency of motion.
How ever , it can be defined as the average
𝑥(𝑡)is its position at time 𝑡. of the initial and final velocities of a body,
𝑣+𝑣
i.e𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2 0
From the above formula, we have it that
𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑥(𝑡0 ) = 𝑣(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
Change in Velocity: As can be seen above ,
If 𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑥(𝑡0 ) = 𝑆, then 𝑆 = 𝑣(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ). when studying the velocity of a particle , we
make reference to two points , the initial and
Velocity :The velocity of a body is the rate the final points . The initial velocity is the
of change of the displacement of the body velocity at the initial time 𝑡0 , denoted as
with respect to time. It is a vector quantity 𝑣0 or 𝑢 while the final velocity is the
and its unit of measurement is the same as velocity of the particle at time 𝑡 > 𝑡0. The
speed. change in velocity is obtained when the
initial velocity is subtracted from the final
𝑥(𝑡)−𝑥(𝑡0 )
Mathematically, velocity 𝑣(𝑡) = velocity,
𝑡−𝑡0
The above formula can also be written as i.e∆𝑣 = 𝑣 − 𝑣0

𝑥
𝑣 = 𝑡. it’s not the case that this change will always
be positive.
There are different types of velocities ; same
is applied to speed. If 𝑣 > 𝑣0 , then the change would be positive
.
Uniform or Constant Velocity:The
velocity of a body is said to be constant or If 𝑣 < 𝑣0 , then the change is negative.
uniform if the rate of displacement of the
body is constant for all time intervals, no If 𝑣 = 𝑣0 , then the velocity of the body is
matter how small the time interval may be. uniform.
Page 16 of 70
Example 3.8 1.33 × 1013

𝑥= = 421740.2334𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
31536000
How long does it take light from the sun to
reach earth if it travels a distance of Example 3.10: (Question 8,Section A;
1.5x1011m? 2015/2016)
(Velocity of light is 3.0x108 m/s.) A car travels for 30minutes in a straight line
for a distance of 50km. what is the average
Solution speed of the car?
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
We have it that 𝑣 = 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑐 = 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 𝑐 (a)100km/hr (b) 1.67km/hr (c) 150km/hr
(d) 25km/hr
1.5 × 1011
= = 5 × 102 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠. Solution
3.0 × 108
Example 3.9 Given 𝑡 = 30 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠and 𝑆 = 50𝑘𝑚, we need
to convert the time to hrs, hence 𝑡 =
The nearest star, proxima centaury is 30
ℎ𝑟𝑠 = 0.5ℎ𝑟𝑠.
4.0x1013 km away. Calculate the time it 60
takes a light signal from earth to reach the 50
The speed of the car is 𝑣 = 0.5
star? How many years will it take a
spacecraft travelling with speed of 10-4 𝑐 to
= 100𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟.
reach proxima centaury? 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠.
Acceleration: The acceleration of a body is
Solution
the rate of change of the velocity of the body
Given that the distance is with respect to time. It’s a vector quantity
and its unit of measurement is meters per
𝑆 = 4 × 1013 𝑘𝑚 = 4000 × 1013 𝑚and that second per second or meters per second
the speed of light is 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠. squared (m/s2).
𝑆 4000×1013 𝑣−𝑣0
Using 𝑡 = 𝑐 = = 1.33 × 108 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠. Mathematically, 𝑎 =
3×108 𝑡
If a spacecraft is travelling with the speed ⇒ 𝑣 − 𝑣0 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 .

4000×1013
10−4 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑡 = 10−4 (3×108 ) Uniform or Constant Acceleration :The
acceleration of a body is said to be constant
= 1.33 × 1013 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠 or uniform if the rate of change of the
velocity of the body is constant for all time
However, I year = 365𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 365(24)ℎ𝑟𝑠 intervals, no matter how small the time may
be.
= 365(24)(60)(60)𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠
Instantaneous Acceleration: This is the
= 31536000𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠
acceleration of a body at a particular instant
i.e1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 31536000𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠. or time of motion. It’s usually referred to as
the gradient of the tangent of the particle’s
𝑥 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 1.33 × 1013 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠 curve at a particular point.
Page 17 of 70
Mathematically, instantaneous accelerationis 𝑣 = 10𝑚/𝑠,hence the acceleration is 𝑎 =

∆𝑣 𝑑𝑣 10−0
= lim ∆𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 . This can also be written as = 1𝑚/𝑠 2 [No correct option]
∆𝑥→0 10
𝑑2 𝑥 Example 3.2 : (Question 15,Section

i.e𝑎 = .
𝑑𝑡 2 ;2008/2009)
In order words, instantaneous acceleration is If an object has coordinates given by 𝑥(𝑡) =
the time derivative of the velocity function 3𝑡 + 2𝑡 3 , obtain the expression for the
at a particular time or the time second acceleration.
derivative of the displacement function at a
particular time. (a)3 + 6𝑡 2 (b) 12 (c) 3 + 2𝑡 (d) 12𝑡 (e)
3𝑡 + 6𝑡 2
Example 3.15: (Question 7,Section
A;2009/2010) Solution
A box slides across a horizontal floor in a Given 𝑥(𝑡) = 3𝑡 + 2𝑡 3 , the expression for
straight line. It starts with a speed of 7.5m/s the acceleration is the second derivative of
and slows down to a speed of 2.5m/s after the function w.r.t.time.
5second . what is the average acceleration
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣
over this time interval? Now ,𝑣 = = 3 + 6𝑡 2 ⇒ 𝑎 = = 12𝑡.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
(a)1.0m/s (b) -1.0m/s (c) 1.5m/s Example 3.3: (Question1(cii), Section
(d) -2.0m/s B;2015/2016)
Solution The coordinate of a particle at motion are

given by 𝑥 = 2𝑡 + 7𝑡 2 − 4 and 𝑦 = 6𝑡 −
Given 𝑣0 = 7.5𝑚/𝑠,𝑣 = 2.5𝑚/𝑠 and 𝑡 = 2𝑡 3 , where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are in meters and 𝑡 is in
5 𝑠. seconds.
𝑣−𝑣0 2.5−7.5 Determine
Using the formula 𝑎 = =
𝑡 5
a. The instantaneous average velocity
= −1𝑚/s2
at 𝑡 = 3𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠.
Example (Question 5,Section A ;2015/16) b. The displacement vector at time 𝑡 =
3𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
Find the average acceleration of a lorry that
moved from rest and gets to final velocity of Solution
36𝑘𝑚/ℎ after 10𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠.
Given the coordinates, 𝑦 = 6𝑡 − 2𝑡 3 and
(𝑎) 3.6m/s (𝑏) 1m/s (𝑐) 10m/s (𝑑) 5m/s 𝑥 = 2𝑡 + 7𝑡 2 − 4.
Solution a. All we need to do is to differentiate

these coordinates with respect to 𝑡.
𝑣−𝑢 𝑑𝑦
Using the formula 𝑎 = i.e𝑣𝑦 = 𝑑𝑡 = 6 − 6𝑡 2 and
𝑡
𝑑𝑥
36000 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 = 2 + 14𝑡. At 𝑡 = 3 we
Now 𝑢 = 0𝑚/𝑠, 𝑣 = 36𝑘𝑚/ℎ = 60×60 𝑚/𝑠
have
𝑣𝑦 = 6 − 6(3)2 = 6 − 6(9)
= 6 − 54 = −48 , also
Page 18 of 70
𝑣𝑥 = 2 + 14(3) = 2 + 42 = 44 𝑆(2) = 64 − 144 + 96 =

Hence the velocity is 𝑣 = 44𝑖 − 48𝑗 16−0
16and𝑆(0) = 0 ⇒ 𝑣 = 4 =
b. The displacement vector is
4𝑚/𝑠.
𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑖 + 𝑦(𝑡)𝑗
i.e𝑟(𝑡) = (2𝑡 + 7𝑡 2 − 4)𝑖 + Example 3.7
(6𝑡 − 2𝑡 3 )𝑗
⇒ 𝑟(3) A particle is at 𝑥 = 5𝑚at𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = −7𝑚
= (2(3) + 7(3)2 − 4)𝑖 at 𝑡 = 6𝑠 and 𝑥 = 2𝑚 at 𝑡 = 10𝑠𝑒𝑐/
+ (6(3) − 2(3)3 )𝑗
Find the average velocity of the particle
𝑟(3) = (6 + 63 − 4)𝑖 + (18 − 54)𝑗
between the intervals
= 65𝑖 − 36𝑗
a. 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑡 = 6𝑠
Example 3.6
b. 𝑡 = 6𝑠 and 𝑡 = 10𝑠
A particle moves according to the position c. 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑡 = 10𝑠𝑒𝑐
function S(𝑡) = 𝛼𝑡 3 + 𝛽𝑡 2 + 𝛿𝑡 , where
Try this!!!
𝛼 = 1m/s3 , 𝛽 = −9m/s2 and𝛿 = 24m/s.
𝟑. 𝟐 Equations of Motion
a. Determine 𝑣(2), 𝑣(4) and 𝑣(4.5)
b. Evaluate 𝑣 for the following time When a particle moves in a straight line, the
intervals motion is said to be rectilinear. Rectilinear
(0-2)s and (0-4)s motion could be in the vertical or the
horizontal direction. We shall derive the
Solution
equations of motion for both cases.
𝑆(𝑡) = 𝛼𝑡 3 + 𝛽𝑡 2 + 𝛿𝑡 , where 𝛼 = 1m/s3 ,
Equations of motion are equations that can
𝛽 = −9m/s2 and𝛿 = 24m/s. be used to describe the motion of a particle
⇒ 𝑆(𝑡) = 𝑡 3 − 9𝑡 2 + 24𝑡 that moves with a constant or uniform
acceleration.
𝑑𝑆
a. 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡 = 3𝑡 2 − 18𝑡 + 24 There are basically four equations of
∴ 𝑣(2) = 12 − 36 + 24 = 0𝑚/𝑠. motion. One of them was obtained from the
𝑣(4) = 48 − 72 + 24 = 0𝑚/𝑠and definition of acceleration as 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡.
𝑣(4.5) = 60.75 − 81 + 24
= 3.75𝑚/𝑠. To obtain the other equations of motion, we
𝑣+𝑣
b. To obtain 𝑣 for the given time recall that 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2 0 and 𝑆 = 𝑣𝑡
intervals , we use the formula
𝑆(𝑡)−𝑆(𝑡 ) 𝑣+𝑣0
𝑣 = 𝑡−𝑡 0 . ⇒ 𝑆 = 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑡 = ( 2
) 𝑡, but 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
0
For the interval (0-2)s, we have it to
𝑆(2)−𝑆(0) 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑣0 2𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
be 𝑣 = 2−0 , where ⇒𝑆=( )𝑡 = ( )𝑡
2 2
𝑆(2) = 8 − 36 + 48 =
20−0 𝑎𝑡
20and𝑆(0) = 0 ⇒ 𝑣 = 2 = = (𝑣0 + ) 𝑡 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2
2
10𝑚/𝑠.
For the interval (0-4)s, we have it to 𝑆 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2 . This is another equation
𝑆(4)−𝑆(0)
be 𝑣 = 4−0 , where of motion.
Page 19 of 70
Now, from the equation = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡; 𝑎 2𝑎𝑡 + 𝑎

𝑆𝑡 𝑡ℎ = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 + = 𝑣0 +
𝑣−𝑣0 2 2
𝑡= , Substituting this into
𝑎 𝑎
= 𝑣0 + (2𝑎 + 1)
𝑣 + 𝑣0 2
𝑆=( )𝑡
2 𝑎
𝑆𝑡 𝑡ℎ = + 2 (2𝑎 + 1). This completes the set
𝑣+𝑣0 𝑣−𝑣0 (𝑣+𝑣0 )(𝑣−𝑣0 ) 𝑣 2 −𝑣02 of equayions of motion.
i.e𝑆 = ( )( )= =
2 𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎
Insummary , the equations of motion are
2𝑎𝑠 = 𝑣 2 − 𝑣02 ⇒ 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎𝑠 . This is
another equation of motion. 𝑆 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2
The three equations derived so far are the
𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎𝑠
most common equations of motion; these are
the equations we always find in texts, 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡and
however there’s another one. This is used to
𝑎
obtain the distance covered by a particle in a 𝑆𝑡 𝑡ℎ = 𝑣0 + 2 (2𝑎 + 1).
given second , minute or so. For instance, if
it takes a particle 5𝑠𝑒𝑐 to cover a distance 𝑆5 The above equations are for particles with
and 6secs to cover a distance 𝑆6 , then we uniform acceleration on the horizontal axis.
can say that the distance covered in the 5th In the next section, we shall see the
second is 𝑆6 − 𝑆5 . This is the concept that corresponding equations for vertical motion
will be used to derive the remaining (free fall).
equation of motion.
When a question is given, all you need to do
Let 𝑆𝑡 be the distance covered by a particle is to list out the parameters given , then
in 𝑡secs and 𝑆𝑡+1 be the distance covered in compare these parameters to the once in
(𝑡 + 1)secs, then the distance covered in the these equations and take the equation having
`𝑡𝑡ℎ second is 𝑆𝑡+1 − 𝑆𝑡 . all the parameters given to you.
But 𝑆 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2 , hence we can write Let’s illustrate these` with examples.
Example 3.10:Question7, Section A;12/13

𝑆𝑡 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2 and
The displacement of a particle along a
𝑆𝑡+1 = 𝑣0 (𝑡 + 1) + 1⁄2 𝑎(𝑡 + 1)2 straight line at time 𝑡 is given by
= 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑣0 + 1⁄2 𝑎(𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 1) 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑡 2 , where 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 and 𝑎2

are constants. The acceleration of the
⇒ 𝑆𝑡 𝑡ℎ = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑣0 + 1⁄2 𝑎(𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 1) particle is
− (𝑣0 𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2 ) (a) 𝑎0 (b) 𝑎1 (c) 𝑎2 (d) 2𝑎2
2𝑎𝑡 𝑎 Solution
𝑆𝑡 𝑡ℎ = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑣0 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2 + + − 𝑣0 𝑡
2 2 Since the displacement is given as
− 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2
Page 20 of 70
𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑡 2 , then the acceleration 𝑆1 = 45𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆2 = 55𝑡, hence

is the second derivative of this with respect
to time. 45𝑡 + 55𝑡 = 150
150
𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑡 = 100 = 1.5ℎ𝑟𝑠.
Now , 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎1 + 2𝑎2 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 2𝑎2
𝑑𝑡
Example 3.11:Question 6,Section A;12/13 Example 3.16 : (Question 20, Section

A;2008/2009)
Mr. Akpan starts from rest and undergoes
constant acceleration . In the first hour, he A car travelling at 72km/hr accelerates
travels 5km, how far does he travel in the uniformly at 2m/s2. Calculate its velocity in
next hour? 5 seconds.
(a)5km (b) 10km (c) 15km (d) 20km (a)144km/s (c) 40km/hr (c) 188km/hr (d)
0km/hr (e) 36km/hr.
Solution
Solution
He starts from rest , hence 𝑣0 = 0,
Since the options are in km/hr, we have to
𝑡1 = 1ℎ𝑟 also𝑆1 = 5𝑘𝑚 convert the units before solving.
2
Using the formula,𝑆 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑎 = 2𝑚/s2= 1000
= 25920𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟and
1 2
( )
60×60
1 𝑎 5 1
⇒ 5 = 0(1) + 𝑎(1) = 𝑡 = 5𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 60×60 = 720
2 2
𝑎 = 10. Using the equation 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
1
In 2hrs he’d cover a distance of = 72 + 25920 (720) = 108𝑘𝑚/hr
10
𝑆 = 0(2) + 2 (2)2 = 20𝑘𝑚 , hence the Example 3.17
distance covered in the next hour is 20 −
An object has a constant acceleration
5 = 15𝑘𝑚.
𝑎 =4m/s2 . Its velocity is 1m/s at 𝑡 = 0,
Example 3.12 : (Question 8,Section when is it at 𝑥 = 7𝑚? How fast will it be
A;2012/2013) moving when it is at 𝑥 = 8𝑚?At what time
is this?
Two particles travels towards each other on
the same road. One at 45km/hr , the other at Solution
55km/hr. they are separated by a distance of
150km. How long will it take for the cars to The question is of three parts.
meet? Part1:Given𝑎 = 4𝑚/𝑠 2 , 𝑣0 = 1𝑚/s and 𝑥 =
Solution 7.
Le the distance covered by the particles be Using 𝑥 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2

𝑆1and 𝑆2 ⇒ 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 = 150𝑘𝑚.
1
⇒ 7 = 1 × 𝑡 + (4)𝑡 2
Bu 𝑆 = 𝑣𝑡 2
Page 21 of 70
7 = 𝑡 + 2𝑡 2 𝑜𝑟 2𝑡 2 + 𝑡 − 7 = 0 . This is a Now we need to obtain the value of “𝑎”

quadratic equation that has to be solved for a 𝑣−𝑣 0−180
using the formula 𝑎 = 𝑡 0 = 20
valid value of 𝑡.
= −9𝑚/s2
−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
Using the quadratic formula, 𝑡 = 2𝑎
𝑆 = 3600 + 200(−9) = 1800𝑚
−1 ± √12 − 4(2)(−7) Example 3.19
⇒𝑡=
2(2)
−1 ± √12 + 56 Motorist travelling along a straight highway
= at an initial speed of 20m/s noticed that a
4 deer is standing on the highway 50m away
−1 ± √57 −1 ± 7.5 from him. What minimum acceleration will
= =
4 4 be required if he does not hit the deer?
−1+7.5
i.e 𝑡 = 4
= 1.625 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ≈ 2𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠. Solution
Part2:𝑥 = 8𝑚, 𝑎 = 4𝑚/s ,𝑣0 = 1𝑚/s and Given 𝑣0 = 20m/s ,𝑆 = 50𝑚, 𝑣 = 0 since
𝑎 = 4𝑚/s2 the deer was not hit, and 𝑎 =?
Using the formula 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎𝑆, we have 𝑣 2 −𝑣02

Using 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎𝑆 ⇒ 𝑎 = =
2𝑆
𝑣 = √12 + 2(4)(8) = √65𝑚/s. 02 −202
= −4𝑚/s2
100
Part3: The time when the velocity is
√65𝑚/s. Example : (Question 19, Section A ;
2008/2009)
Using the formula 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
A shell leaves the barrel of a gun at a speed
𝑣 − 𝑣0 √65 − 1 of 800m/s. the barrel is 2m long .find the
⇒𝑡= = = 1.77 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 average acceleration of the gun?
𝑎 4
Example 3.18 Solution
A car moving with a speed of 180m/s was Given 𝑠 = 2𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 800𝑚/𝑠. Let 𝑣0 =
brought uniformly to rest by the application 0𝑚/𝑠 because the gun was at rest.
of the brake in 20seconds. How far did the 𝑣 2 −𝑣02
car travel after the brakes were applied? Using 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎𝑠 ⇒ 𝑎 = 2𝑠
Solution 8002 −02

= = 160000𝑚/𝑠2 .
2(2)
Given 𝑣0 = 180𝑚/s ,𝑡 = 20𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠,𝑣 = 0𝑚/s
(Since it was brought to rest) 𝑆 =? 𝟑. 𝟑 Free Fall
Using the formula 𝑆 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2 When a particle undergoes rectilinear

motion in the vertical direction, we say that
1 the particle is under the influence of the
𝑆 = 180(20) + 2 𝑎(20)2 = 3600 + 200𝑎.
earth gravitational pull. A particle that falls
from a given height above the ground is said
to undergo free fall.
Page 22 of 70
For particle that falls freely, the velocity of 380.25

the particle changes by approximately = = 19.0125.
20
9.8m/s for every second, i.e the acceleration b. Time of flight is the total time spent
of the particle is 9.8m/s2 . This value is in air.
called acceleration due to gravity and it For this kind of motion , time take to
decreases with altitude but constant at a attain maximum height is the same
particular altitude. as that taken to return to the plane of
projection .
The concept for horizontal motion is the So, all we need to do is obtain the
same as that for vertical motion, hence the time it takes the body to attain
following are the corresponding equations of maximum height , then multiply this
motion for a body under free fall. value by two.
Using 𝑣 = 𝑣0 − 𝑔𝑡
ℎ = 𝑣0 𝑡 ± 1⁄2 𝑔𝑡 2 19.5
⇒ 0 = 19.5 − 10𝑡, hence 𝑡 = 10
𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 ± 2𝑔ℎ = 1.95 ≈ 2𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠.
𝑣 = 𝑣0 ± 𝑔𝑡 and
𝑔 Example 3.20 : (Question 8, Section
𝑆𝑡 𝑡ℎ = 𝑣0 ± 2 (2𝑎 + 1).
A;2009/2010)
Where 𝑔 is acceleration due to gravity and ℎ
An object of mass 25g is thrown upwards
is the height of the body. The minus sign is
from the top of a 10m high building at a
used when the body moves against gravity
speed of 15m/s. how fast is the object
(upwards).
moving when it reaches he bottom of the
Now, let’s apply these equations. building?
Example 3.20 (a)10m/s (b) 15m/s (c) 20.6m/s (d)

17.32m/s.
A rocket is fired vertically upwards and
ascends with a constant vertical velocity of Solution
19.5m/s for 1.0mins. its fuel is then all used
Note that the vertical motion of a body is not
up and it continuous as a free particle.
dependent on the mass of the body.
a. What is the maximum altitude the
Given 𝑣0 = 15𝑚/𝑠ℎ = 10𝑚,𝑔 = 1𝑚/s2 and
rocket can attain?
b. What will be the total time of flight 𝑣 =?
(form blast off to splash down) of the Using the formula 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑔ℎ
rocket?
⇒ 𝑣 = √152 + 2(10)(10)
Solution
a. Given 𝑣0 = 19.5m/s, 𝑡 = 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √425 = 20.62𝑚/𝑠.
= 60𝑠𝑒𝑐. At maximum height 𝑣 = 0 Example 3.20: (Question 2a, Section b,
and ℎ =? 2011/2012)
Using 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 − 2𝑔ℎ
𝑖. 𝑒 02 = 19.52 − 2(10)ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ An athlete jumps across a pool from point A
, at a height of 60m with a velocity of 10m/s
Page 23 of 70
to another part B, 20m high from the ground ground. Show that the time taken for the ball
surface . Calculate the speed with which he 𝑣 2𝑔ℎ
jumps to point B. Take 𝑔 = 10m/s. to strike the ground is 𝑔 [1 + √1 + ].
𝑣2
Solution Solution
Since the initial height is 60m and he The time taken to strike the ground is the
jumped to a height if 20m , the distance time of flight ,i.e the total time spent in air .
covered is 60-20=40m= ℎ.
We shall consider this under two parts , the
𝑔 = 10𝑚/s ,𝑣0 = 10𝑚/s and 𝑣 =? time taken to attain maximum height and
return to the plane of projection , and the
Using 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑔ℎ
time taken to move from the plane of
projection to the ground
⇒ 𝑣 = √102 + 2(10)(40) = √900
Part 1:𝑣0 = 𝑣, ℎ0 = ℎ , 𝑣𝑓 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡1 =?.
= 30𝑚/𝑠.
Where 𝑡1 is the time taken to attain thee
Example 3.22: (Question 16,Section maximum height and at maximum height
A,2008/2009) velocity is zero.
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a Using 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣0 − 𝑔𝑡1

velocity of 60m/s from a point 10m above 𝑣
the ground .Determine the maximum height ⇒ 0 = 𝑣 − 𝑔𝑡1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡1 = 𝑔.
of the ball above the ground after 5 seconds.
𝑣2
(a)140m (b) 310m (c) 185m (d) 5m (e) The vertical distance covered is 𝑦 = 2𝑔.
125m
Part 2: Time taken to move from the plane
Solution of projection to the ground.
𝑣0 = 60𝑚/s, ℎ0 = 10𝑚,𝑔 = 10𝑚/s 𝑡 = Let the time be 𝑡2 =?. For this journey ,𝑣0 =
5𝑠𝑒𝑐 and ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 =? 0 , the maximum height is ℎ + 𝑦
Since the initial height of the body is 10m/s, 𝑣2
then the total height would be 10+ℎ, where =ℎ+ .
2𝑔
ℎ = 𝑣0 𝑡 − 1⁄2 𝑔𝑡 2 For this journey, the body falls from the
maximum height, hence the initial velocity
1 is zero.
= 60(5) − (10)(5)2 = 300 − 125
2
Using the formula ℎ = 𝑣0 𝑡 ± 1⁄2 𝑔𝑡 2
= 175𝑚.
𝑣2 1
The max height is 10 + 175 = 185𝑚 ⇒ ℎ+ = 0(𝑡2 ) + 𝑔𝑡22
2𝑔 2
Example 3.24
𝑣2 1 𝑣2
ℎ + 2𝑔 = 2 𝑔𝑡22 ⇒ 𝑔𝑡22 = 2ℎ + =
A ball is thrown straight up with an initial 𝑔
velocity 𝑣 from a poin ℎ meters from the 2𝑔ℎ+𝑣 2 2𝑔ℎ+𝑣 2 1
and𝑡2 = √ = 𝑔 √2𝑔ℎ + 𝑣 2
𝑔 𝑔2
Page 24 of 70
the time of flight is 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 iii. The distance from the building

when it strikes the ground.
𝑣 1 iv. The resultant velocity with which
= + √2𝑔ℎ + 𝑣 2
𝑔 𝑔 it strikes the ground.
(Take 𝑔 =10m/s.)
𝑣 1 2𝑔ℎ𝑣 2
= + √ 2 + 𝑣2
𝑔 𝑔 𝑣 Solution
The diagram for the motion of the body is as
𝑣 𝑣 2𝑔ℎ 𝑣 2𝑔ℎ shown below.
= + √1 + 2 = [1 + √1 + 2 ]
𝑔 𝑔 𝑣 𝑔 𝑣
𝑣0𝑥 =5m/s
Remark : When a particle is released
𝒗𝟐
from a height , the 𝒗 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉 or 𝒉 =
𝟐𝒈
100m
𝟑. 𝟒Motion in a Plane (2 Dimensional
Motion)
When the motion of a particle is influenced R
by two independent components, the vertical
and the horizontal components, then the
particle is said to be moving in a plane. From the statement of problem , we have
When particles moves in a plane, we have to 𝑣0𝑥 = 5𝑚/𝑠 ,ℎ = 100𝑚 , 𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 and
study the vertical and the horizontal motion 𝑡 =?
of the particle independently. A good
example is the movement of a projectiles, a. To obtain the time to reach the
this will be discussed shortly. ground , we can consider the vertical
motion .
In studying the horizontal motion, we
consider only the horizontal components of For the vertical motion ,
the motion ; this motion is not influenced by
gravity. While to study the vertical motion, 𝑣0𝑦 = 0𝑚/𝑠
we use the vertical components of motion 1
and note that this motion is influenced by Using the formula ℎ = 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 + 2 𝑔𝑡 2
gravity.
1
⇒ 100 = 0 × 𝑡 + 2 (10)𝑡 2
Example 3.25
100
A ball is projected horizontally from the top 5𝑡 2 = 100 ; 𝑡 2 = = 20 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡
of a vertical building, 100m high with 5
velocity of 5m/s. Calculate = √20 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.
i. The time to get to the ground. b. The horizontal distance covered is
ii. Vertical component of the also called the range of the motion.
velocity at the bottom of the This is a horizontal parameter ,
ground.
Page 25 of 70
hence we use the horizontal velocity. This is as shown in the diagram

components of the motion. below.
𝑠
Using 𝑣0𝑥 = 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑠 = 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡.
i.e𝑅 = 5 × √20 = 10√5𝑚.
c. Using the formula 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 + 𝑔𝑡
= 0 + 10√20 = 20√5𝑚/𝑠.
𝑣0 𝑣0𝑦
d. The resultant velocity is 𝑣 = √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2
2
= √52 +(20√5𝑚) = √25 + 400(5)
𝜃
= √2025 = 45𝑚/𝑠
𝑣0𝑥
3.4.1 Projectile Motion
A projectile is a particle that moves in a 𝑣0𝑦
From the figure, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
plane such that its trajectory is parabolic. 𝑣0
Trajectory: This is the path taken by a ⇒ 𝑣0𝑦 = 𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃and

particle. 𝑣0𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ⇒ 𝑣0𝑥 = 𝑣0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
As was stated in the previous section , a 𝑣0
projectile motion has two independent
Using the equation of motion, 𝑣 = 𝑣0 − 𝑔𝑡
motion, the vertical and the horizontal
motion. ⇒ 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡
i.e𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃– 𝑔𝑡 , also
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 − 𝑔𝑡, but gravity does not

influence horizontal motion , hence we have
𝑣0
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
From the above, it can be seen that the
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥
vertical component of the velocity changes
with time but its horizontal components is a
𝜃
constant.
Now, let’s consider the determination of
R
some basic parameters in the study of
projectile motion.
The figure above shows a projectile
projected at an angle of 𝜃 to the horizontal Time of flight(T) : The time of flight of a
with an initial velocity, 𝑣0 . From the figure, given particle is the total time spend in air.
we have to resolve to obtain the vertical and For a projectile , it is the time taken to attain
horizontal componenets of the initial maximum height plus that taken to return
Page 26 of 70
2
from the maximum heightto the plane of Using𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 − 2𝑔ℎ, at maximum height ,
projection. 𝑣𝑦 = 0, hence
Let 𝑡 be the time taken to attain maximum 2
𝑣0𝑦 (𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2
2
height, then the time of flight is two times 0 = 𝑣0𝑦 − 2𝑔ℎ; 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥. = =
2𝑔 2𝑔
this value ,i.e𝑇 = 2𝑡. This is so, since for a
projectile, the time taken to attain maximum 𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
height is the same as the time taken to return =
2𝑔
fom the maximum height to the plane of
projection. 𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥. = .
2𝑔
Now , using 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃– 𝑔𝑡, at maximum
height ,𝑣𝑦 = 0, hence the equation becomes, Example 3.26: (Question 9,Section A;
2012/2013)
𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃– 𝑔𝑡 = 0; 𝑔𝑡 = 𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
An arrow is fired with an initial velocity of
∴𝑡=
𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
and the time of flght is 𝑇 = 20.0m/s at an angle of 370 with the
g horizontal. How long does the arrow stay in
2𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
air?
g
Range: The range occupied by a given (a)1.22sec. (b) 3.26sec. (c) 4.08 sec. (d)
projectile is the total horizontal distance 2.46 sec.
covered. Solution
Using the formula, 𝑆 = 𝑣0 𝑡, since the range This is time of flight we are asked to obtain.
2𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
is 𝑅, ⇒ 𝑅 = 𝑣0𝑥 𝑇 = 𝑣0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ( 0g )
Given 𝑣0 = 20𝑚/s ,𝜃 = 370 and
2𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑔 = 10𝑚/s2 .
=
g
2𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2(20)𝑠𝑖𝑛37
From compound angles, in trigonometry, we 𝑇= =
g 10
have it that, 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = = 2.4 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠.
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃; 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 2
Example 3.27 : (Question 10,Section A;
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 2012/2013)
2𝑣02 ( 2 )
𝑅= A golf ball was hit and it makes an angle of
𝑔
450 with the horizontal as it leaves the tee
𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 .The ball lands 200.0 m away after being in
𝑅= air for 10 seconds. What was the ball’s
𝑔
initial speed?
The maximum range can be attained when
𝑣02 (a)20.0m/s (b) 28.28m/s (c) 44.44m/s (d)
𝜃 = 450 , 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑅 = 𝑔 90m/s
Maximum height (𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥. ): The maximum Solution
height of a projectile is the highest vertical
distance it can cover. Given 𝑅 = 200𝑚, 𝑣0 =? 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 450 .
Page 27 of 70
𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

Using 𝑅 = 2. Using 𝑅 =
𝑔 𝑔
29.42 𝑠𝑖𝑛120
𝑣02 sin(2 × 45) ⇒𝑅= = 74.9𝑚
⇒ 200 = 10
2
10 2
𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
3. Using ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥. = 0 2𝑔 .
𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛90 = 2000 ; 𝑣0 = √2000 29.42 (sin 60)2
⇒ ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2(10)
= 20√5 𝑚/s.
= 32.414𝑚.
Example 3.28 : (Question 9, Section A;
Example 3.29
2011/2012)
Find the angle of projection at which the
A stone is thrown with a speed of 15m/s at a
horizontal range is twice the maximum
projection angle of 300. Determine the
height.
range.
Solution
(a)6.75m (b) 25.0m (c) 12.5m (d) 1.5m
𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
Solution Using ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥. = and = , but
2𝑔 𝑔
𝑅 = 2ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥.
Given 𝑣0 = 15𝑚/s and 𝜃 = 300
𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 2𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
Using 𝑅 = ⇒ =
𝑔 𝑔 2𝑔
152 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
⇒𝑅= = 19.5𝑚.
10
But 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Example 3.28: (Question 1, Section B;
2008/2009) ⇒ 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
A body is projected from the ground with a 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 0

velocity of 29.4m/s at an angle of 600 to the
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃(2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) = 0
horizontal. Taking the acceleration due to
gravity as 9.8m/s2 , calculate 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0 𝑜𝑟 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0
1. Time of flight. ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (0) = 00 or𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2. Horizontal range
3. The maximum height. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
i.e𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
Solution
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (2) = 63.430 .
Given 𝑣0 = 29.4𝑚/s ,𝜃 = 600 and 𝑔 =
9.8𝑚/s. 𝟑. 𝟔 Circular and Rotational Kinematics
2𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 Circular and rotational kinematics are very

1. Using 𝑇 = similar, however, let’s try to distinguish
g
2(29.4)𝑠𝑖𝑛60 between them by their elementary
⇒𝑇= definitions.
10
= 5.09 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠.
Page 28 of 70
Circular Motion: This is the motion of a This acceleration is called the centripetal
body in a circular part. In circular motion, a acceleration. This is the acceleration with
body moves in such a way that it is of equal which the particle moves towards the center
distance from a point , known as the center of the circle. The centripetal acceleration of
of the circle. a particle is also called the
radialacceleration.
Rotational Motion: This is the motion of a
body about its axis. To better understand the concept of circular
and rotation motion, the following terms
Example of rotational motion is the motion must be understood.
of the blades of a fan, while an example of
circular motion is the motion of a car about Angular Displacement(𝜽): This is the
a round-about. Planets rotates about their angle formed by a particle that moves in a
axes. The treatment of circular and circular path, it is denoted as 𝜃 and the unit
rotational motion is quite similar. of measurement is the radian.
3.5.1 Circular Motion An angle given in degrees can be converted
to radian using the formula 10 = 𝜋/180.
When a particle undergoes circular motion,
it moves with a constant speed, but changes Example 3.30 (Question 28, Section A;
in direction, hence its velocity changes and 2012/2013)
it moves with a constant acceleration that is
directed towards the center of the circle. Convert 1200 to radian.
3𝜋
(a)3𝜋radian (b) radian (c) 𝜋/3 radian (d)
2
𝑣𝐵 B 2𝜋/3
Solution
𝑣𝐴
Using 10 = 𝜋/180, to obtain the equivalent
r
of 1200 , multiply both sides by 120.
𝜃
A 120𝜋 2𝜋
i.e 1200= = 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
r 180 3
Example 3.31 : (Question 26, Section

A;2011/2012)
If the angle of rotation of motion of an
object is 600 , what is the equivalent in
In the figure above, the magnitude of the radian?
velocities are the same. The direction of the
Solution
velocity at a particular point is parallel to the
tangentat that point. When a particle As was done in the previous example ,
undergoes circular motion, the acceleration
𝑣2 60𝜋
of the particle is 𝑎 = , where 𝑟 is the 600 = = 𝜋/3 rad.
𝑟 180
radius of the circle.
Angular velocity (𝝎) :The angular velocity
of a particle is the rate of change of angular
Page 29 of 70
displacement with time. It is a vector 2𝑛𝜋 2𝑛

For this reason, 𝜔 = = or 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑡 𝑇
quantity and its unit of measurement is
radian per second, i.e𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠. Angular Acceleration(𝜶): The angular
∆𝜃 𝜃−𝜃0 acceleration of a particle is the rate of
Mathematically ,𝜔 = = change of angular velocity with respect to
time, it is a vector quantity and its unit of
𝜃
This can also be expressed as 𝜔 = measurement is radian per second square,
𝑡
i.e𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2 .
Instantaneous Angular Velocity: The ∆𝜔 𝜔−𝜔0
instantaneous angular velocity of a particle Mathematically, 𝛼 = = .
is the angular velocity of the particle at a
particular instant; it’s mathematically Instantaneous Angular Acceleration: The
𝑑𝜃 instantaneous angular acceleration of a
expressed as 𝜔 = .
𝑑𝑡 particle is the angular acceleration of the
Revolution: A revolution is said to be made body at a given instant of time. It is
when a particle moves through an angular mathematically expressed as
displacement of 3600 = 2𝜋radian.
𝑑𝜔 𝑑 2 𝜃
𝛼= = 2
i.e I rev. 2𝜋 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2 rev=4𝜋 Relationships Between Angular and

Linear Quantities
.
Generally , linear quantity is equal to
. angular quantity times radius, i.e
. 𝑆 = 𝑟𝜃
𝑛rev. = 2𝑛𝜋 radian. 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔and
From this , we can express the angular 𝑎 = 𝑟𝛼, this is also called the tangential
2𝑛𝜋
velocity as 𝜔 = 𝑡 acceleration
Frequency (𝒇): This is defined as the Equations of Angular Motion

number of circles or revolution made in one The equations of angular motion are similar
second, its unit of measurement is the to that of rectilinear motion; all we need to
ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧. do is replace these parameters by their
corresponding.
Mathematically ,𝑓 = 𝑛/𝑡
The equations are
Period (T):The time taken to complete one
circle or one revolution, its unit of 𝜔 = 𝜔0 + 𝛼𝑡
measurement is the second.
𝑡
𝜔2 = 𝜔02 + 2𝛼𝜃
Mathematically ,𝑇 = 𝑛.
1
𝜃 = 𝜔0 𝑡 + 2 𝛼𝑡 2 and
𝑛 1
But 𝑓 = ⇒ 𝑇 = 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 = 1/𝑇.
𝑡 𝛼
𝜃𝑡 𝑡ℎ = 𝜃0 + 2 (2𝑡 + 1).
Page 30 of 70
As can be seen , the equations are quite ii. Determine the angular
easy; they are simply the modification of the displacement during the 10
ones we use in motion along a straight path. second interval.
Example 3.33 : (Question 3a, Section B; Solution
2012/2013)
i. Given 𝜔0 = 220𝑟𝑎𝑑/s
The angular displacement of a bicycle is 𝜔 = 120𝑟𝑎𝑑/s, 𝑡 = 10𝑠 & 𝛼 =?
𝜃 = (4𝑡 3 − 6𝑡 2 + 13)radian, where 𝑡 is in
𝜔−𝜔0 120−220
seconds. Using 𝛼 = =
𝑡 10
i. Calculate its angular velocity and 100

=− = −19𝑟𝑎𝑑/s2 .
acceleration . 10
ii. Is the angular acceleration ii. To obtain the angular
constant? displacement , we use the
Solution formula
1
𝜃 = 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡 2
i. Given is 𝜃 = (4𝑡 3 − 6𝑡 2 + 13), 2
the angular velocity and i.e𝜃 = 220(10) +
1
acceleration are (−19)(10)2 = 1250𝑠.
𝑑𝜃 𝑑2 𝜃 2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 respectively.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 Example 3.35 : (Question 30, Section
𝑑𝜃
𝑖. 𝑒 𝜔 = A;2012/2013)
𝑑𝑡
= (12𝑡 2 − 12𝑡)𝑟𝑎𝑑/s and𝛼 = A ceiling fan rotates at a constant angular
𝑑2 𝜃
= 24𝑡 − 12. acceleration of 3rad/sec. Calculate the
𝑑𝑡 2
ii. To know if the angular angular speed of the fan after 2.0sec.
acceleration is a constant , we (a) 6.0rad/s (b) 36.0 rad/s (c) 3
obtain its derivative. If the rad/sec. (d) 9.0 rad/sec.
derivative is zero , then it’s a
constant otherwise , it’s not a Solution
constant.
𝑑𝛼 Given 𝛼 = 3𝑟𝑎𝑑/s ,𝑡 = 2.0𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 =?
Now , 𝑑𝑡 = 24 ≠ 0, hence it’s
𝜔
not a constant. Using 𝛼 = ⇒ 𝜔 = 𝛼𝑡 = 3(2) = 6𝑟𝑎𝑑/s
𝑡
Example 3.34 : (Question 2b, Section Example 3.36: (question 21,Section
B,2013) A;2012/2013)
A grinding wheel has an initial angular An arbitrary particle describes a circle of
velocityof220rad/sec when the driving radius 10cm with angular velocity of 5rad/s.
motor is shut off. After 10 secs, its angular The tangential component of acceleration is
velocity becomes 120rad/sec. ?
i. What is the angular acceleration (a) 2rad/s2 (b) 2.5rad/s2 (c) 3rad/s2 (d)
of the wheel? 2.5rrad/s2
Solution
Page 31 of 70
The tangential component of acceleration is Solution

𝑎 = 𝛼𝑟. The parameters are not given
completely. Given 𝑇 = 365𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 365(24)(60)(60)𝑠
Example 3.38: (Question 22,Section = 31536000𝑠

A;2010/2011) 2𝜋 2𝜋
⇒𝜔= = 31536000 = 3 × 10−7 𝑟𝑎𝑑/s
𝑇
A switched off turntable comes to a final
stop after 1.5 sec. If its constant angular Example 3.42 (Question 19,section
velocity is 4.7rad/s, calculate the angular A,2009/2010)
acceleration
Calculate the velocity of a particle moving
2 2 in a circular path of radius 125cm if it takes
(a) 2.8rad/s (b) 0.32rad/s (c) 3.13
rad/s2 (d) 4.13rad/s2 0.25seconds to make one circle.
Solution (a) 500m/s (b) 31.35m/s (c) 33.3x10-2

m/s (d) 33.3m/s
𝜔 4.7
The angular acceleration is 𝛼 = = 1.5
𝑡 Solution
2
= 3.13𝑟𝑎𝑑/s .
Using𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟, where 𝑟 = 125𝑐𝑚
Example 3.40 : (Question 40,Section
= 1.25𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = 0.25
A;2009/2010)
2𝜋 2𝜋
The angular displacement of a gear is given ⇒ 𝜔 = 𝑇 = 0.25 = 25.144𝑟𝑎𝑑/s and 𝑣 =
by 𝜃 = 2𝑡 2 . Calculate its angular velocity at 25.144(1.25) = 31.43𝑚/s.
𝑡 = 3𝑠.
Example 3.43 (Question 24,section
(a) 6rad/s (b) 12rad/s (c) 15rad/s (d) A;2008/2009)
8rad/s
A boy seating at the edge of a merry-go –
Solution round is observed at a particular instant to be
rotating counter clockwise with an angular
Given 𝜃 = 2𝑡 2 , the angular velocity is the speed of 0.74rad/s. if the speed is decreasing
derivative of this . at a rate of 0.25rad/s2, determine the ratio of
𝑑𝜃
its radial acceleration to its tangential
i.e𝜔 = = 4𝑡. acceleration.
𝑑𝑡
At 𝑡 = 3𝑠, 𝜔 = 4(3) = 12𝑟𝑎𝑑/s. (a) 2.19 (b) 2.96 (c) 0.34 (d) 0.09
Example 3.41 : (Question 38,Section Solution

A,2009/2010)
Given 𝜔 = 0.74𝑟𝑎𝑑/s and𝛼 = 0.25𝑟𝑎𝑑/s.
If the earth has aperiod of 365days in its
motion around the sun, determine its angular The radial and angular acceleration are
𝜔2 𝑟 𝜔2
speed in rad/s. 𝜔2 𝑟 and 𝛼𝑟, hence their ratio is = =
𝛼𝑟 𝛼
0.742
(a) 2x10-7rad/s (b) 4rad/s = 2.19.
0.25
(c) 3x10-8rad/s (d) 5x10-6rad/s

Page 32 of 70
Example 3.45 : (Question 18, Section 𝑣2 102

i.e𝑎 = = = 5𝑚/s2 .
A;2008/2009) 𝑟 20
A car moving along a straight road makes a

right turn , following a circular arc of radius Note: The slope of a displacement-time
20m. If the car moves with a constant speed graph gives the velocity.
of 10m/s throughout the turn, determine the
car’s acceleration as it begins turning. The slope of a velocity-time graph gives the
acceleration.
(a)5m/s2 (b) 3.3m/s (c) 0.5 m/s2 (d) 2m/s
The area under a velocity-time graph gives
Solution the distance covered by a body.
Given 𝑟 = 20𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 10𝑚/s.
The acceleration of the car is it’s centripetal
acceleration.
4
DYNAMICS
This is the branch of mechanics that studies Inertia: This is the tendency for a body to
the movement of particle and the cause of resist change in state. The inertia of a body
motion ( Force). is a function of the mass of the body, i.e
inertia is directly proportional to the mass of
In dynamics, we shall study the three basic a body. The more massive a body is , the
laws of motion , as stated by Sir Isaac greater its resistance to change in state.
Newton , hence the name , Newton’s Laws
of motion. There are three laws of motion , 4.2 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
they are considered below.
This law is a continuation of the first law of
4.1 Newton’s First Law of Motion motion. When a body at rest or a body in
motion is acted upon by an external force ,
Newton’s first law of motion , also called the body accelerates. The second law of
the law of inertia describes the state of a motion relates the net force to the
body in equilibrium (static or dynamic). It acceleration of the body; it is used to obtain
states that “ a body at rest will continue to the magnitude of the net force. This law is
be at rest or a body in uniform motion will also called the Law of motion.
continue in its state except an external
agent(force) acts on it”. The external agent It states that “ The force applied to a given
that acts on the body is called the net force body is directly proportional to the rate of
of the body.The expression for the net force change of the momentum of the body with
is considered in the second law of motion. respect to time.” or “ The force applied to a
given body is directly proportional to the
acceleration of the body”. The later is not
Page 33 of 70
practically correct, hence we shall focus on 4.2.2 Impulse

the former.
The impulse of a body is the effect of force
Mathematically , the law is 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∝ on the body for a given duration. For a
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 constant force, it is the product of force and
time, hence its unit of measurement is
∆𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝐹 ∝ ∆𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 , Where 𝐹 is the applied 𝑁𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝑔𝑚/s.
force and it’s measured in 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛(𝑁).
Mathematically, 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
As shall be discussed in section 4.2, the
i.e𝐼 = 𝐹𝑡 … 4.4
momentum of a body is the product of mass
and velocity, hence For a variable force, impulse is the integral
∆𝑃 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑣0 of force with respect to time ,
𝐹∝ = 𝑡
∆𝑡 𝑡 − 𝑡0 i.e𝐼 = ∫𝑡 𝐹. 𝑑𝑡 … 4.5
0
𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑣0
𝐹=𝑘 , where 𝑘 is a constant of
𝑡−𝑡0 4.2.3 Impulse-Momentum Theorem
proportionality. For the sake of convenience
,𝑘 = 1𝑁/𝑠 The impulse momentum theorem relates the
momentum of a body to impulse . It states
𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑣0 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑣0 ) that the impulse of a net force on a body is
⇒𝐹= = equal to the change in momentum of the
𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑡 − 𝑡0
body.
= 𝑚𝑎 … 4.1
i.e𝐼 = ∆𝑃 or 𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑣0 … 4.6.
i.e𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 … 4.1(𝑖)
∆𝑃
From the second law of motion, 𝐹 = .
4.2.1 Momentum ∆𝑡
𝑑𝑃
The momentum of a body is the amount of As ∆𝑡 → 0, 𝐹 = ⇒ 𝑑𝑃 = 𝐹𝑑𝑡.
𝑑𝑡
motion possessed by the body; it is a
function of the velocity of the body. It is a Taking the integral of both sides , we have
𝑃 𝑡
vector quantity and is measured in 𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠. ∫𝑃 𝑑𝑃 = ∫𝑡 𝐹 𝑑𝑡 … 4.7
0
Mathematically, it is equal to the product of 4.6 and 4,7 are mathematical expressions for
the mass and the velocity of the body, the impulse momentum theorem for a
i.e𝑃 = 𝑚 × 𝑣 … .4.2 constant and a variable force, respectively.
The change in momentum of a body is the Now, let’s solve some questions to illustrate
final momentum minus its initial these concepts discussed so far.
momentum, Example 4.1: (Question 15, Section A ;
i.e∆𝑃 = 𝑝1 − 𝑃0 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑣0 … 4.3 2011/2012)
The concept of change in momentum of a A force of 24N acts on a 4.0kg mass

particle leads to another physical quantity originally at rest. In how many seconds will
known as impulse of a body. the body acquire a velocity of 54.0m/s?
(A)3.0s (B) 9.0s (C) 6.0s (D) 10.0s.
Page 34 of 70
Solution = 14.8𝑚/s.
Given 𝐹 = 24𝑁 , 𝑣 = 54𝑚/s and 𝑣0 = Example 4.4 : (Question 38, Section A;
0𝑚/s. 2010/2011)
𝑚(𝑣−𝑣0 ) A 1.0kg ball is dropped vertically unto the
Using the formula𝐹 = 𝑡 floor with a speed of 25m/s. It re-bounced
4(54−0) 216 with an initial speed of 10m/s. What impulse
i.e24 = ⇒𝑡= = 9.0𝑠. acts on the ball during contact?
𝑡 24
Example 3.3: (Question 8,Section Solution

A;2008/2009)
Given 𝑚 = 1.0𝑘𝑔 , 𝑣0 = 25𝑚/s and 𝑣 =
Calculate the force exerted on a mass of −10m/s. The negative sign shows that it is
20kg that causes it to have an acceleration of in the opposite direction.
10m/s.
Using the impulse momentum theorem ,𝐼 =
(A)20N (B) 10N (C) 5N (D) 200N 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑣0 = 1(−10) − 1(25)
Solution = −33𝑘𝑔𝑚/s.
Given 𝑚 = 20𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 10𝑚/s. Example 4.6: (Question 37,Section A,
2010/2011)
Using 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 20(10) = 200𝑁
A ball of mass 5.0kg strikes a wall
Example 4.4: (Question 19,section
perpendicularly with a speed of 15m/s and
A;2011/2012)
then re-bounced with the same speed. If the
A body of mass 20kg is moved along the time of collision is 10s, what is the average
horizontal axis bya force of 150N from its force exerted by the ball on the wall?
initial position to a final distance of 8m. If
(A)3N (B) 7.5N (C) 15N (D) 10N
the initial velocity is 10m/s , how fast is it
moving at the 8m distance? Solution
(A)20m/s (B) 14.8m/s (C) 220m/s Given 𝑚 = 5.0𝑘𝑔 , 𝑣0 = 15𝑚/s ,𝑡 = 10𝑠
and 𝑣 = −15𝑚/s .
(D) 0.8m/s
𝑚(𝑣−𝑣 )
0 5(−15−15)
Solution Using 𝐹 = = = −15𝑁.
𝑡 10
Hence the force is 15𝑁.
Given 𝐹 = 150𝑁, 𝑚 = 20𝑘𝑔 ,
Example (Question 2c,SectionB;2015/16)
𝑠 = 8𝑚 , 𝑣0 = 10𝑚/s and 𝑣 =?
𝐹 150
An object of mass 4𝑘𝑔 is acted upon by two
But 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑚 = = 7.5𝑚/s2 . horizontal forces of 8𝑁 and 2𝑁 in the
20
opposite direction. Calculate the
Now , to obtain the velocity , we use 𝑣 2 = acceleration by the system.
𝑣02 + 2𝑎𝑠
Solution
i.e𝑣 = √102 + 2(7.5)(8) = √220
Page 35 of 70
Since the forces are in opposite directions, device can be placed in an elevator to
the resultant force is 8 − 2 = 𝑚𝑎 measure the weight of a body placed in the
elevator, this device is called a Newton-
6 6
⟹ 𝑎 = 𝑚 = 4 = 1.5𝑚/𝑠 2 meter. We shall consider the recording of
the device under different conditions.
Weight: This is defined as the force on a
body due to the earth gravitational pull; it’s Case1: When the lift is stationed or moves
a vector quantity , this is so since it’s always with constant velocity
directed toward the center of the earth.
When the lift is stationed , the device
Mathematically, weight is the product of the records the true weight of the body , i.e
mass of a body and acceleration due to reaction of the flow of the floor of the lift
gravity. Unlike the mass of a body , the equals the true weight of the body.
weight of a body is not a constant.
Mathematically ,𝑅 = 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 … 4.10
i.e weight , 𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔 … 4.8
The same thing happens when the body
4.3 Newton’s Third Law of Motion moves with constant velocity, this is because
with constant velocity , the body does not
Newton’s third law of motion , also called accelerate.
the law of interaction explains what
happens when ever force is applied on a Case2: When the elevator ascends with
body. It states that ”to every action there’s acceleration "𝒂".
an equal and opposite reaction”. The third
When the lift accelerates , the device would
law of motion helps us to understand the fact
record the apparent weight of the body,
that ,forces always occurs in pairs; that
which would be greater than the true weight
there’s no way a single isolated force can
of the body. The body ascends , this means
exist in the universe. It can also be stated as
that the upward force is greater than the
“actions and reactions are equal and
downward force, i.e𝑅 − 𝑤 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
opposite”.
𝑅 − 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑎 ⇒ 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑚𝑔
Mathematically ,𝐹𝐴 = −𝐹𝑅 𝑜𝑟
𝑅 = 𝑚(𝑎 + 𝑔) … 4.11
𝐹𝐴 + 𝐹𝑅 = 0 … 4.9
Case3: When the body descend with
, where 𝐹𝐴 is the applied force and 𝐹𝑅 is the
acceleration "𝒂".
reaction (force).
When the body descends , the device would
There are different applications of this law,
record a weight lesser than the true weight
in this chapter, we shall consider a few ,
of the body. The body appears to be light.
then its application into the impact of a gun
The total downward force is greater than the
shall be discussed in chapter 6, on
upward force, hence the difference between
momentum and collision of bodies.
these force equals the net force.
4.3.1 Apparent Weight of a Body in an
i.e𝑊 − 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎
Elevator
An elevator is a machine that does work by 𝑅 = 𝑊 − 𝑚𝑎
moving bodies through a vertical distance. A 𝑅 = 𝑚(𝑔 − 𝑎) … 4.12
Page 36 of 70
Case4: When the body falls freely. (D) 5.0m/s2

When the body falls freely , it descends with Solution
an acceleration that equals the earth
acceleration due to gravity, i.e𝑎 = 𝑔, hence The body ascends with a force of 104 . This
4.12 now becomes 𝑅 = 𝑚(𝑔 − 𝑔) = 0. The is the apparent weight of the body, hence
reading of the device will be zero, as though 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑚𝑔
the body is weightless.
i.e10000 = 800𝑎 + 800(10)
10000 − 8000 = 800𝑎
2012/2013)
2000
A 50kg bag of rice is raised by a lift ⇒𝑎= = 2.5𝑚/s2.
800
accelerating vertically upwards at the rate of
2m/s. Calculate the apparent weight.
(A)500N (B) 600N (C) 800N (D) 100N Example 4.11 :
Solution An object of mass 2kg is suspended from the

ceiling of an elevator by a calibrated ideal
Given 𝑚 = 50𝑘𝑔 , 𝑎 = 2𝑚/s2 . spring scale.
Since the body ascends, the apparent weight a. If the elevator is moving upwards
is 𝑅 = 𝑚(𝑎 + 𝑔) = 50(2 + 10) = 50(12) with a constant velocity , 𝑣 ,what
does the spring scale read in newton:
= 600𝑁. b. If the elevator is ascending upwards
with a constant acceleration of
Example 4.9: (Question 11,Section
3m/s,what is the spring scale
A;2011/2012)
reading?
Calculate the apparent weight of mass c. If it is accelerating downwards at a
80.0kg inside a lift accelerating vertically constant acceleration of 2m/s, what
upwards at the rate of 2.0m/s, where is the spring scale reading?
g=10m/s.
Solution
(A)960N (B) 800N (C) 820N (D) 480N
a. Since the body moves with constant
Solution velocity , the acceleration is zero ,
hence the calibrated spring would
Same as the previous question. Obtain the read the true weight of the body ,
answer!! 𝑅 = 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 = 2(10) = 20𝑚/s2 .
b. Do this !!
Example 4.10 : (Question 9,Section c. Since the body descends with
A;2010/2011) acceleration ,𝑎. We apparent weight
A particle of mass 800kg is lifted up is 𝑅 = 𝑚(𝑔 − 𝑎)
vertically by a force of 104 N, if the 𝑅 = 2(10 − 3) = 14𝑁 .
acceleration due to gravity is 10m/s, the 4.4 Frictional Force
acceleration of the particle will be
(A)12.5m/s2 (A) 10m/s2 (C) 2.5m/s2
Page 37 of 70
This is a force that opposes motion. Other methods of reducing friction is by

Frictional force is a type of contact force lubrication and streamlining .
that is non-conservative; its existence is felt
when force is applied to displace a body. Furthermore , frictional force can be
The force is inherence in every motion classified as static and kinetic friction.
because the concept of a smooth surface is
When none of the bodies in contact is in
just an ideology of life.
motion , then the frictional force that exist
There are situations that frictional force is between them is called static frictional force.
desirable and cases where it’s not desirable. Static frictional force is adjustable, this is
seen when a force is applied to displace a
Frictional force is desirable in the brakes of body from its mean position. As the force
a vehicle, it is desirable in hammering a nail tends to displace the body , the frictional
to the wall. Without frictional force , force would adjust to balance the applied
movement would have been impossible. force and keeps the body in its state of rest.
As the applied force is increased, it would
Frictional force is not needed in the moving get to a point , that the frictional force can
parts of machines , this is because they no longer adjust to balance the applied force,
ware-out the parts of the machine. at this point the body will be in motion. The
maximum frictional force that one must
Classes of Frictional Force
over-come before a body starts moving is
There are generally two classes of frictional called the limiting static friction.
force, Solid friction and fluid friction
(Viscosity). Laws of Friction
The following are the laws of frictional
When the bodies in contact are both solid ,
force
then the frictional force that exist between
them is solid friction , but if at least one of 1. It opposes motion.
the particles is a fluid (liquid or gas), then 2. It is adjustable.
the frictional force is called viscosity. In this 3. It depends on the nature of surface in
chapter we shall be more concerned with contact.
solid friction. 4. It is independent on the area of
surface in contact.
Solid Friction
5. It is directly proportional to normal
This is a force that exist between two solids reaction.
that are in relative motion. There are two i.e𝐹 ∝ 𝑁 ⇒ 𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁, where 𝑁 is the
types of solid friction , they are rolling and normal reaction. For a body on a
sliding friction. plane surface, 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔, hence 𝐹 =
𝜇𝑚𝑔. This is as shown below.
When at least one of the bodies undergoes
rotational motion, then the frictional force is
termed rolling friction otherwise we have
sliding friction. In general, rolling friction is
lesser than sliding friction; for this reason ,
to reduce sliding frictional force , we could
introduce ball bearing between the particles .
Page 38 of 70
36
𝑎 = = 9, but𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 ⇒ 𝑣 = 0 +
𝑁 4
9(2) = 18𝑚/s and the momentum is 𝑃 =
18(4) = 72𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠.
Example 4.:Question 12, Section A;11/12

A wooden block of mass 8.0kg rests on a
𝑤 surface and the coefficient of friction is
0.32. Calculate the force just sufficient to
move the block horizontally from rest. (𝑔 =
10𝑚/𝑠).
Example 4. : (Question 18,SectionA
;2012/2013) (a)20.8N (b) 25.6N (c) 30.2N (d) 50.2N
A force 𝐹 = 40𝑁 acts on a rolling ball Solution

initially at rest on a rough surface for a time
𝑡 = 2𝑠. If the coefficient of dynamic friction Given 𝑚 = 8.0𝑘𝑔, 𝜇 = 0.32. The force that
is 0.1 and the mass of the ball is 4kg. (𝑔 = would be sufficient the body is equal to the
10𝑚/𝑠). What is the momentum of the ball frictional force. i.e𝐹 = 𝜇𝑚𝑔
after the given time? = 0.32(8)(10) = 25.6𝑁
(a)72kgms (b) 80kgms (c) 72kgms Motion along an Inclined Plane
(d) 40kgms (e) 40kgms. So far we have been discussing motion on a
Solution horizontal surface, however a body can
equally move on a plane inclined to the
Given 𝐹 = 40𝑁, 𝑡 = 2𝑠 , 𝑣0 = 0𝑚/𝑠 horizontal at a given angle, say 𝜃. The same
laws of motion is applicable. Lets consider
𝑚 = 4𝑘𝑔 , 𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠and 𝜇 = 0.1. the motion of the body under different
circumstances, with the presence of
The momentum of the ball after the given
frictional force.
time is 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣, but 𝑣 is not known.
It should be noted that the component of the
Now , since the body rolls on the rough
weight of the body that acts along the plane
surface, frictional force would act in the
is 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, that Normal to the plane is
opposite direction; this is as shown in the
𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.
figure below.
Case1: When the body is stationed , moves
i.e𝐹 − 𝐹𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎
with constant velocity or just about to move
i.e𝐹 − 𝜇𝑁 = 𝑚𝑎 i. And no external force is applied.
𝐹 − 𝜇𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎 The body would tend to move
downwards due to the inherent
40 − 0.1(4)(10) = 4𝑎
force that acts downward along
the plane, however since friction
is present and it opposes motion ,
then frictional force acts upwards
Page 39 of 70
along the plane to balance this act upwards along the plane ,
force . i.e𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐹𝑓 , but from hence 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝐹𝑎 = 𝐹𝑓
the laws of frictional force ,𝐹𝑓 = 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝐹𝑎 = 𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜇𝑁. 𝐹𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔(𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
Now ,𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 Case2: A force 𝐹𝑎 is applied downwards

along the plane and the body moves
⇒ 𝐹𝑓 = 𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. downward along the plane with an
acceleration "𝑎", then the net force is in the
The equation becomes direction of the applied force.
𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝜇 =
𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 or Therefore, 𝐹𝑎 + 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝐹𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎.
𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Case3: A force 𝐹𝑎 is applied upwards along
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝜇)
the plane and the body moves upward along
the plane with an acceleration "𝑎", then the
net force is in the direction of the applied
𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
force.
𝐹𝑓
Therefore, 𝐹𝑎 − (𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝐹𝑎 ) = 𝑚𝑎.
I guess by now you must have understood
how the computation is done. There are so
many other cases, but with the few we have
𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 discussed ,when they are encountered ,
𝜃
you’d know what to do.
ii. And a force 𝐹𝑎 is applied

upwards along the plane , then Example (Question 33, Section A;2015/16)
the netforce is zero. i.e the total
A wooden block is on the verge of sliding
force acting upwards along the
plane equals that downwards down a plane inclined at an angle of 300 to
along the plane. Since the force the horizontal. Calculate the coefficient of
is applied upwards along the static friction.
plane, the frictional force would (𝑎) 0.478 (𝑏) 0.577 (𝑐) 0.678 (𝑑) 0.874
act downwards along the plane ,
hence 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝐹𝑓 = 𝐹𝑎 Solution
𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐹𝑎
𝐹𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) Since the particle is just about sliding down ,
iii. And a force 𝐹𝑎 is applied the coefficient of friction is 𝜇 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
downwards along the plane , then 𝑡𝑎𝑛30 = 0.577.
the netforce is zero. i.e the total Example 4.12: (Question 15,Section A;
force acting upwards along the 2012/2013)
plane equals that downwards
along the plane. Since the force Determine the acceleration of an object that
is applied downwards along the rolls down a plane inclined at 300 to the
plane, the frictional force would horizontal.
Page 40 of 70
(A)2m/s (B) 3m/s (C) 4m/s (D) 5m/s. 1

Given 𝑚 = 4𝑘𝑔, 𝜃 = 300 𝜇 = &
4
Solution
𝑔 = 10𝑚/s2 .
The component for acceleration along a
The force required to move the body up the
plane is 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, hence the required
plane is the force that will just balance the
acceleration is 10(𝑠𝑖𝑛30) = 5m/s.
body.
Example : (Question 21, Section From the statement , the movement of the
A;2009/2010) body is up along the plane , hence the
A motor car of mass 50,000kg moves along frictional force would act downwards, as
a smooth surface which is inclined at an shown in the figure below.
angle of 300 to the horizontal . Calculate the
force the car will produce if it moves with
uniform motion. 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐹𝑓
(A)1.5X106N (B) 3.5X104N (C) 3.5X105N
(D) 5.0X104N
𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐹𝑎 𝑚𝑔
Solution 300
Given 𝑚 = 50,000𝑘𝑔, 𝜃 = 300.

Since the car slides downwards without an Since the body is not yet displaced, the
applied force , the force with which the body applied force equals the sum of the frictional
moves is the inherent force due to force and thee inherent force .
inclination and this is 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. The force
produced is thus, 50000(10)𝑠𝑖𝑛30 i.e𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝐹𝑓 = 𝐹𝑎
= 250,000𝑁 = 2.5 × 105 𝑁 ⇒ 𝐹𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Example 4.14 1
𝑚 = 4𝑘𝑔, 𝜃 = 300 𝜇 = 4 &
A body of mass 4kg is placed on a rough
inclined plane of angle 300 . What force 𝑔 = 10𝑚/s2 .
applied parallel to the plane will just move it 1
1 𝐹𝑎 = 4(10)𝑠𝑖𝑛30 + (4)(10)𝑐𝑜𝑠30
up the plane ? (𝜇 = 4 & 𝑔 = 10𝑚/s2 ). 4
Solution = 20 + 5√3
Page 41 of 70
5
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
Forms of Energy
5.1 Work Mechanical Energy:This is the energy
possessed by a body that is stored or when
Work is said to be done when an applied the particle is in motion. There are two types
force displaces a body in the direction of the of mechanical energy, the potential and the
force. It is a vector quantity and its unit of kinetic energy.
measurement is the joules.
Light Energy: This is the energy produced
Mathematically, work is the product of force by light waves or beam.
and distance.
Heat Energy: This is the energy that flows
i.e𝑊 = 𝐹 × 𝑑 from a body athigh temperature to that at
low temperature.
From the formula above , another unit for
work is Newton-Merter(Nm) Sound Energy: This is the form of energy
that brings about vibration of particles and
The Joule is defined as the amount of work
as a result sound is produced.
done when a force of 1N displaces a body
through a distance of 1m in the direction of In this chapter ,we shall be considering only
the force. mechanical energy, i.e the potential and
kinetic energy of particles. Before we study
If the force is applied at an angle of 𝜃 to the
these forms of energy, let’s take a look at a
horizontal ,then the work done is
very important theorem.
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃in the horizontal axis and 𝑊 =
Work Energy Theorem
𝐹𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 in the vertical axis.
The work energy theorem states that the
The formula we’ve been considering are for
work done by a body is equal to the change
a constant force. However , if the force is a
in the energy of the body.
variable force , then the work done is the
integral of the force with respect to distance. i.e work done= change in energy.
𝑥
i.e𝑊 = ∫𝑥 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥 5.3 Potential Energy
0
5.2 Energy This is the energy of a body as a result of its

structure,position or configuration. There are
Energy is defined as the ability to do work; different types of potential energy;
it is a scalar quantity. The S.I unit of work
is the same as that for energy, the 1. Gravitational potential energy.
joules.There are different forms of energy as 2. Elastic potential energy.
stated below 3. Magnetic potential energy.
Page 42 of 70
Gravitational Potential Energy When a ball is projected into space , at the

maximum height it possesses only potential
This is the energy possessed by a body due energy and the potential energy is
to its vertical distance from the ground or a maximum;at the instance of projection the
horizontal point of reference. If the particle body possesses just kinetic energy and the
is at a height ℎ then its gravitational kinetic energy of the body is maximum; this
potential energy is is so , since the velocity at this point is the
maximum velocity; at every other instance
𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ, where 𝑔 is the acceleration due
between these two points , the body
to gravity.
possesses both potential and kinetic energy.
Kinetic Energy
According to the conservation law of energy
This is the energy possessed by a moving , the total energy at any of these point is a
body. From Work-Energy theorem constant, i.e the maximum potential energy
,𝐾. 𝐸 =work done = 𝐹 × 𝑆 equals the kinetic energy at the instance of
projection and also equal to the sum of
But 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 ⇒ 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠. From potential and kinetic energy at any other
equations of motion , we have it that 𝑣 2 − point.
𝑣02 = 2𝑎𝑠, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
This is shown in the diagram below.
𝑣 2 −𝑣02
𝑎𝑠 = substituting this into the
2
𝑣 2 −𝑣02
formula, we have 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚 ( )
2
A
= 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2 − 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣02 .
B
𝐾. 𝐸 = 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2 − 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣02 , how ever , if
the particle starts from rest , then 𝑣02 = 0 ℎ
and the equation becomes 𝐾. 𝐸 = 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2
C ℎ1
5.3 Law of Conservation of Energy
The law of conservation of energy states that
in an isolated system, the total energy is
From the above diagram, energy at A=𝑚𝑔ℎ
always the same. That is energy can neither
be created nor destroyed but transferred Energy at B= 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣𝐵2 and
from one form to another. This is what
happens in the engine of moving vehicles;
Energy at C= 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 + 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣𝑐2
the chemical energy from the battery is
converted to electrical and lightenergy , the From conservation law , we have it that
light energy is converted to heat and sound
energy and so on. 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣𝐵2 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 + 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣𝑐2
Now , let’s consider how the law explains Below are questions to illustrate the
what happens when a body moves vertically. concepts we’ve considered so far.
Page 43 of 70
Example 5.1 𝑘(4)2 𝑘(0)2

=[ − ] = 8𝑘
2 2
A body is pulled along a horizontal plane by
a constant force of 20N , calculate the work Example 5.4
done in moving the body a distance of 40N.
An object ,constructed to move along the
Solution 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is acted upon by a force 𝑓(𝑥),
Given 𝐹 = 20𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆 = 40𝑚. where
Using 𝑤 = 𝐹 × 𝑆 ⇒ 𝑤 = 20(40) = 800𝐽 𝑎 = 5𝑁/m, 𝑏 = 2𝑁/mand
Example 5.2 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 2
If a force of 300N inclined at an angle of The object is observed to proceed directly

600 to the horizontal pulls a body of mass from 𝑥 = 1𝑚to 𝑥 = 3𝑚. How much work
75kg through a horizontal distance of 5𝑚, was done on the object by the force?
find the work done in displacing the body. Solution
Solution The force is a variable force , hence the
3
The force is inclined at an angle o the work done is 𝑊 = ∫1 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
horizontal , hence the work done is 𝐹𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 3
𝑎𝑥 2 𝑏𝑥 3
i.e𝑤 = 300(5)𝑐𝑜𝑠60 = 750J. =[ + ]
2 3 1
Example 5.3 : (Question 2a, Section
𝑎(3)2 𝑏(3)3 𝑎(1)2 𝑏(1)3
B;2009/2010) =( 2 + 3 )−( + ) , but 𝑎 =
2 3
Calculatethe work done by a force 5𝑁/m and 𝑏 = 2𝑁/m
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥 as it extends a spring through a 5(9) 2(27) 5 2

⇒𝑊=( + )−( + )
distance of 4𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 from its equilibrium 2 3 2 3
position.
81 19 112
1 1 = − = 𝐽
(a)2 𝑘𝑑2 (b) 8𝑘 (c)4𝑘 2 (d) 2 𝑘𝑥 2 2 6 3
Solution A;2009/2010)
The force given is a variable force, hence we A 50kg man walks up a flight of stairs 15m
use the formula high. Calculate how much work is done
𝑥1 against the force of gravity.
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑥0 (a)7.5x103 J (b) 500J (c) 750J (d) 7.5x104 J
4
𝑘𝑥 2
4 Solution
⇒ 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑘𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = [ ]
2 0 Given 𝑚 = 50𝑘𝑔, ℎ = 15𝑚.
0
Work done against gravity is the change in
potential energy.
Page 44 of 70
i.e𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 50(10)(15) = 7500𝐽 Solution
= 7.5 × 102 𝐽 Given 𝑚 = 246𝑔 = 0.246𝑘𝑔 &
Example 5.6 : (Question 2b,Section 𝑣 = 40𝑚/𝑠.

B;2009/2010) 1
The kinetic energy is 𝐾. 𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
A 150kg mass has a velocity
1
𝑣 = (2𝑖 + 6𝑗)𝑚/𝑠at a certain instant, = 2 (0.246)(40)2 = 196.8J.
calculate its kinetic energy.
Example 5.9 : (Question17, Section
Solution A;2012/2013)
Since the velocity is given in terms of the A 5.0kg mass was thrown vertically
unit vectors , we need the magnitude of the upwards from the ground to a maximum
velocity. height of 30m. Calculate the initial kinetic
energy.
i.e|𝑣| = √22 + 62 = √4 + 36 = √40 and
kinetic energy is (a)75J (b)1500J (c) 2250J (d) 150J
1 2 Solution
𝐾. 𝐸 = 2 (150)(√40) = 3000J
Given ℎ = 30𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 = 5𝑘𝑔.
Example 5.7 : (Question 30, Section A;
2009/2010) From the conservation law of energy , the
initial K.E equals the final P.E.
A constant force 2𝑖 + 5𝑗 moves a particle
from its origin to the point 4𝑖 − 2𝑗. 1
⇒ 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝐾. 𝐸 = 5 × 30 × 10
Calculate the work done by the force. 2
= 1500𝐽
(a)2J (b ) −15J (c) 8J (d) −2J
Example 5.10 : (Question 2a, Section B;
Since both the force and displacement are 2010/2011)
given in vector form , to obtain the work
done , we obtain the scalar product of these If the original height of a rock in the figure
vectors, below is 𝑦1 = ℎ = 3.0𝑚, calculate the
rock’s speed when it has fallen to 1.0m
i.e𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑆 = (2𝑖 + 5𝑗). (4𝑖 − 2𝑗) above the ground.
= 8 − 10 = −2Joules
Example 5.8 : (Question 13,Section A
A;2010/2011)
A 246g tennis ball is thrown so that it
acquires a speed of 40𝑚/𝑠. What is its B 𝑦1 = ℎ
kinetic energy? 1m = 3.0𝑚
(a)1.9x109 J (b) 10.4x109 J (c) 196.8J (d) C

393.6 J
Page 45 of 70
a.
Solution The work done by the man on the
box is the work done in displacing
From the conservation law of energy , the the body in the direction of the
energy at these three points are the same, applied force. The component of the
displacement in the horizontal is
i.e𝐸𝐴 = 𝐸𝐵 = 𝐸𝐶
𝑥 = 20𝑐𝑜𝑠150 and the applied force
1
𝑚𝑔𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝐵 + 2 𝑚𝑣𝐵2 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝐶2 . Dividing
1 is 200𝑁, hence the work done is
20𝑐𝑜𝑠150 × 200 = 3863.7𝐽
through by 𝑚, a. Work done against gravity is the
1 1 work done in displacing the body
𝑔𝑦1 = 𝑔𝑦𝐵 + 𝑣𝐵2 = 𝑣𝐶2 vertically.
2 2
From the figure above, the vertical
1 displacement of the body is
i.e10 × 3 = 10 × 1 + 2 𝑣𝐵2
20𝑠𝑖𝑛150 and the component of
1 2 force in the vertical axis is
𝑣 = 30 − 10 = 20 200𝑠𝑖𝑛150 , hence the work done is
2 𝐵
20𝑠𝑖𝑛15 × 200𝑠𝑖𝑛15 = 267.95J.
𝑣𝐵2 = 40 ⇒ 𝑣𝐵 = √40 = 2√10𝑚/𝑠. b.
The work done against friction is the
work done in displacing the body
Example 5.11 along the inclined plane. The
component of the force that acts
A man pushes a box of 40𝑘𝑔 up inclined at
150 . If the man applies a horizontal force of along the plane is 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠150 and the
200N and the box moves up the plane a displacement along the plane is
distance of 20𝑚 at a constant velocity and 20𝑚, hence the work done is
the coefficient of friction is 0.11, find 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠150 × 20 = 3863.7𝐽
a. Work done by the man on the box. 5.4 Conservative Forces

b. Work done against gravity. A force is said to be conservative if the
c. Work done against friction. amount of work done by the force in moving
Solution a body from one point to another is not
dependent of the path of motion of the body
Below is the diagram for the described but the initial and the final position of the
motion. body. The work done by a conservative
force in a closed path is equal to zero.
Gravitational force, weight, tension are all
examples of conservative forces, while
40kg frictional force and resistance are examples
of non-conservative forces.
20m 𝑚𝑔 5.5 Power

40kg
200N Power is defined as the rate at which work is
150 done. Its unit of measurement is the watts.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
Mathematically ,𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Page 46 of 70
𝑊 Solution
i.e𝑃 = .
𝑡
Given ℎ = 3.5 , 𝑚 = 48𝑘𝑔 & 𝑡 = 3𝑠
Example (Question 2aii,Section
B;2015/2016) 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑚𝑔ℎ 48×10×3.5
Power 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = =
𝑡 3
A man of 75𝑘𝑔 mass walks up a stair case
of 12 steps each 20𝑐𝑚 high in 5𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠. Find = 560𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠.
the potential energy and power
Example 5.13 : (Question 3b, SectionB;
(𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2 )
2009/2010)
Solution
There are 12 steps and each of a height of
A piano of mass 400kg is lifted by a crane at
20𝑐𝑚, hence the total vertical distance a steady speed to a room 20m above the
covered is 20 × 12 = 240𝑐𝑚 = 2.4𝑚. ground level. If the crane produces a steady
Using the formula 𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ power of 500𝑊, how long did it take the
crane to lift the piano?
⟹ 𝑃. 𝐸 = 75 × 10 × 2.4 = 1800𝐽
Solution
A;2010/2011) Given 𝑚 = 400𝑘𝑔 , ℎ = 20𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 =
500𝑊
A 48kg boy runs up a long flight of stairs in
𝑚𝑔ℎ 𝑚𝑔ℎ 400×10×20
3s , the vertical height of the stairs is 3.5m. But 𝑃 = ⇒𝑡= =
𝑡 𝑝 500
Estimate the boy’s power in watt.
= 160𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠.
(A)274.4𝑊 (b) 16.46x102𝑊(c) 548.5𝑊
(d) 164.6 𝑊
6
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
In this chapter, we shall consider the center So far , we’ve been considering the motion
of gravity of a body made up of discrete of single particles. When a body is made of
particles and of a rigid body. We shall two or more particles, the total mass of the
consider , also the interaction of a system of body is a result of the individual masses of
colliding bodies in one dimension and two the particles that makes the body. The total
dimensions. mass of the body concentrates at a given
position on the particle.
6.1 Center of Mass
Page 47 of 70
The center of mass of a body is defined as a 𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2

𝑟𝑐𝑚 =
point on the body where the total mass of 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
the body concentrates or appear to 2(2𝑖 + 5𝑗 + 𝑘) + 4(4𝑖 − 7𝑗)
concentrate. =
2+4
Let the body be of 𝑛 distinct particles of 4𝑖 + 10𝑗 + 2𝑘 + 18𝑖 − 28𝑗
masses 𝑚1 . 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 , … , 𝑚𝑛 and position =
6
vectors 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 , … , 𝑟𝑛 , then the center of 22𝑖 − 18𝑗 + 2𝑘
𝑚 𝑟 +𝑚2 𝑟2 +𝑚3 𝑟3 +⋯+𝑚𝑛 𝑟𝑛 =
mass is 𝑟𝑐𝑚 = 1 1𝑚 +𝑚 = 6
1 +𝑚 +⋯+𝑚
2 3 𝑛 1
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 = (22𝑖 − 18𝑗 + 2𝑘)
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
6
In terms of individual coordinates , we have Example 6.2 : (Question 2b, Section B,

2011/2012)
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖
𝑥= Find the center of mass of a system of
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 particles 𝑚1 = 2𝑘𝑔, 𝑚2 = 2𝑘𝑔,
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖
𝑦= and 𝑚3 = 1𝑘𝑔 and𝑚4 = 3𝑘𝑔 which are located
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
at the four corners of a square of 2m sides.
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖
𝑧= 𝑛 Solution
∑𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
In vector form , we have 𝑟 = 𝑥𝐼 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘.
If the number of particles is so large, i.e→ ∞

, then the center of mass would be
𝑓𝑟 𝑚4 (0,2)
∫𝑟 𝑟𝑑𝑚 𝑚3 (2,2)
0
𝑟𝑐𝑚 = 𝑟𝑓
∫𝑟0 𝑑𝑚

2012/2013)
A system of two particles of masses 𝑚1 =
2𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 = 4𝑘𝑔 at positions 𝑟1 = 2𝑖 + 𝑚1 (0,0)
5𝑗 + 𝑘 and 𝑟2 = 4𝑖 − 7𝑗 respectively has the 𝑚2 (2,0)
center of mass given as
(A)6𝑖 + 12𝑗 + 𝑘 (B) 6𝑖 − 2𝑗 (C) 3.3𝑖 − Example 6.3: (Question 23,Sectio

3𝑗 + 0.3𝑘 (D) −4𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 0.7𝑘. A;2011/2012)
Solution Calculate the center of mass of a system of

three particles ;𝑚1 = 1𝑘𝑔,
Using the formula 𝑟𝑐𝑚 =
𝑚1 𝑟1 +𝑚2 𝑟2 +𝑚3 𝑟3 +⋯+𝑚𝑛 𝑟𝑛 ∑𝑛
𝑚2 = 2𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚3 = 3𝑘𝑔located at the
𝑚1 +𝑚2 +𝑚3 +⋯+𝑚𝑛
= ∑𝑛 positions (2,1), (−3,2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (−1, −4)
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
respectively.
Page 48 of 70
(A)1/6(11𝑖 + 17𝑗) (B) −1/6(7𝑖 + 5𝑗) Example 6.4 (Question 2C, Section B;
2012/2013)
(C) −7/6(𝑖 + 𝑗) (D) 1/6(𝑖 + 18𝑗)
A system of four particles 3kg, 5kg,2kg and
Solution 1kg at coordinates (−2,2), (3,1), (−1,3) and
∑𝑛 (−1, −1) are acted on by external forces
Using the formula 𝑟𝑐𝑚 = ∑𝑛 ,−6𝑖𝑁, 2𝑗𝑁, 15𝑖𝑁 and 4𝑗𝑁 respectively,
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
find the coordinates and the acceleration of
1(2,1) + 2(−3,2) + 3(−1, −4) the center of mass.
⇒ 𝑟𝑐𝑚 =
1+2+3
Solution
(2,1) + (−6,4) + (−3, −12) (−7, −7)
= = To obtain the coordinates of the center of
6 6
7 7 mass , we use the formula
= − (1,1) = − (𝑖 + 𝑗)
6 6 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖
𝑟𝑐𝑚 = 𝑛
6.2 Motion of Center of Mass ∑𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
3(−2,2) + 5(3,1) + 2(−1,3) + 1(−1, −1)
In this, we want to consider how the motion =
3+5+2+1
of the individual particles relates to the
motion of the body. We have it that 𝑟𝑐𝑚 = (−6,6) + (15,5) + (−2,6) + (−1, −1)
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 ∑𝑛
=
= , where ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 = 𝑀, 11
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑀 (6,16)
from this , we have =
11
𝑀𝑟𝑐𝑚 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 , 6 16
=( , )
Taking the derivative of both sides with 11 11
respect to 𝑡 The acceleration can be obtained using the
formula 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎,
𝑑[𝑀𝑟𝑐𝑚 ] 𝑑[∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 , ]
= 𝐹
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑚, where 𝑚 = 3 + 5 + 2 = 10 and
𝑛 the force is −6𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 15𝑖 + 4𝑗 = 9𝑖 +
𝑑𝑟𝑐𝑚 𝑑𝑟𝑖 9𝑖+6𝑗
𝑀 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 6𝑗,hence the acceleration is 𝑎 = 10 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑖=1 9 6
𝑖 + 10 𝑗
10
𝑀𝑣𝑐𝑚 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖 . if we take the
derivative of this w.r.t.t again , we have 6.3 Conversation Law of Linear
𝑛
Momentum
𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑚 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑎𝑖 The conservation law of linear momentum is
𝑖=1 a consequence of Newton’s third law of
𝑛 motion.
𝐹 = ∑ 𝐹𝑖 It states that the total momentum of an
𝑖=1 isolated system of bodies is a constant .This
means that there’s no external force, hence
the rate of the change of momentum is equal
to zero.
Page 49 of 70
𝑑𝑝 In this collision, only momentum is

Mathematically, 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∴ =0
𝑝𝑡
conserved and not kinetic energy.
6.4 Collision of Particles Note: Energy is always conserved, just not
The conservation law of momentum and kinetic energy I this case.
energy plays important roles in the collision Most of the kinetic energy is been converted
of particles. to sound and heat energy, i.e kinetic energy
Collision is the sudden physical interaction before collision is usually greater than that
of two or more particles such that the total after collision.
momentum and energy of the particles is 6.4.2 Elastic Collision
conserved.
In elastic collision , after collision , the
Let’s consider collision between two particles separate and moves with individual
particles with masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 , moving velocity. In this collision , both linear
with initial velocities , 𝑢1 and 𝑢2 . According momentum and kinetic energy are
to Newton’s law of Interaction, the particles conserved.
exerts equal equal forces on each other but
in opposite directions, i.e 𝐹12 = −𝐹21 , but i.e𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 and
𝑚(𝑣−𝑢)
𝐹= 𝑡 1⁄ 𝑚 𝑢2 + 1⁄ 𝑚 𝑢2
2 1 1 2 1 2
𝑚1 (𝑣1 − 𝑢1 ) 𝑚2 (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 )
⇒
𝑡
=−
𝑡 = 1⁄2 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 1⁄2 𝑚2 𝑣22
i.e𝑚1 (𝑣1 − 𝑢1 ) = −𝑚2 (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 ) It can be shown that

2𝑚2 𝑚 −𝑚
𝑚1 𝑣1 − 𝑚1 𝑢1 = −𝑚2 𝑣2 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 𝑣1 = 𝑚 𝑢2 + 𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑢1 and
1 +𝑚2 1 2
∴ 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 i.e the 2𝑚1 𝑚2 − 𝑚1

total momentum befor collision equals that 𝑣2 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢
after collision. 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 2
There are generally two types of collision, The set of equations above are advised to be
Elastic and inelastic collision. used in multiple choice cases.
6.4.1 Inelastic Collision The cases of theory, we solve the equations

from the initial set.
In this kind of collision, after collision , the
particles stick together and move with a Example 6.5 (Question 23, Section A;
common velocity. 2012/2013)
i.e𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 𝑣 is called the common Assume two masses 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚 and

velocity. 𝑢1 = 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢2 = 2𝑢. On collision, both
stick together and move with velocity 𝑣,
The equation is 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣 + what is the value of 𝑣?
𝑚2 𝑣 = 𝑣(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
(A)3⁄2 𝑢 (B) 2𝑢 (C) 𝑢 (D) 1⁄3 𝑢
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2
𝑣=
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 Solution
Page 50 of 70
𝑚1 𝑢1 +𝑚2 𝑢2
Using the formula 𝑣 = , Let 𝑚1 = 2.5𝑘𝑔, 𝑚2 = 1.5𝑘𝑔, 𝑢1 = 7.5𝑚/𝑠
𝑚1 +𝑚2
and 𝑢2 = 3.0𝑚/𝑠.
𝑚𝑢+2𝑚𝑢 3𝑚𝑢 3
i.e = = 2𝑢 Since the collision is elastic, both linear
𝑚+𝑚 2𝑚
momentum and kinetic energy are
Example 6.6 : (Question 22, Section A conserved.
;2011/2012)
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 and
Two bodies of equal masses move with
equal but opposite velocities . What are their 1⁄ 𝑚 𝑢2 + 1⁄ 𝑚 𝑢2
velocities after undergoing elastic collision? 2 1 1 2 1 2
(A) Initial velocity equals the final. = 1⁄2 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 1⁄2 𝑚2 𝑣22
(B) Final velocity is greater than the
For momentum , we 2.5(7.5) + 1.5(3)
initial .
(C) Final velocity is less than the initial = 2.5𝑣1 + 1.5𝑣2
velocity
(D) Final velocity is zero. 2.5𝑣1 + 1.5𝑣2 = 23.25 … (1)
Solution For kinetic energy , we have
Since the collision is elastic, we use the 2.5(7.5)2 + 1.5(3)2 = 2.5𝑣12 + 1.5𝑣22
2𝑚2 𝑚 −𝑚
formulae 𝑣1 = 𝑚 +𝑚 𝑢2 + 𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑢1 and
1 2 1 2 2.5𝑣12 + 1.5𝑣22 = 154.125 … (2)
2𝑚1 𝑚2 − 𝑚1 All we need to do now is to solve these two
𝑣2 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 2 equations simultaneously.
Where 𝑢1 = 𝑢 , 𝑢2 = −𝑢 (since they are in From equation (1), 2.5𝑣1 = 23.25 − 1.5𝑣2
opposite direction).
23.25−1.5𝑣
2
𝑣1 = = 9.3 − 0.6𝑣2 … (3) .
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚,hence 2.5
Substituting this into equation (2).
2𝑚 𝑚−𝑚
𝑣1 = 𝑚+𝑚 (−𝑢) + 𝑚+𝑚 𝑢 = −𝑢and 2.5(9.3 − 0.6𝑣2 )2 + 1.5𝑣22
2𝑚 𝑚−𝑚
𝑣2 = 𝑚+𝑚 (𝑢) + 𝑚+𝑚 𝑢 = 𝑢 . That is , the = 154.125 … (2)
final velocity equals the initial velocity. 2.5(86.49 − 11.16𝑣2 + 0.36𝑣22 ) + 1.5𝑣22
Example 6.7 : (Question 3b, Section B, = 154.125
2010/2011)
216.225 − 27.9𝑣2 + 0.9𝑣22 + 1.5𝑣22
A 2.5kg ball travelling with a speed of = 154.125
7.5m/s makes an elastic collision with
2.4𝑣22 − 27.9𝑣2 − 62.1 = 0
another ball 1.5kg and travelling at the speed
of 3.0m/s in the same direction. What are the Solving this equation using the quadratic
velocities of the balls immediately after formula,
collision?
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
Solution 𝑣2 =
2𝑎
Page 51 of 70
−(−27.9)±√(−27.9)2 −4(2.4)(−62.1) b. How much kinetic energy is lost in

i.e𝑣2 = =
2(2.4) the collision ? What happens to the
27.9±√778.41+596.16 27.9±37.08 energy?
=
4.8 4.8
27.9+37.04 Solution
𝑣2 = = 13.53𝑚/𝑠or
4.8
a. Given 𝑚1 = 2.0𝑘𝑔, 𝑚2 = 3𝑘𝑔,
27.9−37.04
𝑣2 = = −1.9𝑚/𝑠. 𝑢1 = 50m/s and 𝑢2 = 4m/s
4.8 𝑚 𝑢 +𝑚 𝑢
Using 𝑣 = 1𝑚1 +𝑚2 2,
1 2
But 𝑣1 = 9.3 − 0.6𝑣2 . 2(50)+3(4) 112
𝑣 = 2+3 = 5 = 22.4𝑚/𝑠.
When 𝑣2 = 13.53𝑚/𝑠, b. The total kinetic energy before
𝑣1 = 9.3 − 0.6(13.53) = 1.182𝑚/𝑠. collision is 1⁄2 𝑚1 𝑢12 + 1⁄2 𝑚1 𝑢22
1 1
When 𝑣2 = −1.9𝑚/𝑠, = (2)502 + (3)42
2 2
= 2500 + 24 = 2524𝐽and the
𝑣1 = 9.3 − 0.6(−1.9) = 10.44𝑚/𝑠. kinetic energy after collision is
1 1
Example 6.8: (Question 32, Section A 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2 (2 + 3)22.42 = 1254.4𝐽,
2
;2009/2010) hence the amount of kinetic energy
lost is the difference between these
Assuming two masses𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚 and kinetic energies,
𝑢1 = 𝑢2 = 𝑢 on collision both stick together 𝑖. 𝑒 2524𝐽 − 1254.4𝐽 = 1269.6𝐽.
and move with 𝑣, what is the values of 𝑣? This energy is converted into sound,
1 light and heat energy.
(A)2𝑢 (B) 𝑢 (C) 𝑢 (D) 3𝑢
2
Example 6.10
Solution
A mass 3𝑘𝑔 moving with a velocity of 3m/s
Since they stick together , then their collides with a stationary body of mass
𝑚 𝑢 +𝑚 𝑢
common velocity is 𝑣 = 1𝑚1 +𝑚2 2 10kg, after collision, the particles stick and
1 2
move with a common velocity. What is the
𝑚𝑢 + 𝑚𝑢 common velocity?
𝑣= =𝑢
𝑚+𝑚
Solution
Example 6.9
Given 𝑚1 = 3𝑘𝑔, 𝑚2 = 10𝑘𝑔,
Two blocks with masses 𝑚1 = 2.0𝑘𝑔 and
𝑚2 = 3𝑘𝑔 makes a head on collision while 𝑢1 = 3m/s and 𝑢2 = 0𝑚/𝑠(the body is
sliding on a frictionless horizontal surface. stationary).
Initially , their velocities where 𝑢1 = 50m/s The collision is inelastic ,hence only
&𝑢2 = 4m/s respectively. On collision , momentum is conserved.
they stick together and move as a single
block. 𝑚1 𝑢1 +𝑚2 𝑢2 3(3)+10(0) 9
i.e𝑣 = = = 13 𝑚/𝑠.
𝑚1 +𝑚2 3+10
a. What is the velocities of the
combination after collision?
Page 52 of 70
6.5 Recoil Velocity of a Gun Example 6.11

When a bullet is fired from a gun , the gun A shell is fired from a gun with a muzzle
exert a force on the bullet; according to velocity of 457.20m/s. if the mass of the gun
newton’s 3rd law of motion , the bullet and the bullet are 7.50kg and 20kg
equally exerts a force equal in magnitude respectively, obtain the recoil velocity of the
but opposite in direction on the gun; as a gun.
result of the reaction , the gun would
experience a jerk back that moves the Solution
gunner . The velocity with which the gun 𝑚𝑏 𝑣𝑏
jerks back ward is called the velocity of Using the formula𝑣𝑔 = − 𝑚𝑔
recoil.
457.20(7.50)
⇒ 𝑣𝑔 = − = 171.45𝑚/𝑠.
It can be shown that the velocity of recoil is 20
𝑣𝑔 = −𝑚𝑏 𝑣𝑏 /𝑚𝑔 .
7
DYNAMICS OF CIRCULAR AND ROTATIONAL MOTION
In chapter four , we considered linear 𝑣2
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 ⇒ 𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑟 . This is called the
dynamics of particles. In this chapter, we
shall be considering system of particles centripetal force of the body.
undergoing circular and rotational motions. We know from previous work that 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔,
Newton’s laws of universal gravitation and 𝑚(𝑟𝜔)2 𝑚𝜔 2 𝑟 2
kepler’s law of planetary motion will also be hence 𝐹 = = = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟.
𝑟 𝑟
considered.
From Newton’s third law of motion, to
7.1 Dynamics of Circular Motion every action there’s an equal and opposite
reaction, hence the centripetal force is
In chapter four , we defined the centripetal balanced by another force ,and this force is
acceleration of a body moving in a circular called the centrifugal force; The centrifugal
path. It was mathematically defined as𝑎 = force tends to pull the body away from the
𝑣2
and this acceleration is also called the circular path.
𝑟
radial acceleration. The force that keeps the A good example is the motion along a
particle moving in this circular path is called banked curve, inclined at an angle of 𝜃 to
the centripetal force.The centripetal force the horizontal.
directs the body towards the center of the
circle. From Newton’s second law of motion
, we have it that
Page 53 of 70
𝑇 𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑇 𝜃
C
𝑁 B
𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑔
𝜃
At point 𝐴, since the tension in the string (𝑇)

The normal reaction of the body is 𝑁, since and the weight of the body are both
the body is not displaced vertically, it downwards (towards the center of the circle
implies that 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 … (1) ), it implies that their sum equals the
Also, the body does not move along the centripetal force, i.e
inclined plane , thus the component of its 𝑚𝑣𝐴2 𝑚𝑣𝐴2
weight along the plane is equal to the 𝑇 + 𝑚𝑔 = ;𝑇 = − 𝑚𝑔
𝑣2 𝑟 𝑟
centripetal force, i.e𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚 𝑟
… . (2) 𝑣𝐴2
= 𝑚 ( − 𝑔)
𝑟
𝑣2
(2) 𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑚
𝑟
Dividing these equations: :
(1) 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= 𝑣𝐴2
𝑚𝑔
𝑇 = 𝑚( − 𝑔)
𝑟
𝑣2
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑟𝑔 At point 𝐵, the tension is upwards , but the
particle still moves in circular path, this
𝑣 2 = 𝑟𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃; 𝑣 = √𝑟𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 means that the resultant force is the
centripetal force,
7.2 Motion in a Vertical Circle
2
𝑚𝑣𝐵 𝑣2
Let a mass of 𝑚 tired to a string be set into i.e𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 = ; 𝑇 = 𝑚 ( 𝑟𝐵 + 𝑔)
𝑟
motion such that the motion of the body
forms a path that is a vertical circle as at point 𝐶, the body makes an angular
shown below. We shall consider the motion displacement of 𝜃 with the vertical ; the
of this body at three different points. component of the weight along the string is
𝑚𝑣𝐵2
𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑟
Page 54 of 70
Example 7.1: (Question 11, Section

A;10/11)
A curve of radius 500m along Choba-NTA
road is banked at an angle of 250 . At what 𝜃
speed should a driver navigate the curve
when driving through the road, neglecting 𝑇𝑣
𝑇ℎ
air friction ?
𝑚𝑔 r
Solution
Given 𝑟 = 500𝑚 & 𝜃 = 250 . The complete structure formed by the string
and the mass as a result of the motion is
Using the formula ,𝑣 = √𝑟𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 called a “conical pendulum”.
⇒ 𝑣 = √500(10)𝑡𝑎𝑛25 = 48.3𝑚/𝑠 From the diagram ,𝑇𝑣 and 𝑇ℎ are the vertical
and horizontal component of the tension (𝑇).
Example 7.2: (Question 12, SectionA
;09/10) 𝑇ℎ
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ⇒ 𝑇ℎ = 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑇
A car initially travelling due west makes a
right turn following a circular arc of radius Also ,
𝑅 = 25𝑚 and finished the turning heading 𝑇𝑣
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ⇒ 𝑇𝑣 = 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
north. If he car’s speed is constant at 7.5m/s 𝑇
, what is the centripetal acceleration at the
The horizontal component is towards the
instant of turning?
center of the circle , hence it is equal to the
𝑚𝑣 2
(a)3.33m/s2(b) 0.3m/s2(c)2.25m/s2 centripetal force, i.e𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = … (1)
𝑟
(d) 0.6m/s Also, the vertical component equals the
Solution weight of the body ⇒ 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 … (2)
𝑚𝑣 2
Given 𝑣 = 7.5m/s and 𝑅 = 25𝑚. (1) 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ( 𝑟 ) 𝑣2
: = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = ⇒𝑣
𝑣2 (2) 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑚𝑔 𝑟𝑔
Using 𝑎 = 𝑅 = √𝑟𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
7.52
⇒𝑎= = 2.25m/s2 This is called the tangential velocity of the
25
particle.
7.3 Motion in a Horizontal Circle
Recall ,𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 ⇒ 𝑟𝜔 = √𝑟𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
Let a mass 𝑚 be attached to a string of
length 𝐿 be set into motion such that if √𝑟𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑟𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
forms a horizontal circle as shown below. 𝜔= =√ =√ .
𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟
This is the angular velocity of the particle.

2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
Now ,𝜔 = ⇒𝑇= =
𝑇 𝜔 𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
√
𝑟
Page 55 of 70
𝑀
𝑟
= 2𝜋√𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 . This is the period of From this , we can state that 𝑔 = 𝐺 2𝑒 ,
𝑅
where 𝑅 is the radius of the earth and it’s
oscillation of the conical pendulum. approximately equal to 6400km.
𝑟
From the figure, have it that 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑔 7.5 Superposition Principle
⇒ 𝑟 = ℎ𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 The superposition principle states that the

force of attraction that exist between two
. for this reason , the period of oscillation masses is not affected by the presence of
ℎ𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 other masses.
can also be expressed as 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
That is , if there exist more than two masses
, then the force of attraction between any
ℎ
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ two is treated as though we have just those
𝑔 two masses.
Other expressions can be obtained for the 7.6 Escape Velocity and Orbiting Velocity
period of oscillation , all we need to do is
flow with the ride from the diagram. The escape velocity of a particle is the
minimum velocity that must be acquired by
7.4 Newton’s Law of Universal a body before it can escape from the earth
Gravitational Attraction gravitational pull.
This law is used to obtain the magnitude of Let the work done by the body in escaping
force that exist between two particles that from the surface of the earth gravitation pull
are not in contact. be 𝑊,then from work-energy theorem , we
have it that work done is equal to change
It states that , the force that exist between inenrgy, hence
two masses ,𝑚1 and 𝑚2 , separated by a
𝑚𝑀𝑒
distance 𝑟 is directly proportional to the 𝑊 = 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝐹. 𝑅, but 𝐹 = 𝐺 ,
𝑅2
product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of their distance 𝑚𝑀𝑒 1
of separation. ⇒𝑊=𝐺 2
. 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑅 2
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚𝑀𝑒 1
Mathematically, 𝐹 ∝ 𝑟2
i.e𝐺 = 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑅 2
𝑚 𝑚 𝑀𝑒 1 2𝐺𝑀𝑒
𝐹 = 𝐺 𝑟1 2 2 , where 𝐺is called the 𝐺 = 2 𝑣 2; 𝑣 2 = and
𝑅 𝑅
gravitational constant and
2𝐺𝑀𝑒 𝑀𝑒
𝐺 = 6.672 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 /𝑘𝑔2 . 𝑣=√ , but 𝑔 = 𝐺 ⇒ 𝐺𝑀𝑒 = 𝑔𝑅 2
𝑅 𝑅2
From this equation , if one of the bodies

involved is the earth , the force that exist 2𝑔𝑅 2
∴𝑣=√ = √2𝑔𝑅
between these bodies is called the weight of 𝑅
𝑚𝑀
the body , i.e𝑚𝑔 = 𝐺 𝑅2 𝑒, where 𝑚 is the
mass of the body and 𝑀𝑒 is the mass of earth. OrbitingVelocity:This the velocity with
which particles orbit round a given planet.
Page 56 of 70
Let the height of a satellite from the surface and 𝑘 is a constant of

of the earth be ℎ, then the distance of the proportionality.
satellite from the surface of the earth is 𝑅 + 𝑇2
From this, we have 𝑟 3 = 𝑘
ℎ = 𝑑.
𝑇12 𝑇22
⇒ = .
𝑟13 𝑟23
At that point from the center of the earth ,
the body possesses gravitational potential 7.8 Rotational Dynamics
energy. Also, since the particle orbits in a
circular part, the force of attraction between Rigid Body: A rigid body is a body of
the satellite and the earth is the centripetal definite shape and is such that the relative
force, i.e distance between the particles is fixed.
𝑚𝑀𝑒 𝑚𝑣 2 When a rigid body rotates, all its particles
𝐺 = rotates along side with the same angular
𝑑2 𝑑
velocity, 𝜔. i.e
From this relationship , we have it that
𝐺𝑀𝑒 𝐺𝑀𝑒 𝜔1 = 𝜔2 = 𝜔3 = ⋯ = 𝜔𝑛 = 𝜔, but 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔
= 𝑣2 ⇒ 𝑣 = √ .
𝑑 𝑑
⇒ 𝑣𝑖 = 𝜔𝑖 𝑟𝑖 = 𝜔𝑟𝑖 , where 𝑟𝑖 ≠ 𝑟 for all 𝑖′𝑠.
Note : As particles moves away from the
surface of the earth , the gravitation due to i.e , though the angular velocity is constant
gravity of the earth reduces , until it gets to but the linear velocity is not a constant.
a a point and the body will appear 7.9 Moment of Inertia
weightless.
The moment of inertia of a particle , also
7.7 Kepler’sLawsfor Planetary Motion. called angular mass or rotational inertia is
Kepler’s laws for planetary motion are laws the ratio of angular momentum (𝐿) to
𝐿
that are used to describe the motion of angular velocity (𝜔), i.e 𝐼 = 𝜔,
particles round the sun. There are generally
three laws of kepler’s. Where the angular momentum of a body is
the moment of the linear momentum about a
1. Law of orbit: It states that each given point, i.e𝐿 = 𝑟 × 𝑃, which can also be
planet revolves round the sun in its expressed as 𝐿 = 𝑟𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
own elliptical form orbit with the
𝑣
sun at one focus. i.e𝐿 = 𝑟𝑃 = 𝑟. 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟 and 𝜔 = 𝑟
2. Area law: It states that the line
joining any planet and the sun 𝑚𝑣𝑟
⇒𝐼= 𝑣 = 𝑚𝑟 2
sweeps out equal areas in equal time
𝑟
interval.
3. Period law: it states that the square i.e𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2, where 𝑚 is the total mass of the
of the period of oscillation of a body body.
is proportional to the cube of the
planet’s mean distance from the sun. Usually, we write this as 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑘 2 , where
This can be written as 𝑘 is called the radius of gyration.
𝑇 2 ∝ 𝑟 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 2 = 𝑘𝑟 3, where 𝑟 is the
distance of the planet from the sun The radius of gyration of a body refer to the
distribution of the components of the body
Page 57 of 70
around an axis. It is the perpendicular it can also be shown to be the time rate of
distance from the axis of rotation to a point change of the angular momentum of the
mass that gives an equivalent inertia to the body.
original object of the mass.
𝑑𝐿
i.e𝜏 = .
𝐿 𝑑𝑡
From the formula 𝐼 = 𝜔; 𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔.
The Law of Conservation of Angular
7.10 Rotational Kinetic Energy Momentum
As a body rotates , it moves with a given It states that the total angular momentum of
amount of kinetic energy. This energy is the a rotating body is a constant, i.e the time rate
sum of the individual kinetic energy of change of the angular momentum is zero
produced by the particles that makes up the or the total torque of the body is zero.
body,
𝑑𝐿
i.e𝐿 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝜏 = = 0.
1⁄ 𝑚 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑡
i.e𝐾. 𝐸 = 2 1 1 + 1⁄2 𝑚2 𝑣22 +
1⁄ 𝑚 𝑣 2 + ⋯ + 1⁄ 𝑚 𝑣 2 7.12 Parallel Axis Theorem
2 3 3 2 𝑛 𝑛
It states that the moment of inertia of a body
𝐾. 𝐸 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 1⁄2 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖2 = 1⁄2 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖2 ,but about any axis is equal to the moment of
𝑣𝑖 = 𝜔𝑟𝑖 inertia about a parallel axis passing through
𝑛 the center of mass of the body plus the
product of the mass of the body and the
⇒ 𝐾. 𝐸 = 1⁄2 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝜔𝑟𝑖 )2
square of the perpendicular distance form
𝑖=1
both axes.
= 1⁄2 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 𝜔2 = 1⁄2 𝜔 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2, i.e𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐𝑚 + 𝑚𝑏 2
where 𝐼 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2, hence we have
𝐾. 𝐸 = 1⁄2 𝜔𝐼 7.13 The Combined Translational and
Rotational Motion of a Rigid Body
7.11 Torque
A body can move in such a way that its
This is defined as the rotational effect of a motion is both translational and rotational ,
force about a point .It’s a vector quantity when such motion occurs , we say that the
and its unit of measurement is Nm. body is having a combined motion of
translation and rotation, e.g the movement of
Mathematically, 𝜏 = 𝑟 × 𝐹 or 𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. the wheels of a bicycle. The wheels rotate
about an axis through its center of mass and
The total torque of a body is a result of the the wheel moves with velocity 𝑣 same with
individual torque produced by the particles the movement of the center of mass.
that makes up the body, i.e𝜏 = 𝜏1 + 𝜏2 +
𝜏3 + ⋯ + 𝜏𝑛 . The 𝐾. 𝐸 of the body is due to the rotational
and the translational motion , hence the total
i.e𝜏 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝜏𝑖
kinetic enrgy is 𝐾. 𝐸 = 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2 +
It can be shown that the total torque of a 1⁄ 𝐼 𝜔2 .
2 𝑐𝑚
body can also be expressed as 𝜏 = 𝛼𝐼
Page 58 of 70
8
Static Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies
In this chapter, we shall consider the From the diagram above , moment= 𝐹 × 𝑥.
equilibrium of rigid bodies and the center of
gravity of particles. Let’s start with the It’s also possible that the force will be
center of gravity of particles. inclined at an angle 𝜃 to the horizontal, then
as shown in the figure below.
8.1 Center of Gravity
The center of gravity of a particle is a point
on the body where the total weight of the 𝐹
body lies or appears to lie. If the body is of
mass 𝑀, then the weight of the body is 𝑀𝑔 . 𝜃
This weight is the result of the individual
contribution of the particles that makes up
the body. 𝑥
I.e𝑀𝑔 = 𝑚1 𝑔 + 𝑚2 𝑔 + 𝑚3 𝑔 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 𝑔
To obtain the moment due to the force , we
𝑀𝑔 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑔,
where the rigid body is have to obtain the vertical component of the
made up 𝑛 particles. force , i.e𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, hence the moment
due to this force is 𝐹𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
For a symmetric and uniform body , the
center of gravity lies at the center of the Generally , there are two classes of moment,
body , also if the acceleration due to gravity clock wise and anti-clockwise moment. The
is uniform through-out the body , then the clockwise moment turns the body in the
center of gravity and the center of mass are clock wise direction while the anti
identical. clockwise moment turns the body in the
anti-clockwise sense.
8.2 Moment
8.3 Conditions for Equilibrium
This is the turning effect of a force about a
point. It is the product of force and A body is said to be in equilibrium if it is at
perpendicular distance from the turning rest or moves with a constant speed . When
point. This is as shown below. it’s at rest , it is said to be in static
equilibrium but when it moves with constant
speed , then it’s said to be in dynamic
equilibrium.
𝐹
𝑥 There are basically two conditions for
equilibrium , they are
i. The vector sum of the external
forces that acts in one axis must
be zero, i.e
Page 59 of 70
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 , ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 & ∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0. The upward forces must equal the

ii. The total moment on the body downward forces, i.e𝐹1 + 𝐹2 = 10 + 20
about an axis must be zero, i.e
clockwise moment equals anti- 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 = 30 … (1)
clockwise moments or the total For moment:
torque on the body must be zero.
We shall consider the moment about just
These are the two necessary conditions for one pivot. Considering pivot A.
static equilibrium.
The clockwise moments are the moments
Now , let’s solve a few examples to due to the 20𝑁 and 10𝑁weights , i.e total
illustrate these concepts. clockwise moment is 10(0.5) + 20(1)
Example 8.3 (Question17,SetionA, 09/10) = 25𝑁𝑚. The anti-clockwise force is that
A uniform beam 2m long weighing 20N due to the force 𝐹2 . The moment due to 𝐹1 is
rests on two supports at its ends . A 10N zero since it acts at the pivot. i.e anti
block is placed on the 50cm mark. Find the clockwise moment is 𝐹2 × 2 = 2𝐹2 ; but
forces acting on the supports. clockwise moment equals anit clockwise
25
moment , hence 2𝐹2 = 25 ⇒ 𝐹2 = 2
(a)12.5N,21.25N (b) 17.5N,12.5N
𝐹2 = 12.5𝑁. substituting this into equation
(c) 8.75N,21.25N (d) 19.5N,10.5N
(1), we have 12.5 + 𝐹1 = 30
Solution
∴ 𝐹1 = 17.5𝑁 &𝐹2 = 12.5𝑁.
Since the beam is uniform , the center of
gravity of the body lies at the center of the Example 8.4
body. The structure is as shown below. A uniform rod AB is of length 180cm and
mass 20kg. it balances horizontally on a
single support when carrying loads of 1kg
𝐹1 𝐹2 and 3kg at the 60cm and 120cm marks
respectively from A. Find the position of the
support and the magnitude of the downward
thrust on it.
A 10𝑁 20𝑁 B
1𝑚 Solution
0.5𝑚
Below is the figure for the description. We
assumed the position of the support to be of
Since the body is balanced horizontally , the
a distance of 𝑥 from A, as shown in the
conditions for equilibrium are satisfied.
figure.
From the diagram above, 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 are the
forces at the supports .
Considering the equilibrium conditions.
For forces:
Page 60 of 70
30(180 − 𝑥) + 20(90 − 𝑥)
𝐹
A B = 5400 − 30𝑥 + 1800 − 20𝑥
90 − 𝑥
= 7200 − 50𝑥. For anti clockwise moment,
10𝑁 the only force is the 10N force .
20𝑁 30𝑁
90𝑐𝑚 i.e,theanti clockwise moment is 10(𝑥 − 60)
𝑥 180 − 𝑥
10𝑥 − 600.
In the above figure, the weights due to the For equality , we have
1kg and 3kg masses are 10N and 30N
respectively. 7200 − 50𝑥 = 10𝑥 − 600
From the conditions of equilibrium 7200 + 600 = 10𝑥 + 50𝑥

,downward force equals upward force , 7800
i.e𝐹 = 10 + 20 + 30 = 60𝑁. This is the 7800 = 60𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = = 130𝑐𝑚
60
thrust on the support.
Couple: A couple is a pair of equal but
Taking moment about the support, we have opposite forces having different line of
it that clockwise and anti clockwise actions.
moments must be equal.
The turning effect due to a couple is called a
The clockwise moments are due to the 20N torque. It is the product of of the forces and
and the 30N forces, i.e the distance from the pivot or the center .
9
OSCILLATION
Oscillation is the to and fro movement of a The restoring force is directly proportional
body through the same path and about its to the displacement of the body (This is as
mean or equilibrium position. This type of stated from Hook’s law), i.e𝐹 ∝ 𝑥 ⇒ 𝐹 =
motion is periodic since it repeats itself in −𝑘𝑥, where 𝑘 is called the force constant or
equal time interval. the spring constant (if the force is applied on
a spring).
For a body to oscillate , a force must be
applied to displace the body from its 9.1 Simple Harmonic Motion
equilibrium position, when this happens , a
restoring force would come into play to A body that satisfies the equation 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
return the body to its equilibrium position. is called a simple Harmonic Oscillator and
Page 61 of 70
the motion is called simple harmonic 2𝜋 𝑘

motion. ⇒𝑇= , but 𝜛 = √𝑚, hence we have 𝑇 =
𝜛
2𝜋 𝑚
From the equation above, 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥, but 𝐹 = = 2𝜋√ 𝑘 . This shows that the period of
𝑘
√
𝑚𝑎 𝑚
oscillation of a simple harmonic oscillator is
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
⇒ 𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥, but 𝑎 = ⇒ 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 = −𝑘𝑥 dependent on the spring constant and the
𝑑𝑡 2
mass of the oscillator.
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 . This is the equation of a The frequency of vibration of the body is
body under going simple harmonic motion. 1 𝑚 1 𝑘
𝑓 = 𝑇 = 1 ÷ 2𝜋√ 𝑘 = 2𝜋 √𝑚
The solution to the equation can be shown
𝑘 𝑘 Example (Question 36,Section A; 08/09)
to be 𝑥 = 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠 (√𝑚 𝑡) + 𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑛 (√𝑚 𝑡)
A mass 40kg moves under the influence of a
This is a sinusoidal function, but the general spring whose force constant is
form of sinusoidal function is
𝑘 = 1.4 × 101 N/m, calculate the frequency
𝜃 of viberation .
𝑥 = 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, where 𝜛 = 𝑡
(A)10/𝜋 HZ (B) 400HZ (C) ¼ HZ (D) 30
⇒ 𝜃 = 𝜛𝑡, hence we have HZ
𝑥 = 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜛𝑡) + 𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜛𝑡) Solution
Comparing this with the equation of the Given 𝑘 = 1.4 × 101 𝑁/𝑚, 𝑚 = 40𝑘𝑔.
solution of the simple harmonic motion , we
𝑘 The frequency of vibration is obtained as
can come to a conclusion that 𝜛 = √𝑚.
1 𝑘 1 1.4×101
𝑓 = 2𝜋 √𝑚 ⇒ 𝑓 = 2𝜋 √ 40
i.e the angular velocity of a simple harmonic
oscillator is dependent on the mass of the = 0.09412𝐻𝑧
body.
Example (Question 33,Section A;2012/13)
Period(T): This is the time taken to make
one complete cycle. An object of mass 𝑚 is attached to a
horizontal spring stretched to a distance 𝐴
𝑡
Mathematically ,𝑇 = 𝑛, where 𝑛 is the from equilibrium and released, undergoing
number of cycles or oscillation made by the SHM on a frictionless surface with period
body. 𝑇0 . The experiment is then repeated with a
mass of 4𝑚, what is its new period of
Now , from our discussion on circular oscillation?
2𝜋
motion , we obtained 𝜛 = 𝑇 =
(A)2𝑇0 (B) 𝑇0 (C) 𝑇0 /2 (D) 𝑇0 /4
Solution
𝑚
Using the relation ,𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑘
Page 62 of 70
7𝜋
Let this be the period for the mass of 𝑚. 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 ± ∅), ⇒ 𝜔 = , but
5
2𝜋
𝑚 𝜔=
i.e𝑇0 = 2𝜋√ 𝑘 𝑇
2𝜋 2𝜋 10
For the mass of 4𝑚 ,the period is 𝑇= = 7𝜋 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝜔 7
5
4𝑚 𝑚 ii. To obtain the velocity of the

𝑇 = 2𝜋√ = 2 (2𝜋√ ) = 2𝑇0 particle at a given time , all we
𝑘 𝑘
need to do is obtain the
9.2 General Representation of SHM derivatives of this function w.r.t.
𝑡.
The displacement of a body that under goes i.e𝑣 =
simple harmonic motion is 𝑑𝑥 7𝜋 7𝜋 2𝜋
= × 8 cos ( 5 𝑡 + ), at
𝑑𝑡 5 5
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜛𝑡 ± ∅), wher ∅ is called the 56𝜋 7𝜋 2𝜋
𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = cos ( 5 (0) + )
5 5
phase difference or angle and 𝐴 is the 56𝜋 2𝜋
amplitude. From this , we can obtain the = sin ( 5 ) = 11𝑚/𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑
5
velocity and the acceleration of the 𝑑𝑣 392𝜋 2 7𝜋
oscillator. 𝑎= =− sin ( 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 25 5
𝑑𝑥
2𝜋
i.e𝑣 = = 𝐴𝜛𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜛𝑡 ± ∅) and + )
𝑑𝑡 5
392𝜋 2 2𝜋
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑎 = − 25 sin ( 5 )
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑎 = 2 = −𝐴𝜛 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜛𝑡 ± ∅) = 147.313𝑚/s2 .
𝑑𝑡
Example (Question 3b, Section B 9.3 Energy Stored in a Simple Harmonic
;2012/2013) Oscillator
A plane SHM is given as a function of time When a body oscillates , due to the
by the following displacement, it stores some amount of
energy known as the potential energy, the
7𝜋 2𝜋 expression for the energy stored is same as
𝑥 = 8 sin ( 𝑡 + )
5 5 that for the elastic potential energy of a
1
Calculate body, i.e𝑈 = 2 𝑘𝑥 2 .
i. The period and frequency of Since the body moves with a given velocity ,
oscillation. it also moves with some amount of kinetic
1
ii. The velocity and acceleration of energy , 2 𝑚𝑣 2 , where 𝑣 is its instantaneous
the system at 𝑡 = 0. velocity of the oscillator, hence the
mechanical energy of the body at a displace
Solution
𝑥, moving with a velocity 𝑣 is
i. Comparing this to the general 1 1
representation. 𝐸 = 2 𝑘𝑥 2 + 2 𝑚𝑣 2 .
9.4 Simple Pendulum
Page 63 of 70
This consist of a pendulum bob attached to Air friction is generally dependent on the
the end of a light inextensible string. If the velocity of the moving particle , hence we
length of the cord or string is 𝐿 and of have 𝐹 ∝ 𝑣 + 𝑥, where 𝐹 is the frictional
negligible mass, then from the equation 𝐹 = force of the particle .
−𝑘𝑥, the applied force is the weight of the
pendulum bob, hence the restoring force is From this , we have 𝐹 = −𝑏𝑣 − 𝑘𝑥, wher 𝑏
dependent on the weight of the body . this is is a positive constant known as the damping
𝑑2 𝑥
given as constant. But 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 , hence the
𝑑2 𝑥
𝐹 = −𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. Since 𝜃 is very small , then equation becomes 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 = −𝑏𝑣 − 𝑘𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃.
𝑑2 𝑥
The restoring force is now 𝐹 = −𝑚𝑔𝜃. 𝑜𝑟 𝑚 2 + 𝑏𝑣 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0.
𝑑𝑡
Comparing this with = −𝑘𝑥 ⇒ 𝑘𝑥 = Reducing the equation to standard form
𝑚𝑔𝜃 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑏 𝑘 𝑚
𝑚𝑔𝜃𝑘 = 𝑥 . ; 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑚 𝑣 + 𝑚 𝑥 = 0. The ratio 𝑏 is known
We knw that the period of oscillation is 𝑇 = as the raxation time constant 𝛾. i.e
𝑚 𝑚 𝑥 𝑚
2𝜋√ 𝑘 = 2𝜋√𝑚𝑔𝜃 = 2𝜋√𝑚 × 𝑚𝑔𝜃 = 𝛾= 𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = 𝛾𝑏.
⁄𝑥 𝑏
2𝜋√𝑔𝜃
𝑥 Substituting this into the equation , we have
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑏
; 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝛾𝑏 𝑣 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑥
but 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐿 ≈∈ 𝜃 ∴ 𝑥 = 𝐿𝜃, substituting
𝑑 2 𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥
𝐿𝜃 𝐿 𝑖. 𝑒 + + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
this into 𝑇, we have 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔𝜃 = 2𝜋√𝑔 . 𝑑𝑡 2 𝛾 𝑑𝑡
For a critically damped system , the
this is the period of oscillation of a simple
discriminant of the above equation is zero,
pendulum.
1 2
9.5 Damped Oscillation i.e𝐷 = (𝛾) − 4(1)(𝑘) = 0
A damped oscillation is the oscillation of a 1 1 1

− 4𝑘 = 0 ⇒ 𝛾 2 = 4𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝛾 = 2√𝑘but𝛾 =
body with the presence of air resistance (i.e 𝛾2
1
air friction), such that the ,hence 𝑏 = 2√𝑘
𝑏
oscillation/vibration of the body is
ultimately brought to a stop. Without the
presence of air resistance , according to
newton’s first law of motion , this particle
would continue in its state of motion.
In other words, when friction damps the
oscillation of a body , it reduces its
amplitude , till eventually it becomes zero.
Page 64 of 70
10
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
In this chapter, we shall consider the 10.3 Elastic Potential Energy
mechanical properties of matter; the basic
properties that makes one say one quantity is The elastic potential energy is the energy
better than the other based on what it is stored by an extended elastic material, from
needed for. For instance , in the construction the work-Energy theorem, work done equals
of bridges , engineers tend to use materials change in Energy.
that can resist deformation to a great extent. 𝑥
i.e𝑃. 𝐸 = ∫0 𝐹(𝑥). 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥
10.1 Elasticity x x
kx 2 kx 2
This is the property of a material that P. E = ∫ kx. dx = [ ] =
enables the body to return to its original 2 0 2
0
shape after been deformed by an external
force. For the material to return to its kx 2
⇒ 𝑃. 𝐸 =
original shape , the elastic limit of the 2
material should not be exceeded, this is the 𝑥
statement of Hook’s Law . But 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥 × 2 = 1⁄2 𝐹𝑥.
10.2 Hooke”s Law Example (Question 3b,Section B;2015/16)

It states that provided the elastic limit of an A mass of 60𝑘𝑔 stretches a spiral spring
elastic material is not exceeded , the applied suspended vertically from a rigid support,
force is directly proportional to the change from a length of 15𝑐𝑚 to 18𝑐𝑚. Calculate
in length of the material. the elastic potential energy stored ( take 𝑔 =
10𝑚/𝑚2 ).
i.e ,𝐹 ∝ ∆𝑙 ⇒ 𝐹 = 𝑘∆𝑙, where ∆𝑙 is the
change in length and 𝑘 is the constant of Solution
proportionality , called stiffness. This
1
constant differs for different elastic material. Using the formula 𝑈 = 2 𝑓𝑥, where 𝑓 =
The material however has its restoring force 𝑚𝑔 = 60(10) = 600𝑁 and 𝑥 = 18𝑐𝑚 −
.According to Newton’s 3rd law of motion, 15𝑐𝑚 = 3𝑐𝑚 = 0.03𝑚, hence the stored
1
this force is of the same magnitude as the energy is 2 (600)(0.03) = 9𝐽.
applied force but opposite in direction,
Example 10.1: (Question 16, Section A ;
⇒ 𝐹𝑟 = −𝑘∆𝑙, where 𝐹𝑟 is the restoring force 2010/2011)
and the minus sign shows that the force is in
the opposite direction. A person pulls on a spring , stretching it
5.0cm , which requires a maximum force of
For the sake of convenience, let ∆𝑙 = 𝑥 ⇒ 95N. How much work does it do?
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥.
Page 65 of 70
(A)1.9x103J (B) 4.75x103 J (C) 190J (D) Tensile Stress :This is the force per unit
475J 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
area on a body. i.e𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴
Solution
Tensile Strain: This is the effect of an
Given 𝐹 = 95𝑁 & 𝑥 = 5𝑐𝑚 = 0.05𝑚. applied force on a given elastic material. It
is the change in length per unit length.
𝑥
The work done is 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥 = 95 × 0.05 i.e𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑙 , where 𝑥 is the change in
= 4.75𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 length and 𝑙 is the original length of the
material.
2010/2011) From these concepts, Hook’s law can be re-
stated as “Provided the elastic limit of an
A horizontal spring has spring constant 𝑘 = elastic material is not exceeded, the tensile
360N/m. How much energy is required to stress is directly proportional to tensile
compress it from its uncompressed length strain”,
(𝑥 = 0) to (𝑥 = 11𝑐𝑚)? 𝐹 𝑥
i.e𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∝ 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 or 𝐴 ∝
-2 𝑙
(A)6.05x10 J (B)4.36J (C) 2.18J (D)
60.5J 𝐹 𝐸𝑥
= 𝑙 , where 𝐸 is a constant of
𝐴
Solution proportionality known as 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠.
Given 𝑘 = 360𝑁/𝑚and 𝑥 = 11𝑐𝑚 = We shall be considering three types of

0.11𝑚. elastic modulus
Using the formula, 𝐸 = 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 2 1. The young’s modulus

2. The shear modulus
= 360 × 0.11 = 39.6𝐽. Note that in this 3. The Bulk modulus
question and the previous, we were not
𝐴𝐸𝑥
asked for stored energy , hence we used the From the expression above ,𝐹 = 𝑙 ,hence
formula for work done. the Elastic potential energy can be re
expressed.
Example 10.5 : (Question 38, Section A ;
2008/2009) 1⁄ 𝐴𝐸𝑥 2
𝐴𝐸𝑥
𝑃. 𝐸 = 1⁄2 ( )𝑥 = 2
A spring whose spring constant is 35N/m is 𝑙 𝑙
stretched by 4.0m. How much energy is
The work done is the area under the force-
stored in the spring?
extension graph.
(A)140J (B) 560J (C) 280J (D) 420J
Energy Density: If the material is of
Solution volume 𝑉, then the energy density of the
material is defined as energy per unit
Given 𝑘 = 35𝑁/𝑚and 𝑥 = 4.0𝑚, the energy volume,
1 1
stored is 𝐸 = 2 𝑘𝑥 2 = 2 (35)(4)2 = 280𝐽. 1
𝑈 ( 𝐹𝑥) 1
2
i.e Energy Density= = = 2 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ×
10.4 Elastic Modulus 𝑉 𝐴𝑙
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Page 66 of 70
Example 10.6 10.4.3 Bulk Modulus(B)

A copper wire of length 10m and radius When the deformation is in the volume of
1mm is extended by 1.5mm when subjected the material , then we have the Bulk
to a tension of 200N. Calculate the energy Modulus. It relates the Hydrostatic pressure
density of the wire. to volume strain.
Solution 𝑑𝑝
i.e𝐵 = − 𝑑𝑉⁄
𝑉
Given 𝑙 = 10𝑚, 𝑟 = 1𝑚𝑚 = 0.001𝑚 , 𝑒 =
1.5𝑚𝑚 = 0.0015𝑚 & 𝐹 = 200𝑁 where𝑑𝑝 is the change in pressure, 𝑑𝑉 is the
change in volume and minus sign shows that
Using the formula , there’s a decrease in volume as a result of
increased pressure.
1
Energy density= 2 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛.
𝐹 2012/2013)
Where 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐴, for 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
A mass of 4kg is attached to the end of a
= 𝜋(0.001)2 = 3.143 × 10−6 𝑚2, hence vertical wire of length 2m and diameter
200
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 3.143×10−6 4mm. if the wire extended by 2.40mm,
calculate the stress-strain ratio.
𝑒
= 6.4 × 107 𝑁/𝑚2 and 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑙 (A)1.23x1010Nm-2 (B) 5.33x109Nm-2
0.0015
= = 0.00015. (C) 1.07x1010Nm-2 (D) 2.65x109Nm-2
10
⇒ 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 Solution

1 Given 𝑚 = 4𝑘𝑔 , 𝑙 = 2𝑚 𝑑 = 4𝑚𝑚
= 2 (6.4 × 107 )(0.00015) = 4800𝐽/𝑚3 .
= 0.004𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 = 2.40𝑚𝑚 = 0.0024𝑚.
10.4.1 Young’s Modulus
The stress- strain ratio is the young’s
When the deformation of the material is just
modulus 𝛾.
in length , the elastic modulus is called the
𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 and is denoted as 𝛾. 𝐹 𝜋𝑑2
Stress= 𝐴, where 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 4
𝐹 𝑥 𝐹⁄
𝐴
i.e𝐴 = 𝛾 𝑙 ⇒ 𝛾 = 𝑥⁄ 𝜋(0.004)2
𝑙 = = 1.2572 × 10−5 𝑚2 .
4
10.4.2 Shear Modulus(G)
𝑚𝑔 4(10)
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
Shear modulus is also called Rigidity 𝐴 1.2572 × 10−5
Modulus is the elastic modulus of a material
= 3181673.56𝑁/𝑚2 .
when the force changes the shape of the
material, i.etwisted through a given angle. 𝑒 0.0024
The 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 is ⇒ 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑙 2
If the angle of twist is 𝜃, then we have 𝐺 =
𝐹⁄ 1.2572×10−5
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
= 𝐴 = 0.0012, hence the ratio is 0.0012
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Page 67 of 70
𝐹
= 0.010477𝑁/𝑚2 . 𝐴 𝐹𝑙 𝐹𝑙
Using 𝛾 = 𝑒 = 𝐴𝑒 ⇒ 𝑒 = 𝛾𝐴, where 𝐴 =
𝑙
Example 10.8: (Question 3, Section B; 𝜋𝑑2 𝜋(0.00125)2
2011/2012) = = 1.228 × 10−6 𝑚2 .
4 4
A mass of 30.0kg is suspended from an 30(10)(2)

aluminum wire of length 2.0m and diameter 𝑒=
(6.9 × 1010 𝑁𝑚−2 )1.228 × 10−6
1.25mm. by how much will the wire be = 0.007081𝑚.
stretched , given that the young’s modulus
for aluminum is 𝛾 = 6.9 × 1010 𝑁𝑚−2 ? 10.5 Poisson Ratio
Solution 𝜎 = 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒
Given 𝑚 = 30𝑘𝑔 , 𝑙 = 2.0𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡
𝑑 = 1.25𝑚𝑚 = 0.00125𝑚 , 𝛾
= 6.9 × 1010 𝑁𝑚−2 & 𝑒 =?
11
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
So far , we’ve been discussing motion of The density of water is 1000kg/m3 =1g/cm3.
Solid matter. One would be tempted to ask . This is taken as standard for comparism.
what then happens to liquid and gases. This
chapter is dedicated to these states of matter. To convert from g/cm3 to kg/m3 , multiply
The properties of fluid at rest and in motion by 1000.
will be discussed. The study of fluid in
Example 11.1: (Question 4,Section A
motion is called hydrodynamics while that
2011/2012)
of fluid at rest is called hydrostatic.
The density of a solid material was
11.1 Density
measured to be 32.0g/cm3 , its S.I unit
The density of a substance , denoted as 𝜌 , equivalent is what?
is the mass per unit volume of the substance
(A)32kg/m3 (B) 320kg/m3 (C) 3200kg/m3
. it is a scalar quantity and its unit of
(D) 32000kg/m3
measurement is kg/m3 .
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 Solution
Mathematically ,𝜌 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒.
To convert from 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 to 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , multiply
by 1000, hence we have 32.0𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
Page 68 of 70
= 1000(32)𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 = 32000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 . Since 𝑔 and 𝜌 are constants , preussure in a

liquid is said to directly proportional to the
11.2 Relative Density (Specific Gravity) depth of the liquid.
The specific gravity or Relative density of a Example 11.2: (Question 37,Section A ;
substance is the ratio of the density of the 2015/2016 )
substance t the density of water.
Find the pressure at the depth of 50m in
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜌
i.e𝑆𝐺 = = 𝜌𝑠 water (Density of water =1000kg/m3).
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤
The Specific gravity can also be expressed (A)500.000N/m2 (B) 50,000N/m3 (C)
in terms of mass or weights of the substance 20N/m3 (D) 5,000N/m3
and that of water, this is𝑆𝐺 = Solution
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
=
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 Given ℎ = 50𝑚 , 𝜌 = 1000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 and𝑔 =
. 10𝑚/𝑠2 , the pressure is
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
11.3 Pressure 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 1000(10)(50)
Pressure is defined as the force that acts per = 500,000𝑁/𝑚2 .

unit area perpendicular to a surface. It is a
scalar quantity and its unit of measurement 11.4.1 Atmospheric Pressure
is the Pascal’s. The atmosphere exerts a given amount of
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 pressure on all substance. At sea level , the
Mathematically ,𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = (𝑁/𝑚2 ) average value is 105 N/m3 . this value
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
reduces decreases with height. The
From the definition , we can say that the
atmospheric pressure at a given altitude is
pressure exerted by a needle is greater that
denoted as 𝑝0 .
that exerted by a knife , given that the same
force is plied. This is because the area of 11.4.2 Measurement of Pressure
contact of the needle is smaller than that of
the knife. The instruments used in the measurement of
pressure are manometers and barometers,
11.4 Pressure in Liquid the barometer is basically for the
measurement of atmospheric pressure and
Lets consider a cylinder of cross sectional
the manometer is for other fluids.
area of 𝐴(m2), filled with a liquid of density
, then the pressure in the liquid at a depth ℎ In using the manometer, the pressure of a
above the bottom of the cylinder can be gas can be expressed as 𝑝 = 𝑝0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ.
obtained.
The difference between the absolute
𝐹 𝑚𝑔 𝑀
From 𝑃 = 𝐴 = , but 𝜌 = pressure(𝑃) of the gas and the atmospheric
𝐴 𝑉
pressure is called the gauge , i.e
⇒ 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑣 = 𝜌𝐴ℎ
𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = 𝑝 − 𝑝0 .
𝜌𝐴ℎ𝑔
∴𝑃= = 𝜌𝑔ℎ 11.5 Pascal’s principle
𝐴
Page 69 of 70
Pascal’s principle describes what happens It states that , a body floats in a liquid when
when pressure is applied to liquid I a it displaces its own weight , i.e the buoyant
container. It states that , the pressure applied force equals the weight of the object.
to liquid in a container is transmitted
undiminished to every portion of the liquid. 11.7 Capillarity
This principle has been applied in the
This is the rise or drop of liquid in a tube.
production of so many devices , including
There are two basic forces responsible for
the hydraulic press, the hydraulic brakes in a
this, they are the force of adhesion and the
car and the hydraulic lift.
force of cohesion .
From Pascal’s principle we have this
𝐹 𝐴 Adhesive force is the force that exist
relationship ,𝐹2 = 𝐴2. between unlike molecules while cohesive
1 1
force is that between like molecules. When
11.6 Archimedes’ principle the cohesive force is greater than the
adhesive force for a liquid and the tube ,
This principle describes what happens when then the liquid drop in the tube and would
substances are immersed in water. rise if the adhesive force is greater than the
It states that , when a substance is wholly or cohesive force.
partially immersed in a liquid , it For this reason , water rise in a tube and
experiences a buoyant (upward ) force that mercury drops.
is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced.
This buoyant force is called up thrust. 11.8 Surface tension
This magnitude of the force is 𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = This is defined as the force per unit length
𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐴, acting along any line in a liquid , tending to
pull the surface open.
whereℎ is the level difference between the
level of the liquid after and before the 𝐹
Mathematically , surface tension (𝛾)= 𝑙 .
substance is immersed.
Surface tension can also be calculated using
The up thrust is equal to the loss in weight
any of the formulae
of the substance , hence the apparent loss in
weight of the body is the weight of the 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑔ℎ𝑟𝜌
𝛾 = 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎or 𝛾 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, where 𝜃 is
liquid is displaced .
the angle of contact.
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
− 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 The unsolved questions are left for you to
= 𝑤𝑎 − 𝑤𝑙 , try.
⇒ 𝑤𝑎 = 𝑤𝑙 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐴 Good luck!!
Note: The apparent loss in weight is same as

the weight in liquid (𝑤𝑙 ).
George Whyte is wishing you the
If the apparent weight of the object is zero , beSt!!
then the body floats. This is called the law of
floatation.
Page 70 of 70

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Mechanics And Properties Of Matter George Whyte

Example 1.1 We have 150km/hr. this is the same as

Solution 1.2 Dimension

First we remove the prefix centi- by To obtain the dimension of a physical

Solution 𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦) 𝐿⁄𝑇 𝐿𝑇 −1

The dimension of gravitational constant is The displacement of a particle is given by

Next we substitute these into our 𝐹 = 𝑘𝜂1 𝑣 1 𝑟 1

The viscous force (𝐹) of a ball of radius (𝑟) Solution

Solution We have the expression in terms of

2.3 Parallelogram Law of Vectors 2.4 Magnitude of a Vector

Solution (C) 5𝑖 − 𝑗 + 𝑘 (D) 8𝑖 + 𝑗 + 15𝑘

Given that |𝐴| = 5, but |𝐴| = Solution

20 + 𝑥 2 = 25 = (5𝑖 + 4𝑗 + 11𝑘) + (3𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 4𝑘),

Example 2.7 i. Multiplication by a scalar

Example 2.8 Example 2.9

If the resultant of the vectors 𝐴 = 8𝑖 + If 𝐴 = 3𝑖 + 𝑗 − 2𝑘and𝐵 = 𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 𝑘, find

From the given vectors ,𝐴 + 𝐵 = Solution

The dot product is the sum of the product of = 28 − 15 − 6 = 7.0 [Option B]

Example2.11:Question |𝐵| = √(−1)2 + 12 + 22 = √1 + 1 + 4

𝑎 = 2𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 2𝑘and𝑏 = 3𝑖 + 6𝑗 + 5𝑘. We gave it that 𝐴. 𝐵 = |𝐴||𝐵|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃and 𝐴⃗ ×

(𝐴 × 𝐵). (𝐴 × 𝐵) + (𝐴. 𝐵)2 𝐶𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐶𝑧 𝑘, then their scalar triple product is

= −5(−656 − (−4)) − 6(574 − 16) Vector Triple Product

If the vectors 𝐴 = 2𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘, Solution

𝐵 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑗 + 7𝑘and𝐶 = −𝑗 + 2𝑘 are All we need to do is obtain the vector

(d)𝑥(2) = −10𝑖 + 22𝑗

At 𝑡 = 2, Instantaneous Velocity: This is the velocity

The above formula can also be written as i.e∆𝑣 = 𝑣 − 𝑣0

Example 3.8 1.33 × 1013

If a spacecraft is travelling with the speed ⇒ 𝑣 − 𝑣0 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 .

Mathematically, instantaneous accelerationis 𝑣 = 10𝑚/𝑠,hence the acceleration is 𝑎 =

𝑑2 𝑥 Example 3.2 : (Question 15,Section

Solution The coordinate of a particle at motion are

Solution a. All we need to do is to differentiate

𝑣𝑥 = 2 + 14(3) = 2 + 42 = 44 𝑆(2) = 64 − 144 + 96 =

Now, from the equation = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡; 𝑎 2𝑎𝑡 + 𝑎

Example 3.10:Question7, Section A;12/13

= 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑣0 + 1⁄2 𝑎(𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 1) 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑡 2 , where 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 and 𝑎2

− (𝑣0 𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2 ) (a) 𝑎0 (b) 𝑎1 (c) 𝑎2 (d) 2𝑎2

𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑡 2 , then the acceleration 𝑆1 = 45𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆2 = 55𝑡, hence

Example 3.11:Question 6,Section A;12/13 Example 3.16 : (Question 20, Section

Le the distance covered by the particles be Using 𝑥 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2

7 = 𝑡 + 2𝑡 2 𝑜𝑟 2𝑡 2 + 𝑡 − 7 = 0 . This is a Now we need to obtain the value of “𝑎”

Using the formula 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎𝑆, we have 𝑣 2 −𝑣02

Solution 8002 −02

Using the formula 𝑆 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2 When a particle undergoes rectilinear

For particle that falls freely, the velocity of 380.25

Example 3.20 (a)10m/s (b) 15m/s (c) 20.6m/s (d)

A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a Using 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣0 − 𝑔𝑡1

the time of flight is 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 iii. The distance from the building

hence we use the horizontal velocity. This is as shown in the diagram

c. Using the formula 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 + 𝑔𝑡

Trajectory: This is the path taken by a ⇒ 𝑣0𝑦 = 𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃and

i.e𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃– 𝑔𝑡 , also

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 − 𝑔𝑡, but gravity does not

𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

A body is projected from the ground with a 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 0

2𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 Circular and rotational kinematics are very

Example 3.31 : (Question 26, Section