MCOB
MCOB
MCOB
UNIT 9 PERSONALITY
Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• understand the meaning of personality and personality traits;
• explain personality development theories; and
• analyse the key determinants of personality.
Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Meaning and Definition
9.3 Theories of Personality
9.4 Determinants of Personality
9.5 Impact of Personality Traits on Organisational Behaviour
9.6 Emotional Intelligence and its Impact on Personality
9.7 Summary
9.8 Self-Assessment Questions
9.9 Further Readings
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Personality is a concept that we use continuously in our day-to-day routine while
dealing with people. Personality can be reflected in a person’s temperament and
is a key factor influencing individual behaviour in organisations. The study of
personality is very essential and helpful in ensuring effective job performance.
This means that the personality of an individual represents personal characteristics
and traits which can lead to consistent patterns of behaviour. So while trying to
understand the personality, it is to be understood that the behaviour is the outcome
of a complex interaction between the person and the situation. Hence, it will be
necessary to have knowledge of those personality traits which predetermine the
parameters for employee’s (or people’s) behaviour and thus provide a paradigm
for predicting behaviour. The theories of personality are many, and most important
of them are trait, type, psychoanalytic, socio-psychological, and self-theory. Each
theory seeks to add a new perspective to the nature of personality.
In this unit, we have tried to examine the various aspects of personality. We start
with trying to understand the meaning of personality, then focus is drawn on the
theories and key determinants of personality. We have also tried to explore the
various personality traits having impact on organisational behaviour.
The word ‘personality’ can be originally traced to the Latin words per sona which
means to speak through. This term was used in reference to the masks worn by
the actors in ancient Greece. In common parlance, the word personality refers to
the role a person is playing in public. A definition of personality with an objective
of social learning and having relevance to the study of organisational behaviour
could be accepted. It is based on the key idea that personality represents the
personal characteristics which leads to consistent pattern of behaviour. A well-
known personality theorist, Salvatore Maddi, had proposed the following
definition of personality:
Thus, from the above definition we can see that the personality theory is given as
a general theory of behaviour i.e., describe all behaviours all the time. The term
“commonalities and differences” indicates that theories of personality often
describe what people have in common with others and what are those particular
differences which make them unique. In any organisation, also each employee is
unique and may not respond as others do in a particular situation. This complexity
makes the task of working and managing employees very challenging. Studies
have indicated that an individual’s personality development occurs to a certain
extent throughout life, though the greatest changes occur in early childhood. In
simple words, an individual’s personality may change over a period of time.
Generally, personality refers to the set of traits, and behaviours that characterise
an individual. It is relatively a stable pattern of behaviour and explains a person’s
behavioural tendencies. The nature of personality is: (a) it has both internal and
external elements; (b) an individual’s personality is relatively stable; (c) an
individual’s personality is both inherited as well as shaped by the environment;
and (d) each individual is unique in his/her behaviour. Thus, personality refers to
the sum total of internal and external traits of an individual, which are relatively
stable and that makes the individual different from others.
The Self-Concept
In personality theory, when people try to understand themselves, we label it as
self-concept. It is to be noted that there are various dimensions of perception
which enter personality. This is because personality would essentially mean:
• How people affect others.
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• How they understand and see themselves. Personality
In this trait factor theory, through research an attempt has been made to find
a relationship and assorted behaviour. Thus, one can see its contribution of
personality tests to the behavioural science.
Its limitations are:
• This theory is more descriptive than being analytical. Thus, it cannot
be said to be a comprehensive theory of personality.
• Some of the terms are difficult to define and there is no scientific
reliability about the results.
3) Psychoanalytic Theory
Psychoanalytic theory works on the basis that human beings are motivated
more by unseen forces than their conscious and rational thoughts. Although
Sigmund Freud is the man most closely associated with the psychoanalytic
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theory, others such as Carl Jung and Alfred Adler have also made additional Personality
contributions.
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Intrapersonal Processes The limitations of this theory are:
• The theory is based on an approach which contains elements
(psychoanalytic) which are largely hypothetical constructs and cannot
be measured or verified.
• Some critics have pointed out that Freud’s personality theory has been
developed on the basis of his observations of emotionally disturbed
people and may not be a representation of normal healthy personality.
• Some critics have disagreed with the claim about using Freud’s theory
as the basis for scientific study of sexuality. They pointed out that
Freud’s observation may have been valid during the Victorian period
and may not hold true in today’s permissive society (to sex). So
personality disturbances may not be only caused by sexual conflicts.
• There are also criticisms of Freud’s assumption of all human activities
(thoughts, feelings, actions, aspirations) being determined by powerful
instinctual forces. They opine that this implies as per Freud’s approach,
there is no room for free will, choice and responsibility.
4) Socio-psychological Theory
The socio-psychological theory talks of the interdependence of the individual
and society. On the one hand the individual strives to meet the needs of the
society, and on the other hand the society helps the individual to attain his
goal. And the personality of the individual is determined from this
interaction. Thus, this theory is a combination of sociological and
psychological aspects. Those associated with this theory are Karen Horney,
Adler, Fromm and Sullivan.
This theory differs from psychoanalytic theory on two counts:
• Here it is the social variables and not biological instincts which are
referred to as the important determinants in shaping an individual’s
personality.
• The behavioural motivation is a conscious effort. After knowing one’s
wants and needs, man’s behaviour will be directed to meet those needs.,
The criticism against this theory is that although the socio-psychological
theory can help to answer questions related to the influence of social factors
in shaping personality, it cannot give a total picture of human behaviour.
C
B D
PSYCHO
TRAIT SOCIO
ANALYTIC E
A FACTOR PSYCHOLOGICAL
THEORY SELF
TYPE THEORY THEORY
THEORIES THEORY
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5) Self-Theory Personality
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Intrapersonal Processes 1) Biological
These biological contributions can further be divided into heredity, genetic
engineering managerial thinking, split-brain thinking, bio-feedback and
physical characteristics. We will briefly touch upon these.
Usually, the prevailing culture indicates what a person has learned or dictates
what he will learn.
• What a person learns has content which in turn will be based on his
on her cultural background.
• Certain personality traits such as independent, aggressive, competitive,
and co-operative can be culturally determined.
In spite of understanding the impact of culture on a person’s personality,
we cannot draw a linear relationship between personality and a given culture.
For instance, if we have a look at the complex societies such as ours in 13
Intrapersonal Processes India, we have several sub-cultures within a culture. Also, there exists value
and belief differences among different socio-economic classes, age groups
and various geographic regions. Thus, the fact remains that culture affects
personality, though it may not be possible to make broad generalization.
3) Socialisation Process
A very relevant aspect is the influence of certain persons, groups and even
organisations on an individual’s personality. And this socialisation process
affects the individual throughout his or her life time. Through the
socialisation process, the individual is exposed to a wide range of behavioural
potentialities and patterns which are customary and acceptable according
to the standards of his or her family as well as the social groups. The
socialisation process starts with the initial contact of an infant with his or
her mother. Later on during childhood, the other members of family and
friends influence them, and then as an employee or while working in an
organisation the peer and social groups influence the socialisation process.
6) Ensure that the new recruits are placed in work groups with high
morale.
Today, most of the firms have realised the importance of having a successful
organisational socialisation programme. Such firms are having consciously
planned socialisation process which has a tremendous capacity to impact
the human resources management as well as organisational effectiveness.
4) Situational Factors
It is noticed that an individual’s personality though usually stable and
consistent, can change in different situations. Thus, depending on the
situational demand, certain aspects of the personality may also change
accordingly. The situational requirement even gets extended to the place of
work of the individual. Today, the work environment has become very
challenging and demanding for the employee. And this affects the employee’s
behaviour and personality. If one were to take the social learning perspective,
it is the situation interacting with the human being (this includes the
individual’s personality) which acts as an important antecedent to the
behaviour.
Each personality includes a large number and range of specific personality traits
dimensions. Thus, each factor is said to contain both a collection of related traits
as well as a continuum. For instance, an individual having a personality at one
extreme will be sociable, gregarious, and energetic; and at the other extreme will
be shy and withdrawn. It will be interesting to note the individual personality in
the study of organisational behaviour because it provides the linkage between
personality and behaviour. Even though each personality factor represents a
collection of related traits, the link between personality and specific behaviours
will become clear when we concentrate on particular traits rather than on all the
five factors. We will briefly examine the specific personality traits which are
particularly important for understanding the various aspects of organisational
behaviour.
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Intrapersonal Processes There are many different personality traits, but some of the important ones for
organisational behaviour are risk-taking, self-monitoring, type A and type B
personality, self-esteem, locus of control, machiavellianism, goal orientation,
introversion versus extroversion, dogmatism, and authoritarianism.
Risk-Taking
Self-Monitoring
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Table 9.1: Type A and Type B Behaviours Personality
Type A Type B
1. Are always moving, walking, 1. Never suffer from a sense of time
and eating rapidly. urgency with its accompanying
impatience.
2. Feel impatient with the rate 2. Feel no need to display or discuss
at which most events take either their achievements or
place. accomplishments unless such
exposure is demanded by the
situation.
3. Strive to think or do two or 3. Play for fun and relaxation, rather
more things at once. than to exhibit their superiority at
any cost.
4. Cannot cope with leisure. 4. Can relax without guilt.
5. Are obsessed with numbers,
measuring their success in
terms of how much of
anything they acquire.
Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is the outcome of an individual’s continuous evaluation of himself
or herself which will be assessments reflecting his/her response to others’ opinions,
situational requirement, and successes and failures. Such assessments are usually
stable and accurate enough to be considered as a personality trait. In terms of the
Big Five personality factors, self-esteem is most likely to be a part of the
adjustment factor.
Some of the ways in which self-esteem can affect organisational behaviour are:
• Self-esteem reflects an individual’s choice of vocation.
• Individuals with high self-esteem are likely to be attracted towards higher
status jobs. They also select unconventional jobs as compared to individuals
with low esteem.
• Self-esteem affects individuals as to how they set goals and attach value in
attaining them.
• Employees with high self-esteem set high goals for themselves and place
more value on actually attaining goals; and this would work the other way
around in case of employees with low self-esteem.
• Employees with low self-esteem are more sensitive to adverse job conditions
such as stress, conflict, ambiguity, poor supervision, poor working conditions
and so on when compared to employees with high self-esteem.
Simply stated, self-esteem is clearly indicative of the willingness of the
employee to assert himself or herself towards completion of the task assigned
and thus having positive links to achievement.5 17
Intrapersonal Processes Locus of Control
Locus of control indicates the belief of the individual on the extent to which he
or she can control events affecting them.
Machiavellianism
This term is derived from Niccolo Machiavelli’s writings, who wrote on how to
gain and use power i.e., on an individual’s ability to manipulate people. Thus,
such Machs can easily be game for participating in organisational politics.
Those who are high Machs, believe ‘ends justify means’. They try manipulating
more, winning more, persuade others more and are themselves less persuaded.
Yet, there are situational factors which affect high Machs and they are able to
flourish in indirect situations. The situations involving minimum rules and
regulations and emotional involvement with details are irrelevant to winning,
and act as a cause of distraction for low Machs. For instance, where jobs involve
good bargaining skills, or where rewards are awarded for good performance and
winning, Machiavellians can perform better.
Goal Orientation
Another visible difference in individual behaviour in work environment is related
to goal orientation or the preference for one type of goal against another. While
trying to understand some aspects of individual job performance, we will have
to consider two types of goal orientation:
But when applying this goal orientation to work setting, a dramatic response
pattern in behaviour emerges. An individual with strong goal orientation may
refrain from accepting work challenges and their performance suffers when they
are unable to overcome obstacles and when faced with failure, become unhappy
and are likely to withdraw from such situations.
Individuals with a strong learning goal orientation try to overcome failure and
setback by putting in more efforts and looking out for new solutions to the
problems. Although an individual’s goal orientation may vary from situation to
situation, evidence suggest that a significant amount of goal orientation can be
indicative of an individual’s personality.
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Introversion Versus Extroversion Personality
The terms introvert and extrovert describe a person’s congeniality. These terms
can be extended to refer to a personality dimension also.
Dogmatism
High dogmatism refers to the tendency of the individual to be very rigid, perceives
the world as a threatening place, prefers to treat legitimate authority as absolute
and either accepts or rejects other people on the basis of their agreement or
disagreement with accepted authority or doctrine.
With regards to the degree of dogmatism and its relationship with interpersonal
and group behaviour it is noted that HDs typically are in need of more group
structure as compared to LDs. So the performance of HDs will also be dependent
on how the group performs. But a high degree of dogmatism can at times lead to
poor managerial performance because they may be involved only in a limited
search for information especially in decision making situations.
Authoritarianism
Authoritarianism though closely related to dogmatism, is narrower in scope. It
refers to a person who displays qualities such as adherence to conventional values,
obeys recognised authority, has a negative view of society, respects power and
toughness, and opposes expression of personal feelings.
In an organisational set up, such persons may prefer superiors who have a highly
directive and structured leadership style. Both dogmatism and authoritarianism
can be related to the ‘intellectual openness factor’ of the ‘Big Five’ factors.
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Intrapersonal Processes
9.6 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND ITS
IMPACT ON PERSONALITY
In the recent years, the concept of emotional intelligence (EQ) has been receiving
a lot of interest and is very often considered as an important determinant of
leadership trait among employees. At times it is treated as more crucial than
general intelligence (IQ) where career success is concerned.
Activity 1
Using the personality categories in this unit, describe the basic sources of
personality differences between yourself and a person you know well.
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9.7 SUMMARY
• Personality refers to the internal and external traits of an individual which
are relatively stable and which make an individual different from others.
• Personality is the product of heredity, environment, family, social and
situational factors.
• Understanding personality is very important as it influences behaviour, as
well as perception and attitudes.
• Personality has been classified into two basic categories, such as Type A
and Type B behaviour profiles.
• A person exhibiting Type A behaviour is generally restless, impatient, with
20 a desire for quick achievement and perfectionism.
• Type B is much more easy going, relaxed about time pressure, less Personality
competitive and more philosophical in nature.
• Personality trait refers to basic components of personality.
• According to type theories, personalities are categorised into groups based
on physical features and psychological factors.
• The trait theory seeks to categorise people based on their traits such as
aggressive, flexible, humorous, sensitive, impulsive, and so on.
• Freud’s psychoanalytic theory seeks to explain personality as comprising
id, ego, and super ego.
• The social learning theory emphasises the process of learning as an important
determinant of behaviour.
• Roger’s self-concept theory lays emphasis on how an individual perceives
the world around and the self.
• Existential philosophy is concerned with man as an individual and each
person is responsible for his own existence.
• Freud was the first person to suggest that personality goes through oral,
anal, phallic, and genital stages.
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