UNIT – IV

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

TRANSFORMERS
The transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to
another electrical circuit. The two circuits may be operating at different voltage levels but always
work at the same frequency. Basically transformer is an electro-magnetic energy conversion
device. It is commonly used in electrical power system and distribution systems.

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

INTRODUCTION

In its simplest form a single-phase transformer consists of two windings, wound on an

iron core one of the windings is connected to an ac source of supply f. The source supplies a
current to this winding (called primary winding) which in turn produces a flux in the iron core.
This flux is alternating in nature (Refer Figure 4.1). If the supplied voltage has a frequency f, the
flux in the core also alternates at a frequency f. the alternating flux linking with the second
winding, induces a voltage E2 in the second winding (called secondary winding). [Note that this
alternating flux linking with primary winding will also induce a voltage in the primary winding,
denoted as E1. Applied voltage V1 is very nearly equal to E1]. If the number of turns in the
primary and secondary windings is N1 and N2 respectively, we shall see later in this unit that

The load is connected across the secondary winding, between the terminals a1, a2. Thus, the load
can be supplied at a voltage higher or lower than the supply voltage, depending upon the ratio
N1/N2
When a load is connected across the secondary winding it carries a current I2, called load
current. The primary current correspondingly increases to provide for the load current, in
addition to the small no load current. The transfer of power from the primary side (or source) to
the secondary side (or load) is through the mutual flux and core. There is no direct electrical
connection between the primary and secondary sides.

In an actual transformer, when the iron core carries alternating flux, there is a power loss in the
core called core loss, iron loss or no load loss. Further, the primary and secondary windings have
a resistance, and the currents in primary and secondary windings give rise to I 2 R losses in
transformer windings, also called copper losses. The losses lead to production of heat in the
transformers, and a consequent temperature rise. Therefore, in transformer, cooling methods are
adopted to ensure that the temperature remains within limit so that no damage is done to
windings’ insulation and material.

In the Figure 4.1 of a single-phase transformer, the primary winding has been shown connected
to a source of constant sinusoidal voltage of frequency f Hz and the secondary terminals are kept
open. The primary winding of N1 turns draws a small amount of alternating current of
instantaneous value i0, called the exciting current. This current establishes flux φ in the core (+ve
direction marked on diagram). The strong coupling enables all of the flux φ to be confined to the
core (i.e. there is no leakage of flux).

CONSTRUCTION OF A TRANSFORMER
There are two basic parts of a transformer:

1. Magnetic core
2. Winding or coils

MAGNETIC CORE:

The core of a transformer is either square or rectangular in size. It is further divided in

two parts. The vertical portion on which the coils are bound is called limb, while the top and bottom
horizontal portion is called yoke of the core as shown in fig. 2.

Core is made up of laminations. Because of laminated type of construction, eddy current losses get
minimized. Generally high grade silicon steel laminations (0.3 to 0.5 mm thick) are used. These
laminations are insulated from each other by using insulation like varnish. All laminations are
varnished. Laminations are overlapped so that to avoid the airgap at the joints. For this generally
‗L‘ shaped or ‗I‘ shaped laminations are used which are shown in the fig. 3 below.
WINDING:

There are two windings, which are wound on the two limbs of the core, which are
insulated from each other and from the limbs as shown in fig. 4. The windings are made up of
copper, so that, they possess a very small resistance. The winding which is connected to the load
is called secondary winding and the winding which is connected to the supply is called primary
winding. The primary winding has N1 number of turns and the secondary windings have N2
number of turns.

Fig. 4 Single Phase Transformer

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

A single phase transformer works on the principle of mutual induction between two magnetically
coupled coils. When the primary winding is connected to an alternating voltage of r.m.s value,
V1 volts, an alternating current flows through the primary winding and setup an alternating flux
in the material of the core. This alternating flux ϕ, links not only the primary windings but also
the secondary windings. Therefore, an e.m.f e1 is induced in the primary winding and an e.m.f
e2 is induced in the secondary winding, e1 and e2 are given:

If the induced e.m.f is e1 and e2 are represented by their rms values E1 and E2 respectively, then

K is known as the transformation ratio of the transformer. When a load is connected to the
secondary winding, a current I2 flows through the load, V2 is the terminal voltage across the
load. As the power transfered from the primary winding to the secondary winding is
same, Power input to the primary winding = Power output from the secondary winding.

The directions of emf‘s E1 and E2 induced in the primary and secondary windings are such

that, they always oppose the primary applied voltage V1.

EMF Equation of a transformer:

Consider a transformer having,

N1 =Primary turns

N2 = Secondary turns
Φm = Maximum flux in the core

Φm = Bm × A webers

f= frequency of ac input in hertz (Hz)

The flux in the core will vary sinusoidal as shown in figure, so that it increases from zero
to maximum “ϕm” in one quarter of the cycle i.e, 1/4f second.
i.e, E1 =4.44fφm×N1 = 4.44fB m×A×N1

Similarly;

E2= 4.44 f φm × N2 = 4.44 f Bm × A × N2

Transformation Ratio:
(1) Voltage Transformation Ratio
(2) Current Transformation Ratio

Voltage Transformation Ratio:

Voltage transformation ratio can be defined as the ratio of the secondary voltage to the primary
voltage denoted by K.

Current Transformation Ratio:

Consider an ideal transformer and we have the input voltampere is equal to output
voltampere. Mathematically, Input Voltampere = Output Voltampere
 TRANSFORMER ON NO-LOAD

Theory of Transformer On No-load, and Having No Winding Resistance and No Leakage

Reactance of Transformer

Let us consider one electrical transformer with only core losses, which means, it has only
core losses but no copper loss and no leakage reactance of transformer. When an alternating
source is applied in the primary, the source will supply the current for magnetizing the core of
transformer.

But this current is not the actual magnetizing current, it is little bit greater than actual
magnetizing current. Actually, total current supplied from the source has two components, one
is magnetizing current which is merely utilized for magnetizing the core and other component of
the source current is consumed for compensating the core losses in transformer. Because of this
core loss component, the source current in transformer on no-load condition supplied from the
source as source current is not exactly at 90° lags of supply voltage, but it lags behind an angle θ
is less than 90°. If total current supplied from source is Io, it will have one component in phase
with supply voltage V1 and this component of the current Iw is core loss component. This
component is taken in phase with source voltage, because it is associated with active or working
losses in transformer. Other component of the source current is denoted as Iμ. This component
produces the alternating magnetic flux in the core, so it is watt-less; means it is reactive part of
the transformer source current. Hence Iμ will be in quadrature with V1 and in phase with
alternating flux Φ.

Hence, total primary current in transformer on no-load condition can be represented as

Now you have seen how simple is to explain the theory of transformer in no-load.
 TRANSFORMER ON LOAD

Theory of Transformer On Load But Having No Winding Resistance and Leakage

Reactance

Now we will examine the behavior of above said transformer on load, that means load is
connected to the secondary terminals. Consider, transformer having core loss but no copper loss
and leakage reactance. Whenever load is connected to the secondary winding, load current will
start to flow through the load as well as secondary winding. This load current solely depends
upon the characteristics of the load and also upon secondary voltage of the transformer. This
current is called secondary current or load current, here it is denoted as I2. As I2 is flowing
through the secondary, a self mmf in secondary winding will be produced. Here it is N 2I2, where,
N2 is the number of turns of the secondary winding of transformer.
This mmf or magneto motive force in the secondary winding produces flux φ2. This φ2 will
oppose the main magnetizing flux and momentarily weakens the main flux and tries to reduce
primary self induced emf E1. If E1 falls down below the primary source voltage V1, there will be
an extra current flowing from source to primary winding. This extra primary current I 2′ produces
extra flux φ′ in the core which will neutralize the secondary counter flux φ2. Hence the main
magnetizing flux of core, Φ remains unchanged irrespective of load.

So total current, this transformer draws from source can be divided into two components, first
one is utilized for magnetizing the core and compensating the core loss i.e. Io. It is no-load
component of the primary current. Second one is utilized for compensating the counter flux of
the secondary winding. It is known as load component of the primary current. Hence total no
load primary current I1 of a electrical power transformer having no winding resistance and
leakage reactance can be represented as follows

Where θ2 is the angle between Secondary Voltage and Secondary Current of transformer.

Now we will proceed one further step toward more practical aspect of a transformer.

Transformer On Load, With Resistive Winding, But No Leakage Reactance

Now, consider the winding resistance of transformer but no leakage reactance. So far we have
discussed about the transformer which has ideal windings, means winding with no resistance and
leakage reactance, but now we will consider one transformer which has internal resistance in the
winding but no leakage reactance. As the windings are resistive, there would be a voltage drop
in the windings.
We have proved earlier that, total primary current from the source on load is I1. The voltage drop
in the primary winding with resistance, R1 is R1I1. Obviously, induced emf across primary
winding E1, is not exactly equal to source voltage V1. E1 is less than V1 by voltage drop I1R1.

Again in the case of secondary, the voltage induced across the secondary winding, E 2 does
not totally appear across the load since it also drops by an amount I2R2, where R2 is the
secondary winding resistance and I2 is secondary current or load current.

Similarly, voltage equation of the secondary side of the transformer will be

Theory of Transformer On Load, With Resistance As Well As Leakage Reactance

in Transformer Windings

Now we will consider the condition, when there is leakage reactance of transformer as well
as winding resistance of transformer.

Let leakage reactances of primary and secondary windings of the transformer are X 1 and X2
respectively.

Hence total impedance of primary and secondary winding of transformer with resistance R1
and R2 respectively, can be represented as,
We have already established the voltage equation of a transformer on load, with only
resistances in the windings, where voltage drops in the windings occur only due to resistive
voltage drop. But when we consider leakage reactances of transformer windings, voltage drop
occurs in the winding not only because of resistance, it is because of impedance of transformer
windings. Hence, actual voltage equation of a transformer can easily be determined by just
replacing resistances R1 & R2 in the previously established voltage equations by Z1 and Z2.

Therefore, the voltage equations are,

Resistance drops are in the direction of current vector but, reactive drop will be perpendicular
to the current vector as shown in the above vector diagram of transformer.

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

Equivalent impedance of transformer is essential to be calculated because the electrical power
transformer is an electrical power system equipment for estimating different parameters of
electrical power system which may be required to calculate total internal impedance of an
electrical power transformer, viewing from primary side or secondary side as per requirement.
This calculation requires equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary or equivalent
circuit of transformer referred to secondary sides respectively. Percentage impedance is also very
essential parameter of transformer. Special attention is to be given to this parameter during
installing a transformer in an existing electrical power system. Percentage impedance of different
power transformers should be properly matched during parallel operation of power transformers.
The percentage impedance can be derived from equivalent impedance of transformer so, it can
be said that equivalent circuit of transformer is also required during calculation of % impedance.
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Primary

For drawing equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary, first we have to establish
general equivalent circuit of transformer then, we will modify it for referring from primary side.
For doing this, first we need to recall the complete vector diagram of a transformer which is
shown in the figure below

Let us consider the transformation ratio be,

In the figure above, the applied voltage to the primary is V1 and voltage across the primary
winding is E1. Total current supplied to primary is I1. So the voltage V1 applied to the primary
is partly dropped by I1Z1 or I1R1 + j.I1X1 before it appears across primary winding. The voltage
appeared across winding is countered by primary induced emf E1. So voltage equation of this
portion of the transformer can be written as,
The equivalent circuit for that equation can be drawn as below,

From the vector diagram above, it is found that the total primary current I1 has two components, one
is no - load component Io and the other is load component I2′. As this primary current have

two components or branches, so there must be a parallel path with primary winding of
transformer. This parallel path of current is known as excitation branch of equivalent circuit of
transformer. The resistive and reactive branches of the excitation circuit can be represented as

The load component I2′ flows through the primary winding of transformer and induced voltage

across the winding is E1 as shown in the figure right. This induced voltage E 1 transforms to
secondary and it is E2 and load component of primary current I2′ is transformed to secondary as

secondary current I2. Current of secondary is I2. So the voltage E2 across secondary winding is
partly dropped by I2 Z2 or I2R2 + j.I2X2 before it appears across load. The load voltage is V2.

The complete equivalent circuit of transformer is shown below.

Now if we see the voltage drop in secondary from primary side, then it would be ′K′ times
greater and would be written as K.Z2.I2. Again I2′.N1 = I2.N2

Therefore,

From above equation, secondary impedance of transformer referred to primary is,

So, the complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary is shown in the
figure below,
Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

Since Io is very small compared to I1, it is less than 5% of full load primary current, Io changes
the voltage drop insignificantly. Hence, it is good approximation to ignore the excitation circuit
in approximate equivalent circuit of transformer. The winding resistance and reactance being in
series can now be combined into equivalent resistance and reactance of transformer, referred to
any particular side. In this case it is side 1 or primary side.

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Secondary

In similar way, approximate equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary can be

drawn.

Where equivalent impedance of transformer referred to secondary, can be derived as

Losses in Transformer:

Losses of transformer are divided mainly into two types:

1. Iron Loss
2. Copper Losses

IRON LOSS:

This is the power loss that occurs in the iron part. This loss is due to the alternating frequency of
the emf. Iron loss in further classified into two other losses.

a) Eddy current loss

b) Hysterisis loss

a) Eddy Current Loss:

This power loss is due to the alternating flux linking the core, which will induced an emf in the
core called the eddy emf, due to which a current called the eddy current is being circulated in the
core. As there is some resistance in the core with this eddy current circulation converts into heat
called the eddy current power loss. Eddy current loss is proportional to the square of the supply
frequency.

b) Hysterisis Loss:

This is the loss in the iron core, due to the magnetic reversal of the flux in the core, which
results in the form of heat in the core. This loss is directly proportional to the supply frequency.

Eddy current loss can be minimized by using the core made of thin sheets of silicon steel
material, and each lamination is coated with varnish insulation to suppress the path of the eddy
currents. Hysterisis loss can be minimized by using the core material having high permeability.

COPPER LOSS:

This is the power loss that occurs in the primary and secondary coils when the transformer is on
load. This power is wasted in the form of heat due to the resistance of the coils. This loss is
proportional to the sequence of the load hence it is called the Variable loss where as the Iron
loss is called as the Constant loss as the supply voltage and frequency are constants
EFFICIENCY:
It is the ratio of the output power to the input power of a

transformer Input = Output + Total losses

= Output + Iron loss + Copper loss

where,

Wcopper is the copper loss at full load

2
Wcopper = I R watts

CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY:

In general for the efficiency to be maximum for any device the losses must be minimum.
Between the iron and copper losses the iron loss is the fixed loss and the copper loss is
the variable loss. When these two losses are equal and also minimum the efficiency will
be maximum.

Therefore the condition for maximum efficiency in a transformer

is Copper loss = Iron loss
O.C. and S.C. Tests on Single Phase Transformer

The efficiency and regulation of a transformer on any load condition and at any power
factor condition can be predetermined by indirect loading method. In this method, the actual
load is not used on transformer. But the equivalent circuit parameters of a transformer are
determined by conducting two tests on a transformer which are,

1. Open circuit test (O.C Test)

2. Short circuit test (S.C.Test)

The parameters calculated from these test results are effective in determining the
regulation and efficiency of a transformer at any load and power factor condition, without
actually loading the transformer. The advantage of this method is that without much power loss
the tests can be performed and results can be obtained. Let us discuss in detail how to perform
these tests and how to use the results to calculate equivalent circuit parameters.

Open Circuit Test (O.C. Test)

The experimental circuit to conduct O.C test is shown in the Fig. 1.
 Fig 1. Experimental circuit for O.C. test

The transformer primary is connected to a.c. supply through ammeter, wattmeter and
variac. The secondary of transformer is kept open. Usually low voltage side is used as primary
and high voltage side as secondary to conduct O.C test.

The primary is excited by rated voltage, which is adjusted precisely with the help of a
variac. The wattmeter measures input power. The ammeter measures input current. The
voltemeter gives the value of rated primary voltage applied at rated frequency.

Sometimes a voltmeter may be connected across secondary to measure secondary voltage

which is V2 = E2 when primary is supplied with rated voltage. As voltmeter resistance is very
high, though voltmeter is connected, secondary is treated to be open circuit as voltmeter current
is always negligibly small.

When the primary voltage is adjusted to its rated value with the help of variac, readings of
ammeter and wattmeter are to be recorded.

Let,

Vo = Rated voltage

Wo = Input power

Io = Input current = no load current

As transformer secondary is open, it is on no load. So current drawn by the primary is

no load current Io. The two components of this no load current are,

Im = Io sin Φo

Ic = Io cos Φo

where cos Φo = No load power factor

And hence power input can be written as,

Wo = Vo Io cos Φo
 The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.

Fig.

As secondary is open, I2 = 0. Thus its reflected current on primary is also zero. So we have

primary current I1 =Io. The transformer no load current is always very small, hardly 2 to 4 % of its
full load value. As I2 = 0, secondary copper losses are zero. And I1 = Io is very low hence copper
losses on primary are also very very low. Thus the total copper losses in O.C. test are negligibly

small. As against this the input voltage is rated at rated frequency hence flux density in the core is at
its maximum value. Hence iron losses are at rated voltage. As output power is zero and copper

losses are very low, the total input power is used to supply iron losses. This power is measured by
the wattmeter i.e. Wo. Hence the wattmeter in O.C. test gives iron losses

which remain constant for all the loads.

...
Wo = Pi = Iron losses

Calculations : We know that,

Wo = Vo Io cos Φ

cos Φo = Wo /(Vo Io ) = no load power factor

Once cos Φo is known we can obtain,

Ic = Io cos Φo
and Im = Io sin Φo

Once Ic and Im are known we can determine exciting circuit parameters as,

Ro = Vo /Ic Ω

and Xo = Vo /Im Ω
Key Point : The no load power factor cos Φo is very low hence wattmeter used must be low

power factor type otherwise there might be error in the results. If the meters are connected on

secondary and primary is kept open then from O.C. test we get Ro'and Xo' with which we can
obtain Ro and Xo knowing the transformation ratio K.

Short Circuit Test (S.C. Test)

In this test, primary is connected to a.c. supply through variac, ammeter and voltmeter as
shown in the Fig. 3.

Experimental circuit for O.C. test

The secondary is short circuited with the help of thick copper wire or solid link. As high
voltage side is always low current side, it is convenient to connect high voltage side to
supply and shorting the low voltage side.

As secondary is shorted, its resistance is very very small and on rated voltage it may
draw very large current. Such large current can cause overheating and burning of the
transformer. To limit this short circuit current, primary is supplied with low voltage which
is just enough to cause rated current to flow through primary which can be observed on an
ammeter. The low voltage can be adjusted with the help of variac. Hence this test is also
called low voltage test or reduced voltage test. The wattmeter reading as well as voltmeter,
ammeter readings are recorded.

Now the current flowing through the windings are rated current hence the total copper loss is
full load copper loss. Now the voltage supplied is low which is a small fraction of the rated
voltage. The iron losses are function of applied voltage. So the iron losses in reduced voltage
test are very small. Hence the wattmeter reading is the power loss which is equal to full load
copper losses as iron losses are very low.
 .
.. Wsc = (Pcu) F.L. = Full load copper loss Calculations :

From S.C. test readings we can write,

Wsc = Vsc Isc cos Φsc

.
.. cos Φsc = Vsc Isc /Wsc = short circuit power factor
2
Wsc = Isc R1e = copper loss
. 2
.. R1e =Wsc /Isc
2 2
while Z1e =Vsc /Isc = √(R1e + X1e )
. 2 2
.. X1e = √(Z1e - R 1e )

Thus we get the equivalent circuit parameters R1e, X1e and Z1e. Knowing the
transformation ratio K, the equivalent circuit parameters referred to secondary also can be
obtained.

Important Note : If the transformer is step up transformer, its primary is L.V. while
secondary is H.V. winding. In S.C. test, supply is given to H.V. winding and L.V is shorted.
In such case we connect meters on H.V. side which is transformer secondary through for
S.C. test purpose H.V side acts as primary. In such case the parameters calculated from S.C.
test readings are referred to secondary which are R2e, Z2e and X2e. So before doing
calculations it is necessary to find out where the readings are recorded on transformer
primary or secondary and accordingly the parameters are to be determined. In step down
transformer, primary is high voltage itself to which supply is given in S.C. test. So in such
case test results give us parameters referred to primary i.e. R1e, Z1e and X1e.

Key point : In short, if meters are connected to primary of transformer in S.C. test,
calculations give us R1e and Z1e if meters are connected to secondary of transformer in
S.C. test calculations give us R2e and Z2e.

Calculation of Efficiency from O.C. and S.C. Tests

We know that,

From O.C. test, Wo = Pi

From S.C. test, Wsc = (Pcu) F.L.

Thus for any p.f. cos Φ2 the efficiency can be predetermined. Similarly at any

load which is fraction of full load then also efficiency can be predetermined as,

where n = fraction of full load

where I2= n (I2) F.L.

Calculation of Regulation

From S.C. test we get the equivalent circuit parameters referred to primary or secondary.

The rated voltages V1, V2 and rated currents (I1) F.L. and (I2) F.L. are known for the
given transformer. Hence the regulation can be determined as,

where I1, I2 are rated currents for full load regulation.

For any other load the currents I1, I2 must be changed by fraction n.

.
. . I1, I2 at any other load = n (I1) F.L., n (I2) F.L.

Key Point : Thus regulation at any load and any power factor can be predetermined, without
actually loading the transformer.
Sumpner's Test Or Back-To-Back Test On Transformer

Sumpner's test or back to back test on transformer is another method for

determining transformer efficiency, voltage regulation and heating under loaded conditions.
Short circuit and open circuit tests on transformer can give us parameters of equivalent
circuit of transformer, but they cannot help us in finding the heating information. Unlike O.C.
and S.C. tests, actual loading is simulated in Sumpner's test. Thus the Sumpner's test give
more accurate results of regulation and efficiency than O.C. and S.C. tests.

Sumpner's Test
Sumpner's test or back to back test can be employed only when two identical transformers
are available. Both transformers are connected to supply such that one transformer is loaded
on another. Primaries of the two identical transformers are connected in parallel across a
supply. Secondaries are connected in series such that emf's of them are opposite to each
other. Another low voltage supply is connected in series with secondaries to get the readings,
as shown in the circuit diagram shown below.

In above diagram, T1 and T2 are identical transformers. Secondaries of them are connected
in voltage opposition, i.e. EEF and EGH. Both the emf's cancel each other, as transformers are
identical. In this case, as per superposition theorem, no current flows through secondary.
And thus the no load test is simulated. The current drawn from V1 is 2I0, where I0 is equal
to no load current of each transformer. Thus input power measured by wattmeter W 1 is
equal to iron losses of both transformers.

i.e. iron loss per transformer Pi = W1/2.

Now, a small voltage V2 is injected into secondary with the help of a low voltage
transformer. The voltage V2 is adjusted so that, the rated current I2 flows through the
secondary. In this case, both primaries and secondaries carry rated current. Thus short
circuit test is simulated and wattmeter W2 shows total full load copper losses of both
transformers.

i.e. copper loss per transformer PCu = W2/2.

From above test results, the full load efficiency of each transformer can be given as –

Predetermination of Voltage Regulation

Modern power systems operate at some standard voltages. The equipments working on these
systems are therefore given input voltages at these standard values, within certain agreed
tolerance limits. In many applications this voltage itself may not be good enough for
obtaining the best operating condition for the loads. A transformer is interposed in between
the load and the supply terminals in such cases. There are additional drops inside the
transformer due to the load currents. While input voltage is the responsibility of the supply
provider, the voltage at the load is the one which the user has to worry about.

If undue voltage drop is permitted to occur inside the transformer the load voltage becomes
too low and affects its performance. It is therefore necessary to quantify the drop that takes
place inside a transformer when certain load current, at any power factor, is drawn from its
output leads. This drop is termed as the voltage regulation and is expressed as a ratio of the
terminal voltage (the absolute value per se is not too important).

The voltage regulation can be defined in two ways - Regulation Down and Regulation up.
These two definitions differ only in the reference voltage as can be seen below. Regulation
down: This is defined as ‖ the change in terminal voltage when a load current at any power
factor is applied, expressed as a fraction of the no-load terminal voltage.

Expressed in symbolic form we have,

Where,

Vnl is the no-load terminal voltage.

Vl is load voltage.

Normally full load regulation is of interest as the part load regulation is going to be lower.
This definition is more commonly used in the case of alternators and power systems as the

user-end voltage is guaranteed by the power supply provider. He has to generate proper no-

load voltage at the generating station to provide the user the voltage he has asked for. In the

expressions for the regulation, only the numerical differences of the voltages are taken and
not vector differences.

In the case of transformers both definitions result in more or less the same value for the
regulation as the transformer impedance is very low and the power factor of operation is quite
high. The power factor of the load is defined with respect to the terminal voltage on load.
Hence a convenient starting point is the load voltage. Also the full load output voltage is
taken from the name plate. Hence regulation up has some advantage when it comes to its
application. Fig. 23 shows the phasor diagram of operation of the transformer under loaded
condition. The no-load current I0 is neglected in view of the large magnitude of I‘2.
Fig. Regulation of Transformer
Fig. Variation of full load regulation with power factor
Predetermination of Efficiency

Transformers which are connected to the power supplies and loads and are in
operation are required to handle load current and power as per the requirements of the load.
An unloaded transformer draws only the magnetization current on the primary side, the
secondary current being zero. As the load is increased the primary and secondary currents
increase as per the load requirements. The volt amperes and wattage handled by the
transformer also increases. Due to the presence of no load losses and I2R losses in the
windings certain amount of electrical energy gets dissipated as heat inside the transformer.
This gives rise to the concept of efficiency.

Efficiency of power equipment is defined at any load as the ratio of the power
output to the power input. Putting in the form of an expression,

While the efficiency tells us the fraction of the input power delivered to the load, the
deficiency focuses our attention on losses taking place inside transformer. As a matter of fact
the losses heat up machine. The temperature rise decides the rating of the equipment.

The temperature rise of the machine is a function of heat generated the structural
configuration, method of cooling and type of loading (or duty cycle of load). The peak
temperature attained directly affects the life of the insulations of the machine for any class of
insulation.
 Fig. Efficiency

A typical curve for the variation of efficiency as a function of output is given in Fig. The
losses that take place inside the machine expressed as a fraction of the input is sometimes
termed as deficiency. Except in the case of an ideal machine, a certain fraction of the input
power gets lost inside the machine while handling the power. Thus the value for the
efficiency is always less than one. In the case of a.c. machines the rating is expressed in
terms of apparent power. It is nothing but the product of the applied voltage and the current
drawn. The actual power delivered is a function of the power factor at which this current is
drawn. As the reactive power shuttles between the source and the load and has a zero average
value over a cycle of the supply wave it does not have any direct effect on the efficiency. The
reactive power however increases the current handled by the machine and the losses resulting
from it. Therefore the losses that take place inside a transformer at any given load play a vital
role in determining the efficiency. The losses taking place inside a transformer can be
enumerated as below:

1. Primary copper loss

2. Secondary copper loss

3. Iron loss

4. Dielectric loss

5. Stray load loss

These are explained in sequence below.

Primary and secondary copper losses take place in the respective winding resistances due to
the flow of the current in them

The primary and secondary resistances differ from their d.c. values due to skin effect
and the temperature rise of the windings. While the average temperature rise can be
approximately used, the skin effect is harder to get analytically. The short circuit test gives
the value of Re taking into account the skin effect.

The iron losses contain two components - Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss. The
Hysteresis loss is a function of the material used for the core.

For constant voltage and constant frequency operation this can be taken to be constant. The
eddy current loss in the core arises because of the induced emf in the steel lamination sheets
and the eddies of current formed due to it. This again produces a power loss Pe in the
lamination.

where t is the thickness of the steel lamination used. As the lamination thickness is
much smaller than the depth of penetration of the field, the eddy current loss can be reduced
by reducing the thickness of the lamination. Present day laminations are of 0.25 mm
thickness and are capable of operation at 2 Tesla. These reduce the eddy current losses in the
core. This loss also remains constant due to constant voltage and frequency of operation. The
sum of hysteresis and eddy current losses can be obtained by the open circuit test.

The dielectric losses take place in the insulation of the transformer due to the large
electric stress. In the case of low voltage transformers this can be neglected. For constant
voltage operation this can be assumed to be a constant.

The stray load losses arise out of the leakage fluxes of the transformer. These leakage
fluxes link the metallic structural parts, tank etc. and produce eddy current losses in them.
Thus they take place ‘all round‘ the transformer instead of a definite place , hence the name
‘stray‘. Also the leakage flux is directly proportional to the load current unlike the mutual
flux which is proportional to the applied voltage. Hence this loss is called ‘stray load‘ loss.
This can also be estimated experimentally. It can be modeled by another resistance in the
series branch in the equivalent circuit. The stray load losses are very low in air-cored
transformers due to the absence of the metallic tank

Thus, the different losses fall in to two categories Constant losses (mainly voltage dependant) and
Variable losses (current dependant). The expression for the efficiency of the transformer
operating at a fractional load x of its rating, at a load power factor of Ө2, can be written as

Here S in the volt ampere rating of the transformer (V‘2 I‘2 at full load), Pconst being
constant losses and Pvar the variable losses at full load.