Biomolecules__________________

- Also known as “Organic molecules” or “Macromolecules”

- Consist of Chemical Element; Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur, and Hydrogen
- Serve as Fuel for the metabolism. Their chemical
composition and quantity are important for cellular
activities to proceed.
- Biological molecules produced by the cells of the
living organism. They are critical for life as it helps
organisms to carry out basic biological processes such
as reproduction, growth and sustenance.
- 4 main types of biomolecules are – lipids, carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids.

Biomolecules

Carbohydrate Lipid Protein Nucleic acid

Monosaccharides Triglycerides Amino Acid DNA-
Deoxyribonucleic
Disaccharides Phospholipids acid
Steroids RNA-
Polysaccharides
Ribonucleic acid
Waxes

Carbohydrate
- composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in the ratio of 1:2:1
- We can represent the proportion of these elements within
carbohydrates molecules with the formula CH20
- Most carbohydrates are characterized as monosaccharides,
disaccharides, or polysaccharides.
STRUCTURAL MOLECULES:
MONOSACCHARIDES  CELLULOSE- the most
 Building blocks (monomers) of all carbohydrates abundant polysaccharides and
 Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. is found in cell wall plants.
- GLUCOSE- by far the most abundant monosaccharides.  CHITIN- a structural
- Energy source for cellular respiration and the production of ATP. polysaccharide found in
- FRUCTOSE- primary monosaccharide found in fruits and plants. animals and fungi
- GALACTOSE- primary monosaccharide found in milk.  PEPTIDOGLYCAN- found in cell
 All of these monosaccharides are six carbon sugars with the chemical formula walls of bacteria.
 MACROMOLECULE- is both
C6H1206
flexible and rugged due to its
structure
DISACCHARIDES
 Disaccharides are formed when monosaccharides are joined together through dehydration reactions forming
glycosidic linkages. Common disaccharides includes:
- MALTOSE- Malt sugar (made up of two glucose molecules.)
- SUCROSE- also known as table sugar, which is made up of glucose and fructose.
- LACTOSE- (or a milk sugar), which contains glucose and galactose

POLYSACCHARIDES
 Are formed when glucose monomers link together to form long chains (the chains can be straight or branched).
 Long chains of glucose are ideal for storing energy. Plants store energy in the form of:
- AMYLOSE- has straight chains
- AMYLOPECTIN- has branched chains
 Animals differ from plants in that they store energy in the form of glycogen ( a highly branched polysaccharide
that can be broken down quickly to supply energy tissues.
Lipids
- Are Macromolecules made of fatty acid monomers
- Function of lipid include structural support for the cell,
energy storage, and cell signaling
- Typically nonpolar in nature and do not interact with water,
though some exceptions exists.

TRIGLYCERIDES
- Known as fats, triglycerides contain a glycerol attached to
three fatty acids.
- found in your blood
 SATURATED FAT
- Solid at room temperature
- Contain only single bonds in the fatty acid chain.
- They tend to clog the lining of blood vessels and block the flow of blood
when consumed in high amounts.
- FOUND IN; Pork, Beef, Lard, Cream, Cheese, Processed foods
 UNSATURATED FAT
- Normally liquid at room temperature
- Mostly known as oils
- Contain one or more double bond in the fatty acid chain
- FOUND IN; Olive oil, coconut oil, corn oil, fish, avocado, peanut butter, nuts,
cashews, sesame seeds

PHOSPHOLIPIDS
- a group of polar lipids that consist of two fatty acids, a
glycerol unit and a phosphate group which is esterified to an
organic molecule
- Has a hydrophilic "head" containing a phosphate group and
two hydrophobic "tails" derived from fatty acids, joined by
an alcohol residue.
- Afraid of water

STEROLS / STEROIDS
- Structure consist of carbon rings
- Important part of:
1. Sex hormones – (testosterone, progesterone, estrogen)
2. Vitamin D
3. Bile (aids fat digestion)
4. Adrenal hormones - cortisol
5. Cholesterol – in foods and made by the liver; dietary sources include egg yolks, liver, meats, dairy products

WAXES
- Also called esters (carboxylic acid derivatives) which are combined from certain alcohols and fatty acids
- Extremely hydrophobic
- Found everywhere in nature
- Prevents plants from losing water
- For protection
- Capable of repelling and even killing insects in certain cases
Proteins
- Large molecules
- Made up of chains of amino acids
- Are found in every cell in the body
- Are involved in most of the body’s functions and life processes
- The sequence of amino acids is determined by DNA

Structure of Proteins
 Made up of chains of amino acids; classified by number of
amino acids in a chain
 Peptides: fewer than 50 amino acids
- Dipeptides: 2 amino acids
- Tripeptides: 3 amino acids
- Polypeptides: more than 10 amino acids
 Proteins: more than 50 amino acids
- Typically 100 to 10,000 amino acids linked together
 Chains are synthesizes based on specific bodily DNA
 Amino acids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen

Peptide Bonds Link Amino Acids

 Form when the acid group (COOH) of one amino acid joins with the amine
group (NH2) of a second amino acid
 Formed through condensation
 Broken through hydrolysis

Essential, Nonessential, and Conditional

 Essential – must be consumed in the diet
 Nonessential – can be synthesized in the body
 Conditionally essential – cannot be synthesized due to illness or lack of necessary
precursors

Structure of the Protein

 Four levels of structure
 Primary structure
 Secondary structure
 Tertiary structure
 Quaternary structure

Denaturing
 Alteration of the protein’s shape and thus functions through the use of
 Heat
 Acids
 Bases
 Salts
 Mechanical agitation
 Primary structure is unchanged by
denaturing
Nucleic Acid  Nucleic polymer
Nucleic acid are polymers that consist of nucleotides  Backbone
It is located in the nuclei of the cell Sugar to PO4 bond
An organic compound that serves as genetic Phosphodiester bond
information storage molecules - New base added to sugar of previous base
They provide information to make proteins. - Polymer grows in one direction
Function: N bases hang off the sugar-phosphate backbone
 Genetic material
 Store information
-Genes Copying DNA
-Blueprint for building proteins  Replication
-DNA > RNA > Proteins 2 strands of DNA helix are complementary
 Transfer information - Have one, can build other
- Blueprint for new cell - Have one, can rebuild the whole
Example:
 RNA ( ribonucleic acid) When does a cell copy DNA?
- Single helix  When in the life of a cell does DNA have to be
 DNA ( deoxyribonucleic acid) copied?
- Double helix Cell production
Structure : - mitosis
 Monomers – Nucleotides Gamete production
3 part of Nucleotide - meiosis
Nitrogen base (C-N ring )
Pentose (5C) DNA replication
- Ribose for RNA “it has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we
- Deoxyribose for DNA have postulated immediately suggest a possible copying
Phosphate (PO4) group mechanism for the genetic material.” 1953
2 types of Nucleotides - James Watson
Different Nitrogen Bases - Francis Crick
Purines
- Double ring N base Rosalind franklin (1920-1958)
- Adenine (A)
- Guanine (G)
Interesting note
Pyrimidine
 Ratio of A-T::G-C affects stability of DNA molecule
- Single ring N base
2 H bonds vs. 3 H bonds
- Cytosine (C)
Biotech procedure
- Thymine (T)
- More G-C =need higher T to separate Strands
- Uracil (U)
High T organism
Pairing nucleotides
- Many G-C
Nucleotides bond between DNA strands
Parasites
H bonds
- Many A-T (don’t know why)
Purine::Pyrimidine
o A::T
- 2 H bonds  ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate
o G::C Modified nucleotide
- Adenine(AMP) + Pi +Pi
- 3 H bonds
RNA DNA
- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule that
- Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a molecule that is present
contains the biological instructions that make each
in the majority of living organisms and viruses.
species unique. Passed down from a parent organism
- It is essential for protein synthesis to their offspring during reproduction.
- Encodes the information that cells needed to make
THREE TYPES OF RNA proteins.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) - The structure of a DNA is double stranded helix
- is transcribed from DNA and contains the molecule.
genetic blueprint to make proteins
Transfer RNA ( tRNA)
- are molecules that translate m RNA into
proteins
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- Are essential in protein synthesis. A
ribosome contains a large and small
ribosomal sub-unit.
Carbohydrate Proteins
 Structure/ monomer  Structure/ monomer
- Monosaccharide - Amino acid
 Function - Levels of structure
- Energy  Function
- Raw materials - Enzymes
- Energy storage - Transport
- Structural compound - Signals
 Examples - Defense
- Glucose, Starch - Structure
- Receptors
 Examples
Lipids - Digestives enzymes, channels, insulin
 Structure / Building block
- Glycerol, fatty acid, cholesterol, H-C chains
Nucleic acids
 Function
- Energy storage
 Structure/monomer
- Nucleotide
- Membranes
- Hormones  Function
 Examples - Information storage & transfer
- Fat, phospholipid, steroids  Examples
- DNA,RNA
RNA & DNA Information polymer
 RNA  Function
- Single nucleotide chain Series of bases encodes information
 DNA - Like the letters of a book
- Double nucleotide chain Stored information is passed from parent to
- Spiraled in a double helix offspring
- Need to copy accurately
Stored information= genes
- Genetic information
Enzymes Helicase
- Biological polymers that catalyze biochemical - To separate two strands of DNA for replication.
reactions. - Zipper
- Proteins that help speed up metabolism, or the - DNA organizer
chemical reactions in our bodies.
- A linear chain of amino acids, which give rise to a
Lipase
- Fat destroyer
three-dimensional structure.
- Used to breakdown fats
- Allow reactions to occur under mild conditions,
- Breakdown of fats or triglycerides into three fatty
partly by eliminating nonspecific side reactions.
acids and glycerol.
- All Living Things Have Enzymes
- Our Body Naturally Produce Enzymes Amylase
- Enzymes are also in manufactured products and - Used to breakdown starch
food. - Used to breakdown foods in our mouth
- Saliva
Metabolism - Digest carbohydrates.
- Converts food into energy DNA polymerase
- Set of chemical reactions that occur within living - For DNA replication
organisms to maintain life. - Provide new copies for DNA
Useful for: - works in pairs to synthesize new DNA
- Maintenance of cells Lactase
- Life and growth - Lactose destroyer
- Reproduction - breaks down lactose, a sugar in milk and milk products
- Repair Ligase
- Respond to environment - Genetic glue
Catabolism - uses ATP to form bonds
- Breakdown of molecules into energy - facilitates the joining of DNA strands together
- Process of breaking down larger molecules into - For replication & repair
smaller ones. Trypsin
- Process releases energy that can be used by the - For digestion
organism. - Aids with digestion
Explain: - found in the small intestine
- Polysaccharide > monosaccharide to - breaks down proteins
generate energy breakdown
- Nucleic acid > nucleotides for genetic
information Components of an Enzyme
- Proteins > amino acid to make new one -A typical enzyme is composed of protein called apoenzyme
- Food > nutrient to be absorbed into blood and a nonprotien called cofactor
vessel Apoenzyme
Anabolism - called as proenzyme when it is inactive
- Literally means :building things or substances in - An enzymatically inactive protein part of an enzyme,
the body which requires a cofactor for its activity.
- Process requires and consumes energy to allow Cofactors
the building process to proceed - Assist apoenzyme in their biological activities.
- Process of building up larger, more complex Metal Ion activators
molecules from smaller ones. This process - Not permanently bound to apoenzyme. They
requires energy. supply positive charges to the enzyme through
Example: covalent bonding
-Building proteins Coenzymes
-Cell reproduction - Organic molecules that usually come from the
-Mineralization of ones vitamins that you take in every day. Like the metal
-Production of hormones necessary for certain ion activators, they temporarily bind to
organs to perform their function apoenzyme.
Prosthetic cofactors
- Can either metal ions or organic molecules. They
bind to apoenzyme permanently.