WOLLO UNIVERSITY KOMBOLCHA INISTITUTES OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Department of chemical engineering

Stream- Environmental Engineering
Target group 5th Year
TITLE- making soap from waste cooking oil
Section –B

Group Members ……………………………………………………….ID No

1. YONAS FENTAHUN………………………………………………...2307/10
2. KELIFA SULTAN…………………………………………………..1525/10

3. ASHENAFI HISKEL…………………………………………………0865/10

4. FIRAOL SENTAYEHU ………………………………………………….1244/10

SUBMITED TO MR KEDIR
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BC
in Ancient Babylon. Inscriptions have been discovered that indicate that the inhabitants boiled fat
with ashes. It has been suggested that the word soap was derived from Mount Sapo, which was a
location for animal sacrifice. Melted animal fats and wood ashes would be washed down from the
mountain and, in the clay along the banks of the River Tiber, a crude soap would form.[1]

Early soap makers probably used ashes and animal fats. Simple wood or plant ashes containing
potassium carbonate were dispersed in water, and fat was added to the solution. This mixture was
then boiled; ashes were added again and again as the water evaporated. During this process a slow
chemical splitting of the neutral fat took place; the fatty acids could then react with the alkali
carbonates of the plant ash to form soap (this reaction is called saponification).Animal fats containing
a percentage of free fatty acids were used by the Celts. The presence of free fatty acids certainly
helped to get the process started. This method probably prevailed until the end of the middle Ages,
when slaked lime came to be used to causticize the alkali carbonate. Through this process,
chemically neutral fats could be saponified easily with the caustic lye. Around 1790, French soap
maker Nicolas Leblanc developed a method of extracting caustic soda (NaOH) from common table
salt (NaCl), replacing the wood ash element of soap.[1]

The production of soap from a handicraft to an industry was helped by the introduction of the
Leblanc process for the production of soda ash from brine (about 1790) and by the work of a French
chemist, Michel EugèneChevreul, who in 1823 showed that the process of saponification is the
chemical process of splitting fat into the alkali salt of fatty acids (that is, soap) and glycerin. The
method of producing soap by boiling with open steam, introduced at the end of the 19th century, was
another step toward industrialization, though people in rural areas, such as the pioneers in the western
United States, continued to make soap at home. In recent years Domieierdid a recovery of glycerine
from saponification mixture.[6]

-
1.2 Statement of the problem
. This always causes water, land and air pollution. Since the disposal methods for the oil that comes
out is poorly managed, we were initiated to minimize waste as much as possible and maximize
productivity. The way to go is make a useful product out of waste: making soap from waste cooking
oil. Unlike normal soap, this recycled soap is more effective in removing dirt and is also not
hazardous to the environment.

1.3 Objective
1.3.1 General Objective
The general objective of this project is for preliminary design of a soap using waste cooking oil.

1.3.2 Specific Objective

To characterize the waste cooking oil.
To pre treat waste cooking oil.
To characterize product soap.
To determine the material and energy balance of the process.
To design continuous stirred tank reactor (mechanical design).
To perform the plant design of the plant.
To select a suitable site for the plant.
To determine the economic analysis of the plant.

1.4 significance
 It is made from unwanted material which is waste
 It minimize the waste in the waste water treatment
 It is economical
 Body friendly ingredient

1.5 scope
Our research is mainly focused on the production of laundry soap from grease and oil that we get from
waste water treatment .it answered how can manufacture it which is all chemistry process.
Chapter Two

2. Literature Review
Soap is any compound that results from the reaction of an insoluble fatty material with a metal
radical or even an organic base could be described as soap. If the metal radical is sodium, potassium
or even ammonium, soluble soaps are formed. Where the radical is a heavy metal, insoluble 'metallic
Soaps' result and this explains the formation of hard-water scum around the bath or washbasin caused
by calcium or magnesium soaps. Other 'metallic soaps', in which the radical is zinc, lead, manganese,
cobalt or tin, may require a reaction at elevated temperatures or by double decomposition with
sodium or potassium soaps and a salt of the relevant heavy metal. These soapshave uses in other
industries. In conclusion, the basic reaction in soap making between a neutral fat and an alkali is to
produce a soap and glycerol.[6]
C3H5(O2CR)3+ 3MOH->3RC2OM H-C3H5(OH)3
Neutral fat Alkali Soap Glycerol

Toilet soap has less water and more fatty material(fatty acids and soap) than laundry soap. For
this reason base soap intended for toilet soap manufacture usually has extra fatty acids added with the
preservatives before it is vacuum dried. These ensure that there is no unreacted caustic left in the
soap by the time it reaches the consumer, and also make the soap softer. Perfume, dye and pacifier
are then added to the dried soap and the mixture milled to ensure even mixing. It is then plodded and
extruded out as a continuous bar, cut into billets and stamped ready for packaging and sale.[3]

2.1 Definition of Soap

Usually, a process by which triglycerides are reacted with sodium or potassium hydroxide to produce
glycerol and a fatty acid salt, called 'soap’. Soap may also be defined as a chemical compound or
mixture of chemical compounds resulting from the interaction of fatty acids or fatty glycerides with a
metal radical (or organic base).Oil consists of a wide group of compound that are generally soluble
and in organic solvent and insoluble in water. Saturated and unsaturated differ in their energy content
and melting point. Since unsaturated fat contain fewer carbon hydrogen bond than saturated fats with
some number of carbon atom, unsaturated fat will yield slightly less energy during metabolism than
saturated fat. Saturated fat can stack them and closely packed arrangement, so solid at room
temperature. Flesh and animal fat have a melting temperature of 184 °C, a boiling point of around
200 °C and an ignition point of 280 °C where it will burst into flames without spark. Tallow and lard
are high in saturated fatty acid. Fats are triglyceril glycerol and any of several fatty acids. Fats may
be either solid or liquid at room temperature. Oil is usually used to refer fats that are liquid at normal
room temperature and fat is usually used to refer solids at normal temperature.

2.2 Structure of soap

The basic structure of all soaps is essentially the same, consisting of a long hydrophobic (water-
fearing) hydrocarbon “tail" and a hydrophilic (water loving) anionic "head":
CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 COO − or CH 3 (CH
2 )n COO −

The length of the hydrocarbon chain ("n") varies with the type of fat or oil but is usually quite long.
The anionic charge on the carboxyl ate head is usually balanced by either a positively charged potassium
(K + ) or sodium (Na + ) cation. In making soap, triglycerides in fat or oils are heated in the presence of a
strong alkali base such as sodium hydroxide, producing three molecules of soap for every molecule of
glycerol. This process is called saponification.[7]
The cleaning action of soaps because of their ability to emulsify or disperse water-insoluble materials and
hold them in the suspension of water. This ability is seen from the molecular structure of soaps. When
soap is added to water that contains oil or other water-insoluble materials, the soap or detergent molecules
surround the oil droplets. The oil is, dissolved in the alkyl groups of the soap molecules while the ionic
end allows it to be dissolved in water. As a result, the oil droplets are to be dispersed throughout the water
and can be washed away.[3]

2.3 working principles of soap

How soap works: The hydrophobic tails of soap molecules embed in grease and oil, breaking it up
into particles called micelles that lift off the surface and disperse into water.

2.12 Process Description of Soap Manufacture

Soaps are the product of the reaction between oil and sodium hydroxide:
Oil+ 3NaOH →glycerin + 3 soap
Step 1 –Saponification

The raw materials (oil, NaOH solution and Lye) are continually fed into a reactor in fixed
proportions. These ingredients alone would give a low water, high glycerin soap. Soap needs to be
about 30% water to be easily pump able, and even then needs to be held at around 70oC, so excess
lye is added to hydrate the soap and dissolve out some of the glycerin. The lye added is known as
"half spent lye" and is the lye discharged from the washing column. This lye already contains some
glycerin, but it is further enriched by that formed in the saponification reaction.A mixture of oil and
Lye is mixed with sodium hydroxide and heated. The soap produced is the salt of a long chain
carboxylic acid.. [11]

In the first stage oil is heated up to 60 C in a vessel and then transported to a reactor. Here the oil is
mixed with a caustic soda solution and the mixture is heated by open steam up to 90 C. During the
boiling process the temperature will further rise to 100 due to reaction energy and heating by steam.
After a few hours boiling the saponification is completed and a sample is taken to check the Free
Caustic Alkali and the moisture-content.[1]

Saponification vessel (CSTR)

Soap saponification process is done in a cylindrical and conical end type jacketed heavy duty vessel.
This vessels specially designed to keep all the points in mind for better convenience in operation and
process. Steam is circulated in to the jacket and on the top there isa motorized heavy duty reduction
gear box system is fitted for the necessary rotational speed of stirrer. The specially designed stirrer is
fitted in the vessel for proper stirring. So first process of soap making is starting from here and where
raw soap is produced. At the end a special type of gate valve is provided to take out the soap in to the
cooling moulds easily. The vessel is stand on legs.[1]

It is used to produce steam from normal water .the generated steam is circulated in to the jacket of soap
saponification vessel. This is a heavy duty vertical cross tube type steam boiler and very is easy to
operate. The steam of steam boiler is used for heating of oils in saponification vessel for soap making
process. The motorized water pressure feed pump is provided with the boiler for feeding of water from
water tank.

Step 2 -spent Lye separation

The wet soap is pumped to a "static separator" -a settling vessel which does not use any mechanical
action. The soap / lye mix is pumped into the tank where it separates out on the basis of weight. The
spent lye settles to the bottom from where it is piped off to the glycerin recovery unit, while the soap
rises to the top and is piped away for further processing.
Step 3 -Soap washing
The soap still contains most of its glycerin at this stage, and thesis removed with fresh lye in a
washing column. The column has rings fixed on its inside surface. The soap solution is added near
the bottom of the column and the lye near the top. As the lye flows down the column through the
centre, a series of rotating disks keeps the soap / lye mixture agitated between the rings. This creates
enough turbulence to ensure good mixing between the two solutions. Glycerine is almost infinitely
soluble in brine, but at greater than35% glycerine the lye no longer efficiently removes glycerine
from the soap.

Step 4 –fresh Lye separation

The lye is added at the top of the washing column, and the soap removed from the column as
overflow. As the lye is added near the overflow pipe the washed soap is about 20% fresh lye, giving
the soap unacceptably high water and caustic levels. Separating off the lye lowers the electrolyte
levels to acceptable limits. The soap and lye are separated in a centrifuge, leaving a soap which is
0.5% NaCl and0.3% NaOH, and about 31% water. The lye removed is used as fresh lye.

Step 5 -Neutralization
Although the caustic levels are quite low, they are still unacceptably high for toilet and laundry soap.
The NaOH is removed by reaction with a weak acid such as coconut oil (which contains significant
levels of free fatty acids), coconut oil fatty acids, citric acid (lemon) or phosphoric acid, with the
choice of acid being made largely on economic grounds. Some preservative is also added at this
stage.

Soap purification-Any remaining sodium hydroxide is neutralized with a weak acid such as citric
acid and two thirds of the remaining water removed.

Finishing-Additives such as preservatives, colour and perfume are added and mixed in with the soap
and it is shaped into bars for sale.

Step 6 -Drying22

Finally, the water levels must be reduced down to about 20%. This is done by heating the soap to
about 125oC under pressure (to prevent the water from boiling off while the soap is still in the
pipes).The latent heat of evaporation lost as the water boils off reduces the soap temperature down to
45oC, at which temperature it solidifies onto the chamber walls. The soap chips are scraped off the
walls and "plodded" (i.e. squeezed together) by screws known as "plodder worms" to form soap
noodles. The soap is now known as base ornate soap chip, and can be converted into a variety of
different soaps in the finishing stages. The moisture evaporated off the wet soap is transported to a
barometric condenser, which re condenses the vapour without the system losing vacuum.
Soap chips making machine
Soap chips making machine is used to make chips of soap bars. It’s necessary to convert soap bars in
to chips form for proper and fast drying. The soap bar is fed through hopper and there is a specially
designed drum with special type of slots. In the same slots sharpen age blades are fitted and which
cut the soap and make machine.

Soap roller machine

For the manufacture of high-quality soap a homogenous soap structure is needed. For the
homogenization of the soap mixture, roller mills are especially well suited. This is a heavy-duty
machine is mainly used for mixing and grinding soap granute with normal temperature and moisture
by running special very harden material of three rollers on horizontal to squeeze and grind soap
particles. Each soap paste duly with color and perfume requires a dozen grinding of mixed mass to
bring fineness and homogeneity. The action of grinding or calendaring of the mass is done by means
of passing through the dose gap of rolls to form ribbon (thin layer thickness)like shape. It is done for
good texture and odor of soaps. Rolls are kept cool during operation as per cooling arrangement
already provided in the machine and water circulates in the rolls according to avoid sickness of mass
with the rolls and to bring a uniformity with a sophisticated fineness in the mass. The rotational
speed of each rolls are different and adjusted according to requirement for better result through a
heavy-duty reduction gear box and electric motor. The electric motor can be switched on-off by
automatic heavy duty electric panel board when required.

Soap duplex vacuum plodder

The plodder (extrusion) machine is a crucial piece of equipment in the entire soap plant. It plays a
major role and gives a final shape in bar form to soap mass. In the first stage soap is compressed,
refined and supplied to the vacuum chamber in shape of noodles. The soap is refined by means of
refiner worm press. In order to reach the refining effect, a refining sieve (screen) is fitted at the out
let of machine. A noodle cutter is fitted very near to same disc which is used for cutting of soap
noodles. When the soap mass passed through the same perforated disc it is transferred in to noodles
form. The noodles fall in to the vacuum chamber, where they are taken up by the main extrusion
worm press, again compressed continuously and then extruded in the form of bar. The plodder
machine is equipped with suitable jackets system. End of the conical compression head is heated by
electrically heated oil batch chamber under the control of the temperature controller to get glossy
surface on the soap bar.

Automatic soap bar cutting machine

This machine is kept immediately after plodder machine and which is used to cut soap in to bar form.
The bar coming continuously from the end mouth (mouth die), enter in to this machine and which cut
the same bar in to fixed length.

Soap stamping machine

This is an ideal foot operated soap stamping machine where soap cakes are stamped. Soap stamping
die (mould) is fitted in the soap-stamping machine and both part (dies) movement up and down by
rams. The cake comes from soap cutting machine is put between two dies and press a stroke of
peddle and finely cake will be stamped and make your branded final soap which is ready for packing.
Generally all types of soap shapes are possible to stamp moulds with this machine and that mould
will be prepared according to your logo, brand name etc. Generally this machine is used for smaller
capacity of soap plant.

2.5 Raw Materials Used In soap-Making

 The raw materials for making Soap : oil, sodium hydroxide, or lye ,crystals ,water, Fats of
your choice (animal fats must be rendered, so lard or tallow from the grocery store are fine),
Sodium hydroxide, Essential oils of your choice for scent &Color additives.
 Soap requires two major raw materials: fat or oil and alkali. The alkali most commonly used
to day is sodium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide can also be used. Potassium-based soap
creates a more water-soluble product than sodium-based soap, and so it is called "soft soap."
 Soft soap, alone or in combination with sodium-based soap, is commonly used in shaving
products.
 Animal fat in the past was obtained directly from a slaughter house. Modern soap makers use
fat that has been processed into fatty acids. This eliminates many impurities, and it produces
as by product water instead of glycerin. Many vegetable fats, including olive oil, palm kernel
oil, and coconut oil, are also used in soap making.
 Additives are used to enhance the color, texture, and scent of soap. Fragrancesand perfumes
are added to the soap mixture to cover the odor of dirt and to leave behind a fresh-smelling
scent. Abrasives to enhance the texture of soap include talc, silica, and marble pumice
(volcanic ash).
 Water.—Water intended for use in soap-making should be as soft as possible. If the water
supply is hard, it should be treated chemically; the softening agents may be lime and soda ash
together, soda ash alone, or caustic soda.

2.6 Types of soap making oils

Fats and oils are esters of different fatty acids and glycerol. Fats and oils are divided into three
classes, fixed oils, mineral oils and essential oils. Fixed oils form the main raw materials for soap
making as they decompose into fatty acids and glycerol when strongly heated, and can be easily
saponified by alkali. Fixed oils, which include both animal and vegetable fats and oils, are further
classified according to its physical properties as follows:[3]
a) Nut oils: These oils are characterized to be having large proportion of fatty acids with low
molecular weight, especially lauric and stearic acid. Examples of these oils are coconut oil. These
oils, when used in toilet soaps are the chief foam-producing ingredients.
They usually saponifiedeasily with strong alkali solution. Once these oils have begun to saponified,
the process proceeds rapidly with the evolution of heat. They require very large quantities of strong
brine (1648”Be) to grain their soaps, and the grained soaps tend to carry more salt than other soaps.
These oils are more suitable for the making of cold process soaps.
b) Hard fats: The hard fats contain appreciable quantities of palmatic and stearic acids. Examples of
these oils are palm oil, animal tallow and hydrogenated fats. These oils produce slow-lathering soaps
but the lather produced is more resistant over long periods of time than the nut oils. In soap making,
they are first saponified with weak alkali, and in the final stages with stronger alkali solutions.
c) Soft Oils: These oils have substantial amounts of unsaturated acids, namely oleic, linoleic and
linoleneic acids. The soap making properties of these oils vary with their fatty acid composition, and
their physical and chemical properties of the acids. Examples of these kind oils are groundnut, cotton
seed, fish oil and olive oil. These oils cannot produce a very hard soap when used alone for soap
making. They are generally blended with nut oils. Their soaps lather freely and have very good
detergent properties.
Soap making involves a definite chemical decomposition of fats and oils into their constituent parts,
like fatty acids and glycerol. The fatty acids combine with little caustic soda, potash or other base
forming soap, and glycerol remains free.
All fats and oils used in soap making consist of a mixture of compounds of glycerol with fatty acid
which occur in nature in the form of triglycerides. The most important of these acids from the soap
maker’s point of view are stearin, palmitin, olein and laurin. The presence of stearin and palmitin,
which are generally solids at room temperature, gives firmness. The greater the percentage presents
the harder the oil, and the higher its melting point. Where olein is liquid at ordinary temperature, is
the chief constituent, the oil is soft.
The soap making properties of fats and oils can be determined by the molecular weights of their fatty
acids. With increasing the molecular weight in the case of naturally occurring saturated fatty acids in
fat or oil, the following properties are found.
The properties of their corresponding sodium soaps vary as follows with increasing molecular
weight:
 The solubility increases,
 The lathering properties improve up to lauric acid and deteriorate from lauric acid upwards,
  The stability of the lather increases,
 The detergent action decreases,
 The soaps have milder skin action as the series progresses,
 The property of holding filling solutions such as sodium silicate decreases[6]

Fats and oils are obtained from both animal and plant sources, but the main soap making fats now are
from plant sources because of the lathering, astringent, and moisturizing qualities of the fatty acids in
various plant fats, and the costs to produce them are less than for animal fats. Fats are solid at room
temperature, while oils are liquid. That is the only difference between the two. Both fats and oils are
fatty acids, or tri-glycerides.[5]

2.7 Methods of Soap Production

2.7.1 Cold Process Soap Making
It begins with melting the hard and soft oils together and then blending in a lye solution. The oil
mixture and lye solution must first be brought to similar temperatures (usually around 90 degrees
Fahrenheit). Once the oil and lye have been combined, the mixture is blended with a whisk or stick
blender untilit is thick (called trace) and then poured into a soap mold.
This method requires the use of a heating element to melt the oils and a thermometer to check
temperatures. It then must cure for 4 to 6 weeks before it can be used .This process requires a scale, a
large stainless steel pot, measuring cups, kitchen thermometers, rubber gloves, mold, cardboard,
plastic bags, olive oil, coconut oil, shortening, lye, distilled water, and fragrances. The cold process
gets its name from the general low temperatures that are used to mill this type of soap.

2.7.2 Room Temperature Method

This type of soap making process does not require an external heat source or any thermometers. It
begins by pouring the hot lye solution onto the hard oils and gently stirring while the oils melt from
the heat. Once the hard oils have fully melted, the soft oils are then added to the mixture. The
mixture is then blended until it is thick and poured into a soap mold. It then must cure for 4 to 6
weeks before it can be used.

2.7.3 Hot Process Soap Making

 Many soap makers like this method because it speeds up the time it takes for the final soaps to
become hard. Many soap makers will use hot process soap as soon as it can be cut though we prefer
to let it cure for a couple of weeks.Withthis method you melt the oils and and blend in the lye
solution (no need to check temperatures). You blend until the soap is thick and then you cook the
soap until it is very thick (resembling mashed potatoes) and somewhat translucent. It is then scooped
into a soap mold and allowed to cool.
This process is named for its boiling pot method of soap milling. For this type of homemade soap
making you will need palmoil, coconut oil, sesame oil,castor oil, sodium hydroxide, water, borax,
soap molds, stainless steel pot, stirring stick or spoon, plastic wrap.Thismethod tends to produce a
soap that is a little more rustic in appearance than the previous two methods.
2.7.4 Whipped Soap Bar Method
This is a really cool soap method that does not use heat to melt your oils. In fact, you don't want them
to melt at all. With this method you will actually chill the lye so that there is no chance of melting the
oil. A whipped bar soap recipe is high in hard oils and has very little in the way of liquid oils. The
hard oils are whipped until fluffy and creamy and then the liquid oils are blended in. Once the mix is
again fluffy, the cold lye solution is very slowly blended in until it is quite thick and creamy.

2.8 Process selection

2.8.1 Selection of hot process over cold process
There are two types of soap: soft soap and hard soap. Soft soap can be made using either a cold
process or a hot process, but hard soap can only be made using a hot process.
 Soap is completely saponified quicker than in Cold Process soap.
 Essential and fragrance oils, super fatting oils, and other additives are added at the end of the
cook and are not affected by the saponification reaction.
 Hot Process soaps are easier to slice and do not crumble.

The cold process may require several days or even months, depending upon the strength and purity of
the ingredients, whereas the hot process takes place within a few minutes to a few hours. Thehot
process, more suitable for laboratory or industrial preparation, yields a more chemically pure powder;
by-products and excess starting materials are separated.[2]

2.8.2 Selection of continuous process over batch process

  much quicker,
 taking up less space
 Uses less energy.
 close control of the soap concentration
 the preparation of soaps of certain chain lengths for specific purposes
 Easy recovery of glycerin, a byproduct.

2.9 Soap uses and application

Beyond its cleaning ability, soap has been used in other applications. For example, certain soaps can
be mixed with gasoline to produce gelatinous napalm, a substance that combusts more slowly than
pure gasoline when ignited or exploded in warfare. Soaps are also used in "canned heat," a
commercialized mixture of soap and alcohol that can be ignited and used to cook foods or provide
warmth.[4]
1. Bug repellent: Place a bar of soap in your garden to keep pests away

2. Rid your house of fleas: place some liquid soap in a bowl mixed with water under a light and it
will attract fleas and they will drowned

3. Household bug repellent: mix soap and water and place in a spray bottle and spray around your
home to rid your house of spiders and bugs

4. Drawers: use soap to loosen and quiet dresser drawers or other household drawers by running the
soap along the metal rails

5. Freshen clothes/luggage: place a bar of soap in a mesh holder to keep stored clothes or luggage
smelling fresh

6. Car freshener: place slivers of left-over soap in a mesh bag and tie around your rear-view mirror
to keep a fresh smell in your car

7. Removing Wallpaper: mix soap and water and sponge on old wallpaper and it will help in
removing the glue

8. Remove a light-bulb: remove a broken light-bulb by placing a soap bar on top and then turning it
9. Zippers: Loosen stuck or rusty zippers by sliding some bar soap up & down the zipper

10. Detect gas leaks: mix a solution of water and soap and rub along pipes, if it bubbles, you found
your leak.

11. Lubricate screws/nails: Dip a screw or nail into a bar of soap before drilling or hammering and
it will move through wood more easily/also for saw blades too.

12. Fabric Marker: use those little left-over’s to make fabric for hemming and it washes right away
when complete