SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

TRANSFORMERS:
The transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another electrical
circuit. The two circuits may be operating at different voltage levels but always work at the same frequency.
Basically transformer is an electro-magnetic energy conversion device. It is commonly used in electrical
power system and distribution systems.
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS:

INTRODUCTION
In its simplest form a single-phase transformer consists of two windings, wound on an iron core one of the
windings is connected to an ac source of supply f. The source supplies a current to this winding (called
primary winding) which in turn produces a flux in the iron core. This flux is alternating in nature (Refer
Figure 4.1). If the supplied voltage has a frequency f, the flux in the core also alternates at a frequency f. the
alternating flux linking with the second winding, induces a voltage E2 in the second winding (called
secondary winding). [Note that this alternating flux linking with primary winding will also induce a voltage
in the primary winding, denoted as E1. Applied voltage V1 is very nearly equal to E1]. If the number of
turns in the primary and secondary windings is N1 and N2 respectively, we shall see later in this unit that

.
The load is connected across the secondary winding, between the terminals a1, a2. Thus, the load can be
supplied at a voltage higher or lower than the supply voltage, depending upon the ratio N1/N2

When a load is connected across the secondary winding it carries a current I2, called load current. The
primary current correspondingly increases to provide for the load current, in addition to the small no load
current. The transfer of power from the primary side (or source) to the secondary side (or load) is through the
mutual flux and core. There is no direct electrical connection between the primary and secondary sides.
In an actual transformer, when the iron core carries alternating flux, there is a power loss in the core called
core loss, iron loss or no load loss. Further, the primary and secondary windings have a resistance, and the
currents in primary and secondary windings give rise to I 2 R losses in transformer windings, also called
copper losses. The losses lead to production of heat in the transformers, and a consequent temperature rise.
Therefore, in transformer, cooling methods are adopted to ensure that the temperature remains within limit
so that no damage is done to windings‘ insulation and material.
In the Figure 4.1 of a single-phase transformer, the primary winding has been shown connected to a source
of constant sinusoidal voltage of frequency f Hz and the secondary terminals are kept open. The primary
winding of N1 turns draws a small amount of alternating current of instantaneous value i0, called the
exciting current. This current establishes flux φ in the core (+ve direction marked on diagram). The strong
coupling enables all of the flux φ to be confined to the core (i.e. there is no leakage of flux).
Construction of a Transformer:
There are two basic parts of a transformer:
1. Magnetic core
2. Winding or coils

Magnetic core:
The core of a transformer is either square or rectangular in size. It is further divided in two parts. The vertical
portion on which the coils are bound is called limb, while the top and bottom horizontal portion is called
yoke of the core as shown in fig. 2.
Core is made up of laminations. Because of laminated type of construction, eddy current losses get
minimized. Generally high grade silicon steel laminations (0.3 to 0.5 mm thick) are used. These laminations
are insulated from each other by using insulation like varnish. All laminations are varnished. Laminations are
overlapped so that to avoid the airgap at the joints. For this generally ‗L‗ shaped or ‗I‗ shaped laminations
are used which are shown in the fig. 3 below.

Winding:

Fig. 4 Single Phase Transformer

There are two windings, which are wound on the two limbs of the core, which are insulated from each other
and from the limbs as shown in fig. 4. The windings are made up of copper, so that, they possess a very
small resistance. The winding which is connected to the load is called secondary winding and the winding
which is connected to the supply is called primary winding. The primary winding has N1 number of turns
and the secondary windings have N2 number of turns.
Principle of operation of a Single Phase Transformer:

A single phase transformer works on the principle of mutual induction between two magnetically coupled
coils. When the primary winding is connected to an alternating voltage of r.m.s value, V1 volts, an
alternating current flows through the primary winding and setup an alternating flux in the material of the
core. This alternating flux ϕ, links not only the primary windings but also the secondary windings. Therefore,
an e.m.f e1 is induced in the primary winding and an e.m.f e2 is induced in the secondary winding, e1 and e2
are given:

If the induced e.m.f is e1 and e2 are represented by their rms values E1 and E2 respectively, then

K is known as the transformation ratio of the transformer. When a load is connected to the secondary
winding, a current I2 flows through the load, V2 is the terminal voltage across the load. As the power
transferred from the primary winding to the secondary winding is same, Power input to the primary winding
= Power output from the secondary winding.
The directions of emf‗s E1 and E2 induced in the primary and secondary windings are such that, they always
oppose the primary applied voltage V1.

EMF Equation of a Transformer:

Consider a transformer having,

N1 =Primary turns
N2 = Secondary turns
Φm = Maximum flux in the core
Φm = Bm × A webers
f= frequency of ac input in hertz (Hz)

The flux in the core will vary sinusoidal as shown in figure, so that it increases from zero to maximum ―ϕm‖
in one quarter of the cycle i.e, 1/4f second.
i.e, E1 =4.44fφm×N1 = 4.44fBm×A×N1
Similarly;
E2= 4.44 f φm × N2 = 4.44 f Bm × A × N2

Transformation Ratio:
(1) Voltage Transformation Ratio
(2) Current Transformation Ratio
Voltage Transformation Ratio:
Voltage transformation ratio can be defined as the ratio of the secondary voltage to the primary voltage
denoted by K.

Current Transformation Ratio:

Consider an ideal transformer and we have the input voltampere is equal to output voltampere.
Mathematically, Input Voltampere = Output Voltampere

Transformer on no-Load:
Theory of Transformer On No-load, and Having No Winding Resistance and No Leakage Reactance of
Transformer
Let us consider one electrical transformer with only core losses, which means, it has only core losses
but no copper loss and no leakage reactance of transformer. When an alternating source is applied in the
primary, the source will supply the current for magnetizing the core of transformer.
But this current is not the actual magnetizing current, it is little bit greater than actual magnetizing current.
Actually, total current supplied from the source has two components, one is magnetizing current which is
merely utilized for magnetizing the core and other component of the source current is consumed for
compensating the core losses in transformer. Because of this core loss component, the source current in
transformer on no-load condition supplied from the source as source current is not exactly at 90° lags of
supply voltage, but it lags behind an angle θ is less than 90°. If total current supplied from source is Io, it will
have one component in phase with supply voltage V1 and this component of the current Iw is core loss
component. This component is taken in phase with source voltage, because it is associated with active or
working losses in transformer. Other component of the source current is denoted as Iμ. This component
produces the alternating magnetic flux in the core, so it is watt-less; means it is reactive part of the
transformer source current. Hence Iμ will be in quadrature with V1 and in phase with alternating flux Φ.
Hence, total primary current in transformer on no-load condition can be represented as

Now you have seen how simple is to explain the theory of transformer in no-load.

Transformer On Load:
Theory of Transformer On Load But Having No Winding Resistance and Leakage Reactance
Now we will examine the behavior of above said transformer on load that means load is
connected to the secondary terminals. Consider, transformer having core loss but no copper loss and leakage
reactance. Whenever load is connected to the secondary winding, load current will start to flow through the
load as well as secondary winding. This load current solely depends upon the characteristics of the load and
also upon secondary voltage of the transformer. This current is called secondary current or load current, here
it is denoted as I2. As I2 is flowing through the secondary, a self mmf in secondary winding will be
produced. Here it is N2I2, where, N2 is the number of turns of the secondary winding of transformer.
This mmf or magneto motive force in the secondary winding produces flux φ2. This φ2 will oppose the main
magnetizing flux and momentarily weakens the main flux and tries to reduce primary self induced emf E1. If
E1 falls down below the primary source voltage V1, there will be an extra current flowing from source to
primary winding. This extra primary current I2′ produces extra flux φ′ in the core which will neutralize the
secondary counter flux φ2. Hence the main magnetizing flux of core, Φ remains unchanged irrespective of
load.
So total current, this transformer draws from source can be divided into two components, first one is utilized
for magnetizing the core and compensating the core loss i.e. Io. It is no-load component of the primary
current. Second one is utilized for compensating the counter flux of the secondary winding. It is known as
load component of the primary current. Hence total no load primary current I1 of a electrical power
transformer having no winding resistance and leakage reactance can be represented as follows

Where θ2 is the angle between Secondary Voltage and Secondary Current of transformer. Now we will
proceed one further step toward more practical aspect of a transformer.

Transformer On Load, With Resistive Winding, But No Leakage Reactance

Now, consider the winding resistance of transformer but no leakage reactance. So far we have discussed
about the transformer which has ideal windings, means winding with no resistance and leakage reactance,
but now we will consider one transformer which has internal resistance in the winding but no leakage
reactance. As the windings are resistive, there would be a voltage drop in the windings.

We have proved earlier that, total primary current from the source on load is I1. The voltage drop in the
primary winding with resistance, R1 is R1I1. Obviously, induced emf across primary winding E1, is not
exactly equal to source voltage V1. E1 is less than V1 by voltage drop I1R1.

Again in the case of secondary, the voltage induced across the secondary winding, E2 does not totally appear
across the load since it also drops by an amount I2R2, where R2 is the secondary winding resistance and I2
is secondary current or load current.
Similarly, voltage equation of the secondary side of the transformer will be

Theory of Transformer on Load, With Resistance As Well As Leakage Reactance in Transformer

Windings:
Now we will consider the condition, when there is leakage reactance of transformer as well as winding
resistance of transformer.

Let leakage reactances of primary and secondary windings of the transformer are X1 and X2 respectively.
Hence total impedance of primary and secondary winding of transformer with resistance R1 and R2
respectively, can be represented as,

We have already established the voltage equation of a transformer on load, with only resistances in the
windings, where voltage drops in the windings occur only due to resistive voltage drop. But when we
consider leakage reactances of transformer windings, voltage drop occurs in the winding not only because of
resistance, it is because of impedance of transformer windings. Hence, actual voltage equation of a
transformer can easily be determined by just replacing resistances R1 & R2 in the previously established
voltage equations by Z1 and Z2.
Therefore, the voltage equations are,

Resistance drops are in the direction of current vector but, reactive drop will be perpendicular to the current
vector as shown in the above vector diagram of transformer.
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer:
Equivalent impedance of transformer is essential to be calculated because the electrical power transformer is
an electrical power system equipment for estimating different parameters of electrical power system which
may be required to calculate total internal impedance of an electrical power transformer, viewing from
primary side or secondary side as per requirement. This calculation requires equivalent circuit of transformer
referred to primary or equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary sides respectively. Percentage
impedance is also very essential parameter of transformer. Special attention is to be given to this parameter
during installing a transformer in an existing electrical power system. Percentage impedance of different
power transformers should be properly matched during parallel operation of power transformers. The
percentage impedance can be derived from equivalent impedance of transformer so, it can be said that
equivalent circuit of transformer is also required during calculation of % impedance.
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Primary:
For drawing equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary, first we have to establish general
equivalent circuit of transformer then, we will modify it for referring from primary side. For doing this, first
we need to recall the complete vector diagram of a transformer which is shown in the figure below

Let us consider the transformation ratio be,

In the figure above, the applied voltage to the primary is V1 and voltage across the primary winding is E1.
Total current supplied to primary is I1. So the voltage V1 applied to the primary is partly dropped by I1Z1 or
I1R1 + j.I1X1 before it appears across primary winding. The voltage appeared across winding is countered
by primary induced emf E1. So voltage equation of this portion of the transformer can be written as,

The equivalent circuit for that equation can be drawn as below,

From the vector diagram above, it is found that the total primary current I1 has two components, one is no -
load component Io and the other is load component I2′. As this primary current have two components or
branches, so there must be a parallel path with primary winding of transformer. This parallel path of current
is known as excitation branch of equivalent circuit of transformer. The resistive and reactive branches of the
excitation circuit can be represented as

The load component I2′ flows through the primary winding of transformer and induced voltage across the
winding is E1 as shown in the figure right. This induced voltage E1 transforms to secondary and it is E2 and
load component of primary current I2′ is transformed to secondary as secondary current I2. Current of
secondary is I2. So the voltage E2 across secondary winding is partly dropped by I2Z2 or I2R2 + j.I2X2
before it appears across load. The load voltage is V2.
The complete equivalent circuit of transformer is shown below.

Now if we see the voltage drop in secondary from primary side, then it would be ′K′ times greater and would
be written as K.Z2.I2. Again I2′.N1 = I2.N2
Therefore,

From above equation, secondary impedance of transformer referred to primary is,

So, the complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary is shown in the figure below,

Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer:

Since Io is very small compared to I1, it is less than 5% of full load primary current, Io changes the voltage
drop insignificantly. Hence, it is good approximation to ignore the excitation circuit in approximate
equivalent circuit of transformer. The winding resistance and reactance being in series can now be combined
into equivalent resistance and reactance of transformer, referred to any particular side. In this case it is side 1
or primary side.

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Secondary

In similar way, approximate equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary can be drawn.
Where equivalent impedance of transformer referred to secondary, can be derived as
Losses in Transformer:
Losses of transformer are divided mainly into two types:
1. Iron Loss
2. Copper Losses

Iron Loss:
This is the power loss that occurs in the iron part. This loss is due to the alternating frequency of the emf.
Iron loss in further classified into two other losses.
a) Eddy current loss
b) Hysterisis loss

a) Eddy Current Loss:

This power loss is due to the alternating flux linking the core, which will induced an emf in the core
called the eddy emf, due to which a current called the eddy current is being circulated in the core. As
there is some resistance in the core with this eddy current circulation converts into heat called the eddy
current power loss. Eddy current loss is proportional to the square of the supply frequency.
b) Hysterisis Loss:
This is the loss in the iron core, due to the magnetic reversal of the flux in the core, which results in the
form of heat in the core. This loss is directly proportional to the supply frequency.
Eddy current loss can be minimized by using the core made of thin sheets of silicon steel material, and
each lamination is coated with varnish insulation to suppress the path of the eddy currents. Hysterisis loss
can be minimized by using the core material having high permeability.
Copper Loss:
This is the power loss that occurs in the primary and secondary coils when the transformer is on load. This
power is wasted in the form of heat due to the resistance of the coils. This loss is proportional to the
sequence of the load hence it is called the Variable loss where as the Iron loss is called as the Constant loss
as the supply voltage and frequency are constants
Efficiency:
It is the ratio of the output power to the input power of a transformer
Input = Output + Total losses
= Output + Iron loss + Copper loss

where,
Wcopper is the copper loss at full load
Wcopper = I2R watts

Condition for Maximum Efficiency:

In general for the efficiency to be maximum for any device the losses must be minimum. Between the iron
and copper losses the iron loss is the fixed loss and the copper loss is the variable loss. When these two
losses are equal and also minimum the efficiency will be maximum.
Therefore the condition for maximum efficiency in a transformer is Copper loss = Iron loss
O.C. and S.C. Tests on Single Phase Transformer:
The efficiency and regulation of a transformer on any load condition and at any power factor condition can
be predetermined by indirect loading method. In this method, the actual load is not used on transformer. But
the equivalent circuit parameters of a transformer are determined by conducting two tests on a transformer
which are,
1. Open circuit test (O.C Test)
2. Short circuit test (S.C.Test)
The parameters calculated from these test results are effective in determining the regulation and efficiency of
a transformer at any load and power factor condition, without actually loading the transformer. The
advantage of this method is that without much power loss the tests can be performed and results can be
obtained. Let us discuss in detail how to perform these tests and how to use the results to calculate equivalent
circuit parameters.
Open Circuit Test (O.C. Test)
The experimental circuit to conduct O.C test is shown in the Fig.

The transformer primary is connected to a.c. supply through ammeter, wattmeter and variac. The secondary
of transformer is kept open. Usually low voltage side is used as primary and high voltage side as secondary
to conduct O.C test.
The primary is excited by rated voltage, which is adjusted precisely with the help of a variac. The
wattmeter measures input power. The ammeter measures input current. The voltemeter gives the value of
rated primary voltage applied at rated frequency.
Sometimes a voltmeter may be connected across secondary to measure secondary voltage which is V 2
= E2 when primary is supplied with rated voltage. As voltmeter resistance is very high, though voltmeter is
connected, secondary is treated to be open circuit as voltmeter current is always negligibly small.
When the primary voltage is adjusted to its rated value with the help of variac, readings of ammeter
and wattmeter are to be recorded.
Let,
Vo = Rated voltage
Wo = Input power
Io = Input current = no load current
As transformer secondary is open, it is on no load. So current drawn by the primary is no load current
Io. The two components of this no load current are,
Im = Io sin Φo
Ic = Io cos Φo
where cos Φo = No load power factor
And hence power input can be written as,
Wo = Vo Io cos Φo
 The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.
As secondary is open, I2 = 0. Thus its reflected current on primary is also zero. So we have primary current
I1 =Io. The transformer no load current is always very small, hardly 2 to 4 % of its full load value. As I2 = 0,
secondary copper losses are zero. And I1 = Io is very low hence copper losses on primary are also very very
low. Thus the total copper losses in O.C. test are negligibly small. As against this the input voltage is rated at
rated frequency hence flux density in the core is at its maximum value. Hence iron losses are at rated
voltage. As output power is zero and copper losses are very low, the total input power is used to supply iron
losses. This power is measured by the wattmeter i.e. Wo. Hence the wattmeter in O.C. test gives iron losses
which remain constant for all the loads
Wo = Pi = Iron losses
Short Circuit Test (S.C. Test):
In this test, primary is connected to a.c. supply through variac, ammeter and voltmeter as shown in the Fig.

Experimental circuit for O.C. test

The secondary is short circuited with the help of thick copper wire or solid link. As high voltage side is
always low current side, it is convenient to connect high voltage side to supply and shorting the low voltage
side.
As secondary is shorted, its resistance is very very small and on rated voltage it may draw very large current.
Such large current can cause overheating and burning of the transformer. To limit this short circuit current,
primary is supplied with low voltage which is just enough to cause rated current to flow through primary
which can be observed on an ammeter. The low voltage can be adjusted with the help of variac. Hence this
test is also called low voltage test or reduced voltage test. The wattmeter reading as well as voltmeter,
ammeter readings are recorded.
Now the current flowing through the windings are rated current hence the total copper loss is full load
copper loss. Now the voltage supplied is low which is a small fraction of the rated voltage. The iron losses
are function of applied voltage. So the iron losses in reduced voltage test are very small. Hence the
wattmeter reading is the power loss which is equal to full load copper losses as iron losses are very low.
... Wsc = (Pcu) F.L. = Full load copper loss
Calculations : From S.C. test readings we can write,
Wsc = Vsc Isc cos Φsc
... cos Φsc = Vsc Isc /Wsc = short circuit power factor
Wsc = Isc2 R1e = copper loss
... R1e =Wsc /Isc2
while Z1e =Vsc /Isc = √(R1e2 + X1e2)
... X1e = √(Z1e2 - R1e2)
Thus we get the equivalent circuit parameters R1e, X1e and Z1e. Knowing the transformation ratio K,
the equivalent circuit parameters referred to secondary also can be obtained.
Important Note : If the transformer is step up transformer, its primary is L.V. while secondary is H.V.
winding. In S.C. test, supply is given to H.V. winding and L.V is shorted. In such case we connect meters on
H.V. side which is transformer secondary through for S.C. test purpose H.V side acts as primary. In such
case the parameters calculated from S.C. test readings are referred to secondary which are R2e, Z2e and X2e.
So before doing calculations it is necessary to find out where the readings are recorded on transformer
primary or secondary and accordingly the parameters are to be determined. In step down transformer,
primary is high voltage itself to which supply is given in S.C. test. So in such case test results give us
parameters referred to primary i.e. R1e, Z1e and X1e.
Key point : In short, if meters are connected to primary of transformer in S.C. test, calculations give us R1e
and Z1e if meters are connected to secondary of transformer in S.C. test calculations give us R2e and Z2e.
Calculation of Efficiency from O.C. and S.C. Tests:
We know that,
From O.C. test, Wo = Pi
From S.C. test, Wsc = (Pcu) F.L.

Thus for any p.f. cos Φ2 the efficiency can be predetermined. Similarly at any load which is fraction of full
load then also efficiency can be predetermined as,

where n = fraction of full load

where I2= n (I2) F.L.

Calculation of Regulation
From S.C. test we get the equivalent circuit parameters referred to primary or secondary.
The rated voltages V1, V2 and rated currents (I1) F.L. and (I2) F.L. are known for the given transformer.
Hence the regulation can be determined as,
 where I1, I2 are rated currents for full load regulation.
For any other load the currents I1, I2 must be changed by fraction n.
.
. . I1, I2 at any other load = n (I1) F.L., n (I2) F.L.
Key Point : Thus regulation at any load and any power factor can be predetermined, without actually
loading the transformer.
Sumpner's Test Or Back-To-Back Test On Transformer:
Sumpner's test or back to back test on transformer is another method for determining transformer efficiency,
voltage regulation and heating under loaded conditions. Short circuit and open circuit tests on transformer
can give us parameters of equivalent circuit of transformer, but they cannot help us in finding the heating
information. Unlike O.C. and S.C. tests, actual loading is simulated in Sumpner's test. Thus the Sumpner's
test give more accurate results of regulation and efficiency than O.C. and S.C. tests.
Sumpner's Test:
Sumpner's test or back to back test can be employed only when two identical transformers are available.
Both transformers are connected to supply such that one transformer is loaded on another. Primaries of the
two identical transformers are connected in parallel across a supply. Secondaries are connected in series such
that emf's of them are opposite to each other. Another low voltage supply is connected in series with
secondaries to get the readings, as shown in the circuit diagram shown below.
In above diagram, T1 and T2 are identical transformers. Secondaries of them are connected in voltage
opposition, i.e. EEF and EGH. Both the emf's cancel each other, as transformers are identical. In this case, as
per superposition theorem, no current flows through secondary. And thus the no load test is simulated. The
current drawn from V1 is 2I0, where I0 is equal to no load current of each transformer. Thus input power
measured by wattmeter W1 is equal to iron losses of both transformers.
i.e. iron loss per transformer Pi = W1/2.
Now, a small voltage V2 is injected into secondary with the help of a low voltage transformer. The voltage
V2 is adjusted so that, the rated current I2 flows through the secondary. In this case, both primaries and
secondaries carry rated current. Thus short circuit test is simulated and wattmeter W2 shows total full load
copper losses of both transformers.
i.e. copper loss per transformer PCu = W2/2.
From above test results, the full load efficiency of each transformer can be given as –

Predetermination of Voltage Regulation:

Modern power systems operate at some standard voltages. The equipments working on these systems are
therefore given input voltages at these standard values, within certain agreed tolerance limits. In many
applications this voltage itself may not be good enough for obtaining the best operating condition for the
loads. A transformer is interposed in between the load and the supply terminals in such cases. There are
additional drops inside the transformer due to the load currents. While input voltage is the responsibility of
the supply provider, the voltage at the load is the one which the user has to worry about.
If undue voltage drop is permitted to occur inside the transformer the load voltage becomes too low and
affects its performance. It is therefore necessary to quantify the drop that takes place inside a transformer
when certain load current, at any power factor, is drawn from its output leads. This drop is termed as the
voltage regulation and is expressed as a ratio of the terminal voltage (the absolute value per se is not too
important).
The voltage regulation can be defined in two ways - Regulation Down and Regulation up. These two
definitions differ only in the reference voltage as can be seen below. Regulation down: This is defined as ‖
the change in terminal voltage when a load current at any power factor is applied, expressed as a fraction of
the no-load terminal voltage.
Expressed in symbolic form we have,

Where,
Vnl is the no-load terminal voltage.
Vl is load voltage.
Normally full load regulation is of interest as the part load regulation is going to be lower.
This definition is more commonly used in the case of alternators and power systems as the user-end voltage
is guaranteed by the power supply provider. He has to generate proper no-load voltage at the generating
station to provide the user the voltage he has asked for. In the expressions for the regulation, only the
numerical differences of the voltages are taken and not vector differences.
In the case of transformers both definitions result in more or less the same value for the regulation as the
transformer impedance is very low and the power factor of operation is quite high. The power factor of the
load is defined with respect to the terminal voltage on load. Hence a convenient starting point is the load
voltage. Also the full load output voltage is taken from the name plate. Hence regulation up has some
advantage when it comes to its application. Fig. 23 shows the phasor diagram of operation of the transformer
under loaded condition. The no-load current I0 is neglected in view of the large magnitude of I‗2.

Predetermination of Efficiency:

Transformers which are connected to the power supplies and loads and are in operation are required to
handle load current and power as per the requirements of the load. An unloaded transformer draws only the
magnetization current on the primary side, the secondary current being zero. As the load is increased the
primary and secondary currents increase as per the load requirements. The volt amperes and wattage handled
by the transformer also increases. Due to the presence of no load losses and I2R losses in the windings
certain amount of electrical energy gets dissipated as heat inside the transformer. This gives rise to the
concept of efficiency.
 Efficiency of power equipment is defined at any load as the ratio of the power output to the power
input. Putting in the form of an expression,

While the efficiency tells us the fraction of the input power delivered to the load, the deficiency focuses our
attention on losses taking place inside transformer. As a matter of fact the losses heat up machine. The
temperature rise decides the rating of the equipment.
The temperature rise of the machine is a function of heat generated the structural configuration, method of
cooling and type of loading (or duty cycle of load). The peak temperature attained directly affects the life of
the insulations of the machine for any class of insulation.
A typical curve for the variation of efficiency as a function of output is given in Fig. The losses that take
place inside the machine expressed as a fraction of the input is sometimes termed as deficiency. Except in
the case of an ideal machine, a certain fraction of the input power gets lost inside the machine while handling
the power. Thus the value for the efficiency is always less than one. In the case of a.c. machines the rating is
expressed in terms of apparent power. It is nothing but the product of the applied voltage and the current
drawn. The actual power delivered is a function of the power factor at which this current is drawn. As the
reactive power shuttles between the source and the load and has a zero average value over a cycle of the
supply wave it does not have any direct effect on the efficiency. The reactive power however increases the
current handled by the machine and the losses resulting from it. Therefore the losses that take place inside a
transformer at any given load play a vital role in determining the efficiency. The losses taking place inside a
transformer can be enumerated as below:
1. Primary copper loss
2. Secondary copper loss
3. Iron loss
4. Dielectric loss
5. Stray load loss
These are explained in sequence below.
Primary and secondary copper losses take place in the respective winding resistances due to the flow of the
current in them
The primary and secondary resistances differ from their d.c. values due to skin effect and the temperature
rise of the windings. While the average temperature rise can be approximately used, the skin effect is harder
to get analytically. The short circuit test gives the value of Re taking into account the skin effect.
The iron losses contain two components - Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss. The Hysteresis loss is a
function of the material used for the core.
�ℎ = �ℎ �1.6�
For constant voltage and constant frequency operation this can be taken to be constant. The eddy current loss
in the core arises because of the induced emf in the steel lamination sheets and the eddies of current formed
due to it. This again produces a power loss Pe in the lamination.
�� = ���2�2�2
where t is the thickness of the steel lamination used. As the lamination thickness is much smaller than the
depth of penetration of the field, the eddy current loss can be reduced by reducing the thickness of the
lamination. Present day laminations are of 0.25 mm thickness and are capable of operation at 2 Tesla. These
reduce the eddy current losses in the core. This loss also remains constant due to constant voltage and
frequency of operation. The sum of hysteresis and eddy current losses can be obtained by the open circuit
test.
The dielectric losses take place in the insulation of the transformer due to the large electric stress. In
the case of low voltage transformers this can be neglected. For constant voltage operation this can be
assumed to be a constant.
The stray load losses arise out of the leakage fluxes of the transformer. These leakage fluxes link the
metallic structural parts, tank etc. and produce eddy current losses in them. Thus they take place ‗all round‗
the transformer instead of a definite place , hence the name ‗stray‗. Also the leakage flux is directly
proportional to the load current unlike the mutual flux which is proportional to the applied voltage. Hence
this loss is called ‗stray load‗ loss. This can also be estimated experimentally. It can be modeled by another
resistance in the series branch in the equivalent circuit. The stray load losses are very low in air-cored
transformers due to the absence of the metallic tank
Thus, the different losses fall in to two categories Constant losses (mainly voltage dependant) and Variable
losses (current dependant). The expression for the efficiency of the transformer operating at a fractional load
x of its rating, at a load power factor of Ө2, can be written as
Here S in the volt ampere rating of the transformer (V‗2 I‗2 at full load), Pconst being constant losses and
Pvar the variable losses at full load.
 UNIT - V
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS
Introduction:
Electric power is generated in generating stations, using three phase alternators at 11 KV. This voltage is
further stepped up to 66 KV, 110 KV, 230 KV or 400 KV using 3 phase power transformers and power is
transmitted at this high voltage through transmission lines. At the receiving substations, these high voltages
are stepped down by 3 phase transformers to 11 KV. This is further stepped down to 400 volts at load centers
by means of distribution transformers. For generation, transmission and distribution, 3 phase system is
economical. Therefore 3 phase transformers are very essential for the above purpose. The sectional view of a
3 phase power transformer is shown in Fig.5.1.

Fig. 5.1 100 KVA oil immersed power transformer

1. Tap-changer switch handle

2. Porcelain-bushing insulator (For high voltage)
3. Bushing insulators (For low voltages)
4. Oil gauge
5. Oil tank
6. Breather plug
7. Cooling pipes
8. Tank front wall
9. Core,
10. High voltage winding
11. Low voltage winding
12. Wheels or rollers.

Construction of Three phases Transformer:

Three phase transformers comprise of three primary and three secondary windings. They are wound over the
laminated core as we have seen in single phase transformers. Three phase transformers are also of core type
or shell type as in single phase transformers. The basic principle of a three phase transformer is illustrated in
fig 5.2 in which the primary windings and secondary windings of three phases are shown. The primary
windings can be inter connected in star or delta and put across three phase supply.
 Fig. 5.2 3-phase core-type Transformer

The three cores are 120° apart and their unwound limbs are shown in contact with each other. The center
core formed by these three limbs, carries the flux produced by the three phase currents IR, IY and IB. As at
any instant IR+Iy+IB=0, the sum of three fluxes (flux in the center limb) is also zero.
Therefore it will make no difference if the common limb is removed. All the three limbs are placed in one
plane in case of a practical transformer as shown in fig 5.3.
The core type transformers are usually wound with circular cylindrical coils. The construction and assembly
of laminations and yoke of a three phase core type transformer is shown in fig 5.4 one method of
arrangement of windings in a three phase transformer is shown.

Fig. 5.3 A practical core type three phase transformer

Fig. 5.4 Core type transformer windings and construction

In the other method the primary and secondary windings are wound one over the other in each limb. The
low-tension windings are wound directly over the core but are, of course, insulated for it. The high tension
windings are wound over the low— tension windings and adequate insulation is provided between the two
windings.
The primary and secondary windings of the three phase transformer can also be interconnected as star or
delta.

Three Phase Transformer connections:

The identical single phase transformers can be suitably inter-connected and used instead of a single unit 3—
phase transformer. The single unit 3 phase transformer is housed in a single tank. But the transformer bank is
made up of three separate single phase transformers each with its own, tanks and bushings. This method is
preferred in mines and high altitude power stations because transportation becomes easier. Bank method is
adopted also when the voltage involved is high because it is easier to provide proper insulation in each single
phase transformer.
As compared to a bank of single phase transformers, the main advantages of a single unit 3-phase
transformer are that it occupies less floor space for equal rating, less weight costs about 20% less and further
that only one unit is to be handled and connected.
There are various methods available for transforming 3 phase voltages to higher or lower 3 phase voltages.
The most common connections are (i) star — star (ii) Delta—Delta (iii) Star —Delta (iv) Delta — Star.

Fig 4.5 Star-star connection

Fig. 5.6 Delta-delta connection

The star-star connection is most economical for small, high voltage transformers because the number of
turns per phase and the amount of insulation required is minimum (as phase voltage is only 1/3 of line
voltage. In fig. 5.5 a bank of three transformers connected in star on both the primary and the secondary
sides is shown. The ratio of line voltages on the primary to the secondary sides is the same as a
transformation ratio of single phase transformer.
The delta— delta connection is economical for large capacity, low voltage transformers in which insulation
problem is not a serious one. The transformer connection are as shown in fig. 5.6.

Fig. 5.7 Star-delta connection

The main use of star-delta connection is at the substation end of the transmission line where the voltage is
to be stepped down. The primary winding is star connected with grounded neutral as shown in Fig. 5.7.
The ratio between the secondary and primary line voltage is 1/3 times the transformation ratio of each
single phase transformer. There is a 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages which
means that a star-delta transformer bank cannot be paralleled with either a star-star or a delta-delta bank.

Fig. 5.8 Delta-star connection

Delta-Star connection is generally employed where it is necessary to step up the voltage. The connection is
shown in fig. 5.8. The neutral of the secondary is grounded for providing 3-phase, 4-wire service. The
connection is very popular because it can be used to serve both the 3-phase power equipment and single
phase lighting circuits.

Vector Group of 3-phase transformer:

The secondary voltages of a 3-phase transformer may undergo a phase shift of either +30° leading or - 30°
lagging or 0° i.e, no phase shift or 180° reversal with respective line or phase to neutral voltages. On the
name plate of a three phase transformer, the vector group is mentioned. Typical representation of the vector
group could be Ydl or Dy 11 etc. The first capital latter Y indicates that the primary is connected in star and
the second lower case latter d indicates delta connection of the secondary side. The third numerical figure
conveys the angle of phase shift based on clock convention. The minute hand is used to represent the
primary phase to neutral voltage and always shown to occupy the position 12. The hour hand represents the
secondary phase to neutral voltage and may, depending upon phase shift, occupy position other than 12 as
shown in the figure 4.9. The angle between two consecutive numbers on the clock is 30°

Fig. 4.9 Clock convention representing vector groups

Delta/delta (Dd0, Dd6) connection:

The connection of Dd0 is shown in fig. 4.10 and the voltages on primary and secondary sides is also shown
on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase voltage of high voltage side and low
voltage side is zero degree (0°).

Fig 5.10 Dd0 connection and phasor diagram

The connection of Dd6 is shown in fig. 5.11 and the voltages on primary and secondary sides are also shown
on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase voltage of high voltage side and low
voltage side is 180°.

Fig 5.11 Dd6 connection and phasor diagram

This connection proves to be economical for large low voltage transformers as it increases number of turns
per phase. Primary side line voltage is equal to secondary side line voltage. Primary side phase voltage is
equal to secondary side phase voltage. There is no phase shift between primary and secondary voltages for
Dd0 connection. There is 180° phase shift between primary and secondary voltages for Dd6 connection.
Advantages:
 Sinusoidal Voltage at Secondary: In order to get secondary voltage as sinusoidal, the magnetizing
current of transformer must contain a third harmonic component. The delta connection provides a
closed path for circulation of third harmonic component of current. The flux remains sinusoidal
which results in sinusoidal voltages.
  Suitable for Unbalanced Load: Even if the load is unbalanced the three phase voltages remains
constant. Thus it suitable for unbalanced loading also.
 Carry 58% Load if One Transfer is Faulty in Transformer Bank: If there is bank of single
phase transformers connected in delta-delta fashion and if one of the transformers is disabled then
the supply can be continued with remaining tow transformers of course with reduced efficiency.
 No Distortion in Secondary Voltage: there is no any phase displacement between primary and
secondary voltages. There is no distortion of flux as the third harmonic component of magnetizing
current can flow in the delta connected primary windings without flowing in the line wires .there is
no distortion in the secondary voltages.

 Economical for Low Voltage: Due to delta connection, phase voltage is same as line voltage
hence winding have more number of turns. But phase current is (1/√3) times the line current. Hence
the cross-section of the windings is very less. This makes the connection economical for low
voltages transformers.
 Reduce Cross section of Conductor: The conductor is required of smaller Cross section as the
phase current is 1/√3 times of the line current. It increases number of turns per phase and reduces
the necessary cross sectional area of conductors thus insulation problem is not present.
 Absent of Third Harmonic Voltage: Due to closed delta, third harmonic voltages are absent.
 The absence of star or neutral point proves to be advantageous in some cases.

Disadvantages:
 Due to the absence of neutral point it is not suitable for three phase four wire system.
 More insulation is required and the voltage appearing between windings and core will be equal to
full line voltage in case of earth fault on one phase.

Application:
 Suitable for large, low voltage transformers.
 This Type of Connection is normally uncommon but used in some industrial facilities to reduce
impact of SLG faults on the primary system
 It is generally used in systems where it need to be carry large currents on low voltages and
especially when continuity of service is to be maintained even though one of the phases develops
fault.
Star/star (YyO, Yy6) connection:
This is the most economical one for small high voltage transformers. Insulation cost is highly reduced.
Neutral wire can permit mixed loading. Triplen harmonics are absent in the lines. These triplen harmonic
currents cannot flow, unless there is a neutral wire. This connection produces oscillating neutral. Three
phase shell type units have large triplen harmonic phase voltage. However three phase core type
transformers work satisfactorily. A tertiary mesh connected winding may be required to stabilize the
oscillating neutral due to third harmonics in three phase banks.
The connection of Yy0 is shown in fig. 5.12 and the voltages on primary and secondary sides is also shown
on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase voltage of high voltage side and low
voltage side is zero degree (0°).

Fig .5.12 Yy0 connection and phasor diagram

The connection of Yy6 is shown in fig. 4.13 and the voltages on primary and secondary sides is also shown
on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase voltage of high voltage side and low
voltage side is 180°.

Fig 4.13. Yy6 connection and phasor diagram

 In Primary Winding Each Phase is120°electrical degrees out of phase with the other two phases.

 In Secondary Winding Each Phase is120°electrical degrees out of phase with the other two phases.
 Each primary winding is magnetically linked to one secondary winding through a common core leg.
Sets of windings that are magnetically linked are drawn parallel to each other in the vector diagram.
In the Y-Y connection, each primary and secondary winding is connected to a neutral point.

 The neutral point may or may not be brought out to an external physical connection and the neutral
may or may not be grounded.

Advantages of Y-y connection:

 No Phase Displacement: The primary and secondary circuits are in phase; i.e., there are no phase
angle displacements introduced by the Y-Y connection. This is an important advantage when
transformers are used to interconnect systems of different voltages in a cascading manner. For
example, suppose there are four systems operating at 800, 440, 220, and 66 kV that need to be
interconnected. Substations can be constructed using Y-Y transformer connections to interconnect
any two of these voltages. The 800 kV systems can be tied with the 66 kV systems through a single
800 to 66 kV transformation or through a series of cascading transformations at 440,220 and 66 kV.
 Required Few Turns for winding: Due to star connection, phase voltages is (1/√3) times the line
voltage. Hence less number of turns is required. Also the stress on insulation is less. This makes the
connection economical for small high voltage purposes.
  Required Less Insulation Level: If the neutral end of a Y-connected winding is grounded, then
there is an opportunity to use reduced levels of insulation at the neutral end of the winding. A
winding that is connected across the phases requires full insulation throughout the winding.
 Handle Heavy Load: Due to star connection, phase current is same as line current. Hence
windings have to carry high currents. This makes cross section of the windings high. Thus the
windings are mechanically strong and windings can bear heavy loads and short circuit current.
 Use for Three phases Four Wires System:As neutral is available, suitable for three phases four
wiresystem.
 Eliminate Distortion in Secondary Phase Voltage: The connection of primary neutral to the neutral of
generator eliminates distortion in the secondary phase voltages by giving path to triple frequency
currents toward to generator.
 Sinusoidal voltage on secondary side: Neutral give path to flow Triple frequency current to flow
Generator side thus sinusoidal voltage on primary will give sinusoidal voltage on secondary side.
 Used as Auto Transformer: A Y-Y transformer may be constructed as an autotransformer, with
the possibility of great cost savings compared to the two-winding transformer construction.
 Better Protective Relaying: The protective relay settings will be protecting better on the line to
ground faults when the Y-Y transformer connections with solidly grounded neutrals are applied.

Disadvantages:
 The Third harmonic issue: The voltages in any phase of a Y-Y transformer are 1200 apart from
the voltages in any other phase. However, the third-harmonic components of each phase will be in
phase with each other. Nonlinearities in the transformer core always lead to generation of third
harmonic. These components will add up resulting in large (can be even larger than the
fundamental component) third harmonic component.
 Overvoltage at Lighting Load: The presence of third (and other zero-sequence) harmonics at an
ungrounded neutral can cause overvoltage conditions at light load. When constructing a Y-Y
transformer using single-phase transformers connected in a bank, the measured line-to-neutral
voltages are not 57.7% of the system phase-to-phase voltage at no load but are about 68% and
diminish very rapidly as the bank is loaded. The effective values of voltages at different frequencies
combine by taking the square root of the sum of the voltages squared. With sinusoidal phase-to-
phase voltage, the third-harmonic component of the phase-to-neutral voltage is about 60%.
 Voltage drop at Unbalance Load: There can be a large voltage drop for unbalanced phase-to-
neutral loads. This is caused by the fact that phase-to-phase loads cause a voltage drop through the
leakage reactance of the transformer whereas phase-to-neutral loads cause a voltage drop through
the magnetizing reactance, which is 100 to 1000 times larger than the leakage reactance.
 Overheated Transformer Tank: Under certain circumstances, a Y-Y connected three-phase trans-
can produce severe tank overheating that can quickly destroy the transformer. This usually occurs
with an open phase on the primary circuit and load on the secondary.
  Over Excitation of Core in Fault Condition: If a phase-to-ground fault occurs on the primary
circuit with the primary neutral grounded, then the phase-to-neutral voltage on the un faulted phases
increases to 173% of the normal voltage. This would almost certainly result in over excitation of the
core, with greatly increased magnetizing currents and core losses
 If the neutrals of the primary and secondary are both brought out, then a phase-to-ground fault on
the secondary circuit causes neutral fault current to flow in the primary circuit. Ground protection
re- laying in the neutral of the primary circuit may then operate for faults on the secondary circuit

 Neutral Shifting: If the load on the secondary side unbalanced then the performance of this
connection is not satisfactory then the shifting of neutral point is possible. To prevent this, star
point of the primary is required to be connected to the star point of the generator.
 Distortion of Secondary voltage: Even though the star or neutral point of the primary is earthed,
the third harmonic present in the alternator voltage may appear on the secondary side. This causes
distortion in the secondary phase voltages.
 Over Voltage at Light Load: The presence of third (and other zero-sequence) harmonics at an
ungrounded neutral can cause overvoltage conditions at light load.
 Difficulty in coordination of Ground Protection: In Y-Y Transformer, a low-side ground fault
causes primary ground fault current, making coordination more difficult.
 Increase Healthy Phase Voltage under Phase to ground Fault: If a phase-to-ground fault occurs
on the primary circuit with the primary neutral grounded, then the phase-to-neutral voltage on the
UN faulted phase‘s increases to 173% of the normal voltage. If the neutrals of the primary and
secondary are both brought out, then a phase-to-ground fault on the secondary circuit causes neutral
fault current to flow in the primary circuit.
 Trip the T/C in Line-Ground Fault: All harmonics will propagate through the transformer, zero-
sequence current path is continuous through the transformer, one line-to-ground fault will trip the
transformer.
 Suitable for Core Type Transformer: The third harmonic voltage and current is absent in such
type of connection with three phase wire system or shell type of three phase units, the third
harmonic phase voltage may be high. This type of connection is more suitable for core type
transformers.

Application:
 This Type of Transformer is rarely used due to problems with unbalanced loads.

 It is economical for small high voltage transformers as the number of turns per phase and the
amount of insulation required is less.
Star/Delta connection(Yd1/Yd11):
There is a +30 Degree or -30 Degree Phase Shift between Secondary Phase Voltage to Primary Phase
Voltage. The connection of Yd1 is shown in fig. 4.14 and the voltages on primary and secondary sides are
also shown on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase voltage of high voltage
side and low voltage side is -30°.

Fig 5.14. Yd1 connection and phasor diagram

The connection of Yd11 is shown in fig. 4.15 and the voltages on primary and secondary sides is also
shown on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase voltage of high voltage side
and low voltage side is 30°.

Fig 5.15. Yd11 connection and phasor diagram

Advantages:
 The primary side is star connected. Hence fewer numbers of turns are required. This makes the
connection economical for large high voltage step down power transformers.
 The neutral available on the primary can be earthed to avoid distortion.
 The neutral point allows both types of loads (single phase or three phases) to be met.
 Large unbalanced loads can be handled satisfactory.
 The Y-D connection has no problem with third harmonic components due to circulating currents
inD. It is also more stable to unbalanced loads since the D partially redistributes any imbalance that
occurs.
 The delta connected winding carries third harmonic current due to which potential of neutral point
is stabilized. Some saving in cost of insulation is achieved if HV side is star connected. But in
practice the HV side is normally connected in delta so that the three phase loads like motors and
single phase loads like lighting loads can be supplied by LV side using three phase four wire
system.
 As Grounding Transformer: In Power System Mostly grounded Y- ∆ transformer is used for no
other purpose than to provide a good ground source in ungrounded Delta system.

Disadvantages:
  In this type of connection, the secondary voltage is not in phase with the primary. Hence it is not
possible to operate this connection in parallel with star-star or delta-delta connected transformer.
 One problem associated with this connection is that the secondary voltage is shifted by 300 with
respect to the primary voltage. This can cause problems when paralleling 3-phase transformers
since transformers secondary voltages must be in-phase to be paralleled. Therefore, we must pay
attention to these shifts.
 If secondary of this transformer should be paralleled with secondary of another transformer without
phase shift, there would be a problem
Application:
 It is commonly employed for power supply transformers.
 This type of connection is commonly employed at the substation end of the transmission line. The
main use with this connection is to step down the voltage. The neutral available on the primary side
is grounded. It can be seen that there is phase difference of 30° between primary and secondary line
voltages.
 Commonly used in a step-down transformer, Y connection on the HV side reduces insulation costs
the neutral point on the HV side can be grounded, stable with respect to unbalanced loads. As for
example, at the end of a transmission line. The neutral of the primary winding is earthed. In this
system, line voltage ratio is 1/√3 Times of transformer turn-ratio and secondary voltage lags behind
primary voltage by 30°. Also third harmonic currents flows in
Delta-star connection (Dy1/Dy11):
In this type of connection, the primary connected in delta fashion while the secondary current is connected
in star. There is s +30 Degree or -30 Degree Phase Shift between Secondary Phase Voltage to Primary
Phase Voltage.
The connection of Dy1 is shown in fig. 4.16 and the voltages on primary and secondary sides is also shown
on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase voltage of high voltage side and low
voltage side is -30°.

Fig 5.16. Dy1 connection and phasor diagram

The connection of Dy11 is shown in fig. 5.17 and the voltages on primary and secondary sides is also
shown on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase voltage of high voltage side
and low voltage side is 30°.

Fig 5.17. Dy11 connection and phasor diagram

Advantages:
 Cross section area of winding is less at Primary side: On primary side due to delta connection
winding cross-section required is less.
 Used at Three phase four wire System: On secondary side, neutral is available, due to which it
can be used for 3-phase, 4 wire supply system.
 No distortion of Secondary Voltage: No distortion due to third harmonic components.
 Handled large unbalanced Load: Large unbalanced loads can be handled without any difficulty.
 Grounding Isolation between Primary and Secondary: Assuming that the neutral of the Y-
connected secondary circuit is grounded, a load connected phase-to-neutral or a phase-to-ground
fault produces two equal and opposite currents in two phases in the primary circuit without any
neutral ground current in the primary circuit. Therefore, in contrast with the Y-Y connection, phase-
to-ground faults or current unbalance in the secondary circuit will not affect ground protective
relaying applied to the primary circuit. This feature enables proper coordination of protective
devices and is a very important design consideration.
 The neutral of the Y grounded is sometimes referred to as a grounding bank, because it provides a
local source of ground current at the secondary that is isolated from the primary circuit.

 Harmonic Suppression: The magnetizing current must contain odd harmonics for the induced
voltages to be sinusoidal and the third harmonic is the dominant harmonic component. In a three-
phase system the third harmonic currents of all three phases are in phase with each other because
they are zero-sequence currents. In the Y-Y connection, the only path for third harmonic current is
through the neutral. In the ∆ -Y connection, however, the third harmonic currents, being equal in
amplitude and in phase with each other, are able to circulate around the path formed by the ∆
connected winding. The same thing is true for the other zero-sequence harmonics.
 Grounding Bank: It provides a local source of ground current at the secondary that is isolated
from the primary circuit. For suppose an ungrounded generator supplies a simple radial system
through ∆-Y transformer with grounded Neutral at secondary as shown Figure. The generator can
supply a single-phase-to-neutral load through the -grounded Y transformer.

Disadvantages:
 In this type of connection, the secondary voltage is not in phase with the primary. Hence it is not
possible to operate this connection in parallel with star-star or delta-delta connected transformer.
 One problem associated with this connection is that the secondary voltage is shifted by 300 with
respect to the primary voltage. This can cause problems when paralleling 3-phase transformers
since transformers secondary voltages must be in-phase to be paralleled.Therefore, we must pay
attention to these shifts.
 If secondary of this transformer should be paralleled with secondary of another transformer without
phase shift, there would be a problem.
Application:
  Commonly used in a step-up transformer: As for example, at the beginning of a HT transmission
line. In this case neutral point is stable and will not float in case of unbalanced loading. There is no
distortion of flux because existence of a -connection allows a path for the third-harmonic
components. The line voltage ratio is √3 times of transformer turn-ratio and the secondary voltage
leads the primary one by 30°. In recent years, this arrangement has become very popular for
distribution system as it provides 3- Ø, 4-wire system.
 Commonly used in commercial, industrial, and high-density residential locations: To supply
three- phase distribution systems. An example would be a distribution transformer with a delta
primary, running on three 11kV phases with no neutral or earth required, and a star (or wye)
secondary providing a 3-phase supply at 400 V, with the domestic voltage of 230 available between
each phase and an earthed neutral point.

 Used as Generator Transformer: The ∆-Y transformer connection is used universally for
connecting generators to transmission systems.
Delta-zigzag and Star zigzag connections (Dz0/Dz6 & Yz1/Yz6):
The connection of Dz0 is shown in fig. 4.18 and the voltages on primary and secondary sides is also shown
on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase voltage of high voltage side and low
voltage side is 0°.

Fig 5.18. Dz0 connection and phasor diagram

The connection of Dz6 is shown in fig. 4.19 and the voltages on primary and secondary sides is also shown
on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase voltage of high voltage side and low
voltage side is 180°.

Fig 5.19. Dz6 connection and phasor diagram

The connection of Yz1 is shown in fig. 4.20 and the voltages on primary and secondary sides is also shown
on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase voltage of high voltage side and low
voltage side is -30°.

Fig 5.20. Yz1 connection and phasor diagram

The connection of Yz11 is shown in fig. 5.21 and the voltages on primary and secondary sides is also
shown on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase voltage of high
voltage side and low voltage side is 30°.

Fig 4.22 Yz11 connection and phasor diagram

 These connections are employed where delta connections are weak. Interconnection of phases in
zigzag winding effects a reduction of third harmonic voltages and at the same time permits
unbalanced loading.
 This connection may be used with either delta connected or star connected winding either for step-
up or step-down transformers. In either case, the zigzag winding produces the same angular
displacement as a delta winding, and at the same time provides a neutral for earthing purposes.
 The amount of copper required from a zigzag winding in 15% more than a corresponding star or
delta winding. This is extensively used for earthing transformer.
 Due to zigzag connection (interconnection between phases), third harmonic voltages are reduced. It
also allows unbalanced loading. The zigzag connection is employed for LV winding. For a given
total voltage per phase, the zigzag side requires 15% more turns as compared to normal phase
connection. In cases where delta connections are weak due to large number of turns and small cross
sections, then zigzag star connection is preferred. It is also used in rectifiers.
Scott connection:
There are two main reasons for the need to transform from three phases to two phases,
1. To give a supply to an existing two phase system from a three phase supply.
2. To supply two phase furnace transformers from a three phase source.
Two-phase systems can have 3-wire, 4-wire, or 5-wire circuits. It is needed to be considering that a two-
phase system is not 2/3 of a three-phase system. Balanced three-wire, two-phase circuits have two phase
wires, both carrying approximately the same amount of current, with a neutral wire carrying 1.414 times the
currents in the phase wires. The phase-to-neutral voltages are 90° out of phase with each other.
Two phase 4-wire circuits are essentially just two ungrounded single-phase circuits that are electrically 90°
out of phase with each other. Two phase 5-wire circuits have four phase wires plus a neutral; the four phase
wires are 90° out of phase with each other.
A Scott-T transformer (also called a Scott connection) is a type of circuit used to derive two-phase power
from a three-phase source or vice-versa. The Scott connection evenly distributes a balanced load between
the phases of the source. Scott T Transformers require a three phase power input and provide two equal
single phase outputs called Main and Teaser. The MAIN and Teaser outputs are 90 degrees out of phase.
The MAIN and the Teaser outputs must not be connected in parallel or in series as it creates a vector current
imbalance on the primary side. MAIN and Teaser outputs are on separate cores. An external jumper is also
required to connect the primary side of the MAIN and Teaser sections. The schematic of a typical Scott T
Transformer is shown below:

5.23 Connection diagram of Scott-connected transformer and vector relation of input and output

From the phasor diagram it is clear that the secondary voltages are of two phases with equal magnitude and
90° phase displacement.
Scott T Transformer is built with two single phase transformers of equal power rating. Assuming the
desired voltage is the same on the two and three phase sides, the Scott-T transformer connection consists of
a center-tapped 1:1 ratio main transformer, T1, and an 86.6% (0.5√3) ratio teaser transformer, T2. The
center-tapped side of T1 is connected between two of the phases on the three-phase side. Its center tap then
connects to one end of the lower turn count side of T2, the other end connects to the remaining phase. The
other side of the transformers then connects directly to the two pairs of a two-phase four-wire system.
If the main transformer has a turn‘s ratio of 1: 1, then the teaser transformer requires a turn‘s ratio of 0.866:
1 for balanced operation. The principle of operation of the Scott connection can be most easily seen by first
applying a current to the teaser secondary windings, and then applying a current to the main secondary
winding, calculating the primary currents separately and superimposing the results.
The primary three-phase currents are balanced; i.e., the phase currents have the same magnitude and their
phase angles are 120° apart. The apparent power supplied by the main transformer is greater than the
apparent power supplied by the teaser transformer. This is easily verified by observing that the primary
currents in both transformers have the same magnitude; however, the primary voltage of the teaser
transformer is only 86.6% as great as the primary voltage of the main transformer. Therefore, the teaser
transforms only 86.6% of the apparent power transformed by the main.
 The total real power delivered to the two phase load is equal to the total real power supplied from
the three-phase system, the total apparent power transformed by both transformers is greater than
the total apparent power delivered to the two-phase load.
  The apparent power transformed by the teaser is 0.866 X IH1= 1.0 and the apparent power
transformed by the main is 1.0X IH2 =1.1547 for a total of 2.1547 of apparent power transformed.
 The additional 0.1547 per unit of apparent power is due to parasitic reactive power owing between
the two halves of the primary winding in the main transformer.
 Single-phase transformers used in the Scott connection are specialty items that are virtually
impossible to buy ‗‗off the shelf ‘‘ nowadays. In an emergency, standard distribution transformers
can be used.
If desired, a three phase, two phase, or single phase load may be supplied simultaneously using scott-
connection. The neutral points can be available for grounding or loading purposes. The Scott T connection
in theory would be suitable for supplying a three, two and single phase load simultaneously, but such loads
are not found together in modern practice.
The Scott T would not be recommended as a connection for 3 phase to 3 phase applications for the
following reasons:

The loads of modern buildings and office buildings are inherently unbalanced and contain equipment that
can be sensitive to potential voltage fluctuations that may be caused by the Scott T design. A properly sized
Scott T transformer will have to be a minimum of 7.75% larger than the equivalent Delta-Wye transformer.
Properly sized, it would be a bulkier and heavier option and should not be considered a less expensive
solution.
Open Delta or V-Connection:
As seen previously in connection of three single phase transformers that if one of the transformers is unable
to operate then the supply to the load can be continued with the remaining two transformers at the cost of
reduced efficiency. The connection that obtained is called V-V connection or open delta connection.
Consider the Fig. 5.24 in which 3 phase supply is connected to the primaries. At the secondary side three
equal three phase voltages will be available on no load.
The voltages are shown on phasor diagram. The connection is used when the three phase load is very very
small to warrant the installation of full three phase transformer.

Fig. 5.24 Open delta connection of transformer at noload

If one of the transformers fails in ∆ - ∆ bank and if it is required to continue the supply even though at
reduced capacity until the transformer which is removed from the bank is repaired or a new one is installed
then this type of connection is most suitable.
When it is anticipated that in future the load increase, then it requires closing of open delta. In such cases
open delta connection is preferred. It can be noted here that the removal of one of the transformers will not
give the total load carried by V - V bank as two third of the capacity of ∆ - ∆ bank.
The load that can be carried by V - V bank is only 57.7% of it.

Fig. 5.25 Delta-delta and V-V connection

It can be seen from the Fig. 4.25 of delta delta connection that

∆ - ∆ capacity = √3 VL IL = √3 VL (√3 Iph )

∆ - ∆ capacity = 3 VL Iph

It can also be noted from the Fig. 5.25 V-V connection that the secondary line current IL is equal to the
phase current Iph.

V- V capacity = √3 VL IL = √3 VL Iph

So, V-V capacity = 3VL Iph = 1 = 0.577 58%

Delta-
capacity 3V I 3
L ph

Thus the three phase load that can be carried without exceeding the ratings of the transformers is 57.5
percent of the original load. Hence it is not 66.7 % which was expected otherwise.

The reduction in the rating can be calculated as {(66.67 - 57.735)/(57.735)}x 100 = 15.476
Suppose that we consider three transformers connected in ∆ - ∆ fashion and supplying their rated load. Now
one transformer is removed then each of the remaining two transformers will be overloaded. The overload
on each transformer will be given as,

Total load in V-V 3VL Iph

VA rating of each transformer VI 3 1.732
L ph

This overload can be carried temporarily if provision is made to reduce the load otherwise overheating and
breakdown of the remaining two transformers would take place.
 The limitation with V -V connection are given below :
The average p.f. at which V- V bank is operating is less than that with the load . This power p.f is
86.6 % of the balanced load p.f.
  The two transformers in V -V bank operate at different power factor except for balanced unity p.f
.load.
 The terminals voltages available on the secondary side become unbalanced. This may happen even
though load is perfectly balanced.
 Thus in summary we can say that if tow transformers are connected in V - V fashion and are loaded
to rated capacity and one transformer is added to increase the total capacity by √3 or 173.2 %. Thus
the increase in capacity is 73.2 % when converting from a V - V system to a ∆-∆ system.
 With a bank of tow single phase transformers connected in V-V fashion supplying a balanced 3
phase load with cosΦ asp.f., one of the transformer operate at a p.f. of cos (30-Φ) and other at cos
(30+Φ). The powers of tow transformers are given by,

P1 = KVA cos (30-Φ)

P2 = KVA cos (30+Φ)

Oscillating Neutral:
In addition to the operation of transformers on the sinusoidal supplies, the harmonic behavior becomes
important as the size and rating of the transformer increases. The effects of the harmonic currents are
1. Additional copper losses due to harmonic currents
2. Increased core losses
3. Increased electro-magnetic interference with communication circuits. On the other hand the
harmonic voltages of the transformer cause
1. Increased dielectric stress on insulation
2. Electro static interference with communication circuits.
3. Resonance between winding reactance and feeder capacitance.
In the present times a greater awareness is generated by the problems of harmonic voltages and currents
produced by non-linear loads like the power electronic converters. These combine with non-linear nature of
transformer core and produce severe distortions in voltages and currents and increase the power loss. Thus
the study of harmonics is of great practical significance in the operation of transformers.
In the case of single phase transformers connected to form three phase bank, each transformer is
magnetically decoupled from the other. The flow of harmonic currents are decided by the type of the
electrical connection used on the primary and secondary sides. Also, there are three fundamental voltages in
the present case each displaced from the other by 120 electrical degrees. Because of the symmetry of the
a.c. wave about the time axis only odd harmonics need to be considered. The harmonics which are triplen
(multiples of three) behave in a similar manner as they are co-phasal or in phase in the three phases. The
non-triplen harmonics behave in a similar manner to the fundamental and have ±120° phase displacement
between them.
When the connection of the transformer is Yy without neutral wires both primary and secondary connected
in star no closed path exists. As the triplen harmonics are always in phase, by virtue of the Y connection
they get canceled in the line voltages. Non-triplen harmonics like fundamental, become 0 times phase value
and appear in the line voltages. Line currents remain sinusoidal except for non-triplen harmonic currents.
Flux wave in each transformer will be flat topped and the phase voltages remain peaked. The potential of
the neutral is no longer steady. The star point oscillates due to the third harmonic voltages. This is termed as
"oscillating neutral".
Tertiary winding:
Apart from the Primary & Secondary windings, there sometimes placed a third winding in power
transformers called "Tertiary Winding". Its purpose is to provide a circulating path for the harmonics
(especially third harmonics) produced in the transformers along with power frequency (50Hz. third
harmonic means 150 Hz oscillations). In delta-delta, delta-star and star-delta transformers all voltages are
balanced and there is no floating of neutral or oscillating neutral. The floating of neutral is developed in the
case star-star connection only. The transformers are sometimes constructed with three windings. The main
windings are connected to form star-star connection and the third winding known as tertiary winding is used
to make a closed delta connection to stabilize the neutrals of both primary and secondary circuits. The
tertiary winding carries the third-harmonic currents.
Three Winding Transformers:
Thus far we have looked at transformers which have one single primary winding and one single secondary
winding. But the beauty of transformers is that they allow us to have more than just one winding in either
the primary or secondary side. Transformers which have three winding are known commonly as Three
Winding Transformers.
The principal of operation of a three winding transformer is no different from that of an ordinary
transformer. Primary and secondary voltages, currents and turns ratios are all calculated the same, the
difference this time is that we need to pay special attention to the voltage polarities of each coil winding, the
dot convention marking the positive (or negative) polarity of the winding, when we connect them together.
Three winding transformers, also known as a three-coil, or three-winding transformer, contain one primary
and two secondary coils on a common laminated core. They can be either a single-phase transformer or a
three-phase transformer, (three-winding, three-phase transformer) the operation is the same.
Three Winding Transformers can also be used to provide either a step-up, a step-down, or a combination
of both between the various windings. In fact a three winding transformers have two secondary windings on
the same core with each one providing a different voltage or current level output.
As transformers operate on the principal of mutual induction, each individual winding of a three winding
transformer supports the same number of volts per turn, therefore the volt-ampere product in each winding
is the same, that is NP/NS = VP/VS with any turns ratio between the individual coil windings being relative
to the primary supply.
In electronic circuits, one transformer is often used to supply a variety of lower voltage levels for different
components in the electronic circuitry. A typical application of three winding transformers is in power
supplies and Triac Switching Converters. So a transformer have two secondary windings, each of which is
electrically isolated from the others, just as it is electrically isolated from the primary. Then each of the
secondary coils will produce a voltage that is proportional to its number of coil turns.

Fig. 5.27 A three winding transformer

The secondary windings can be connected together in various configurations producing a higher voltage or
current supply. It must be noted that connecting together transformer windings is only possible if the two
windings are electrically identical. That is their current and voltage ratings are the same.
Parallel operation of three phase transformer:
Advantages of using transformers in parallel:
1. To maximize electrical power system efficiency: Generally electrical power transformer gives the
maximum efficiency at full load. If we run numbers of transformers in parallel, we can switch on only
those transformers which will give the total demand by running nearer to its full load rating for that
time. When load increases, we can switch none by one other transformer connected in parallel to fulfill
the total demand. In this way we can run the system with maximum efficiency.
2. To maximize electrical power system availability: If numbers of transformers run in parallel, we can
shut down any one of them for maintenance purpose. Other parallel transformers in system will serve
the load without total interruption of power.
3. To maximize power system reliability: If any one of the transformers run in parallel, is tripped due to
fault of other parallel transformers is the system will share the load, hence power supply may not be
interrupted if the shared loads do not make other transformers over loaded.
4. To maximize electrical power system flexibility: There is always a chance of increasing or decreasing
future demand of power system. If it is predicted that power demand will be increased in future, there
must be a provision of connecting transformers in system in parallel to fulfill the extra demand because,
it is not economical from business point of view to install a bigger rated single transformer by
forecasting the increased future demand as it is unnecessary investment of money. Again if future
demand is decreased, transformers running in parallel can be removed from system to balance the
capital investment and its return.

Conditions for parallel operation:

Certain conditions have to be met before two or more transformers are connected in parallel and share a
common load satisfactorily. They are,
1. The voltage ratio must be the same.
2. The per unit impedance of each machine on its own base must be the same.
3. The polarity must be the same, so that there is no circulating current between the transformers.
4. The phase sequence must be the same and no phase difference must exist between the voltages of
the two transformers.
5. Same voltage ratio : Generally the turns ratio and voltage ratio are taken to be the same. If the
ratio is large there can be considerable error in the voltages even if the turns ratios are the same.
When the primaries are connected to same bus bars, if the secondaries do not show the same
voltage, paralleling them would result in a circulating current between the secondaries. Reflected
circulating current will be there on the primary side also. Thus even without connecting a load
considerable current can be drawn by the transformers and they produce copper losses. In two
identical transformers with percentage impedance of 5 percent, a no-load voltage difference of one
percent will result in a circulating current of 10 percent of full load current. This circulating current
gets added to the load current when the load is connected resulting in unequal sharing of the load.
In such cases the combined full load of the two transformers can never be met without one
transformer getting overloaded.
6. Per unit impedance: Transformers of different ratings may be required to operate in parallel. If
they have to share the total load in proportion to their ratings the larger machine has to draw more
current. The voltage drop across each machine has to be the same by virtue of their connection at
the input and the output ends. Thus the larger machines have smaller impedance and smaller
machines must have larger ohmic impedance. Thus the impedances must be in the inverse ratios of
the ratings. As the voltage drops must be the same the per unit impedance of each transformer on its
own base, must be equal. In addition if active and reactive power are required to be shared in
proportion to the ratings the impedance angles also must be the same. Thus we have the
requirement that per unit resistance and per unit reactance of both the transformers must be the
same for proper load sharing.
7. Polarity of connection: The polarity of connection in the case of single phase transformers can be
either same or opposite. Inside the loop formed by the two secondaries the resulting voltage must be
zero. If wrong polarity is chosen the two voltages get added and short circuit results. In the case of
polyphase banks it is possible to have permanent phase error between the phases with substantial
circulating current. Such transformer banks must not be connected in parallel. The turns ratios in
such groups can be adjusted to give very close voltage ratios but phase errors cannot be
compensated. Phase error of 0.6 degree gives rise to one percent difference in voltage. Hence poly
phase transformers belonging to the same vector group alone must be taken for paralleling.
Transformers having —30° angle can be paralleled to that having +30° angle by reversing the phase
sequence of both primary and secondary terminals of one of the transformers. This way one can
overcome the problem of the phase angle error.
8. Phase sequence- The phase sequence of operation becomes relevant only in the case of poly phase
systems. The poly phase banks belonging to same vector group can be connected in parallel. A
transformer with +30° phase angle however can be paralleled with the one with — 30° phase angle,
the phase sequence is reversed for one of them both at primary and secondary terminals. If the
phase sequences are not the same then the two transformers cannot be connected in parallel even if
they belong to same vector group. The phase sequence can be found out by the use of a phase
sequence indicator.