I.

Biological Molecules o Glucose + glucose = Maltose found in

cotyledon.
Introduction to Biomolecules o Glucose + fructose = Sucrose table sugar.
o Glucose + galactose = Lactose milk sugar 
- Cell is the basic unit of life and cells rely on
- Polysaccharide - many sugars join together.
different chemical substances to maintain its life. 
o Examples
- Macromolecules (or large molecules) are essential
o Starch - storage form of carbohydrates in
for living cell.
- These compounds are responsible for building plants usually found in grains, seeds, and
organelles,  energy production, metabolism, and roots.
anything that keeps the cell alive.  o Glycogen - storage form of carbohydrates
- Mostly consist of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, in animals.
nitrogen, phosphorus, and some trace elements. o Cellulose - carbohydrates that serve as a
- Biomolecules are macromolecules that serves as structural material in plants, this is the
the ingredient of life. component of plant cell wall.
o Chitin - carbohydrate that serves as a
Important terminologies: structural material in animal. Present in
insect, mollusks, and crustaceans
- Metabolism - sum total of all biochemical exoskeleton. 
reactions.
- Monomer - Basic unit of biomolecules. Lipids
- Polymer - monomers join together to form a large
molecules.  The monomer of lipids are fatty acids with glycerol.
- Isomer - compounds with same number of atoms
but different in arrangement.   It has a diverse structure that does not form
- Condensation - Joins monomer to form polymer.  macromolecule.
- Hydrolysis - uses water molecule to break down
two or more bond.  Hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen is the main
component of lipids.
Types of Biomolecules
 Does not mix with water (Non-polar) 
Carbohydrates
 Secondary source of energy. Can be stored for a
Lipids long time.
Types of Lipids
Proteins
 True lipids includes: 
Nucleic acids
 Fats - a.k.a. saturated fatty acids, are solid at room
Carbohydrates temperature due to the saturated hydrocarbon
chains.
- The monomer of carbohydrates is
monosaccharide.  Oils - a.k.a. unsaturated fatty acids, are liquid at
- Mostly consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, room temperature due to the high proportion of 
but nitrogen can sometimes be found in its unsaturated hydrocarbon chains.
structure.
- Most abundant molecule of life.  Waxes – such as honeycomb wax are hard when 
- Primary source of energy. cold but soft when warm due to the esters of long
- Matrix of connective tissue. chain fatty alcohols (not  glycerol).
- Material for plant and fungal cell walls. Other examples includes:
- Component of insect's exoskeleton.
- Produced in abundance by plants via  Sphingolipids – Can be extracted from brain.
photosynthesis.
- Most sugar name ends with "-ose"  Phospholipids – Can be found in cell membrane.

Types of Carbohydrates  Steroids – An important component for lipid

hormone structure. (Sex hormones)
- Monosaccharide - single sugar (C6H12O6) Functions
o Examples are glucose, fructose, and
galactose.  Cell membranes and membranes around
- Disaccharide - double sugar (C12H22O11) organelles.
o Examples:
 Ideal storage compounds in plants.
  Physical protection of organs from damage.  Ligases – or synthases – combine two or more
molecules by splitting the phosphate bonds. 
 Water repulsion for the waterproofing of fur, skin,
and feathers.  Lipases for lipids, amylases for carbs and many
more.
 Electrical insulation in neurons to speed up  Cofactors – assist the activation of enzymes. Mostly
conduction. inorganic in composition.

 Thermal insulation for  heat retention in animals,  Ex. Fe, Mn, and Zn
and blubber in diving mammals.
 Coenzymes – Reacts like cofactor but organic in
Protein composition.
 The building block or monomers of protein are  Ex. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
amino acid. (NAD), and Flavin adenine dinucleotide.
(FAD)
 20 amino acids can create a number of different
proteins in our body. But we have 9 amino acids Nucleic Acid
that are not available in our body.   The monomer for nucleic acids are nucleotides.

 Mainly consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and  Nucleotides are attached to ribose, a 5-carbon
nitrogen but some may contains sulfur, phosphorus, sugar and phosphate.
and iodine. 
 We have two types of nucleotides: pyrimidines
 Amino acid is consist of amino group (NH2) includes cytosine, thymine, and uracil, and purines
carboxyl group (COOH) and functional group (R) which includes adenine and guanine. 
bonded to a central carbon atom.
 Protein are the structural material of cell  Thymine exist only in DNA while Uracil exist in
(cytoskeleton is mainly consists of protein.) RNA, they are both complementary to adenine.

 Can be also a source of energy. (Deamination)  Guanine is complementary to cytosine.

 The sugar and phosphate forms a long chain which
 Defense mechanism against disease. (Antibodies) gives the RNA and DNA a long strand form.

 Chemical messenger like hormones and receptor  Nucleic acids are chemical messenger, energy
on cell membranes (Antigen). carrier, and subunits for nucleic acids and
coenzyme.
 Also enzymes are mainly consist of proteins.
 They code the information of life. 
Enzymes
 Most proteins are enzymes.
Deoxyribonucleic acid
 Controls metabolic process.
 Located in the nucleus, mitochondria, and
 Vital for life process, disturbance may cause illness. chloroplast.
 Enzyme reacts with specific substrate.  Carries the genetic material of living organism.
 Most enzyme name ends with "-ase"  DNA has 2 nucleotide bonded by hydrogen bonds
that forms a double helix.
 Enzymes can be inhibited by various factors: Ribonucleic acid
Temperature, pH, changes in shape of enzyme or
substrate, and competitive inhibitor.  RNA translate DNA language into protein language
for biosynthesis.
 Lock and Key Structure of Enzyme and Substrate:
 Oxidoreductases – bring about oxidation-reduction  RNA has only single strand.
reactions.
 Messenger RNA or mRNA - short-lived messenger.
 Transferases – affect the transfer of group. Transcription of DNA forms the mRNA.
 Hydrolases – influence hydrolytic reactions.  Transfer RNA or tRNA - can be translated into
 Isomerases – catalyze isomerization process
amino acid in a process called translation .
  The cycle depends on the activity of Nicotinamide
Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD), Nicotinamide
Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (NADP), and
Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD).

 They are structurally similar with ATP.

Redox reaction of Coenzymes
 Coenzymes accepts electrons and pass to another
coenzymes.

 This coenzyme will undergo oxidation-reduction

II. Energy Tranformation reaction.

The energy-rich molecule…  Oxidation is the removal of electron or proton.

 All activities perform by our cell requires energy to Gives off electron.
be activated.
 Reduction addition of electron or proton. Gains
 Energy are derived from the biological molecules electron.
we consumed (simply known as food.)
III. Photosynthesis
 Through series of biochemical reaction the food
that we consumed will eventually turn into Energy Transformation
adenosine triphosphate, or ATP an energy-rich
- Sun powers everything in our planet, and energy
molecule. 
transforms to fit the things it powers.
ATP… ATP?
- Photosynthesis converts water and CO2 into
 Plant produces energy enough not only for them carbohydrates that is going to be converted to
but also for other organism. ATP.
- First studied by Jan Van Helmont in 1630,
 Plants are able to convert energy from sun to
he planted willow tree and after 5 years weigh
energy that can be used by us, in a form of ATP
the plant (164lb) and soil (the soil weighed 2
 Thus making ATP as the energy “currency” of the ounces less on its original weight from the start of
cell. the experiment.
- Joseph Preistley observe that the spring of mint
 ATP is consist of:
can restore the air that has been injured by a
 Adenine – double-ring molecule with N, burning candle. 
 Ribose – A 5-carbon sugar, and… - 7 years later, Jan Ingenhouz supported Priestley,
and added that air is restored only if the sun was
 Phosphates – that releases energy when shining.
broken. - In 1804 Nicholas de Saussure weighed both air
and plant before and after photosynthesis. It show
 When reacted with enzymes, Adenosine that plant mass increase while CO2 mass
triphosphate releases energy when one phosphate decreased. Another thing that increases the mass
was separated to the other. of the plant is water.
 After these, ATP will turn into Adenosine Energy carrier
Diphosphate plus Phosphate. It will also release
energy. - ATP powers living organism by removing the 3rd
ATP-ADP cycle phosphate.
 When ATP was broken down by enzymes it will - Removal of last phosphate is termed
separate the third phosphate, dephosphorylation, catalyzed by ATPase.
- Phosphorylation adds phosphate to restore ATP. 
 Creating ADP + P + energy on the process. 
Introduction
 In reverse, if external energy powers the reaction,
that third phosphate group will then attach again to - ATP powers the cell, some produces their own
ADP. food, some consume other organism to have ATP.

 It will restore ATP that can be used again.  Organism based on the Mechanism of Extracting Energy:

 This is called ATP-ADP cycle. 1. Heterotrophic - obtains energy from other

ATP and Coenzymes organism or food. (Other eating)  Ex. Holozoic
 (digestion), saprophytic (dead material), & 4. Electron gain is passed to the electron transport chain.
parasitic. (ETC)
2. Autotrophic - transform CO2 and H2O into organic
molecule through photosynthesis. (Self-feeding)  5. Electron flow produce adenosine triphosphate that will
be used later on light independent reaction.
Types of Autotrophs
6. Light hits P700/PS I, excites the electron and passed on
1. Chemoautotrophs - synthesize organic substance primary electron acceptor. Almost the same as in 1-3 in
from inorganic substance does not use light P680.
energy.
2. Photoautotrophs - use light energy to synthesize 7. Electron undergo another electron transport chain and
organic material. reduce NADP+ to NADPH.

Photosynthesis 8. NADPH and ATP from light dependent reaction will be

used in light independent reaction.
- Photosynthesis is a complex process that uses
light energy to convert carbon dioxide and H2O to NADPH and ATP are the end product of non-cyclic
carbohydrate or glucose. electron flow.
- It is a light driven Redox reaction. Molecule
is reduced if it gains electron and oxidized if Light Dependent Reaction
it loses electron.  Non-cyclic electron flow
- The major site of photosynthesis are leaves.
- Leaves has chloroplast found in mesophyll and
pigment which absorbs light.
- Light carries charged particle photon.
- Some wavelengths of light are absorbed, some are
not. Absorption depends on the pigment present
on a material. 

2 Stages of Photosynthesis
- Light dependent reaction - converts light energy
to chemical energy. (Forms ATP and NADPH.)
Water splits in the process releasing oxygen as by-
product this happens in the thylakoid. 
ii. Cyclic electron flow
-   Light independent reaction - converts carbon
dioxide and other compound to form glucose. - Electron from P700 that proceeds to the primary
- electron acceptor goes back to cytochrome
Light Dependent Reaction complex to produce another ATP instead of
NADPH
Involve photosystems (PS) - Only ATP are produced during cyclic electron flow.
- This maintains the ratio of ATP and NADPH in
- PS II - or P680, best absorbs red spectrum (680 Calvin-Benson Cycle.
nm wavelength)
- PS I - or P700, best absorb far-red spectrum (700
nm wavelength)
- Can follow cyclic or non-cyclic electron pathway.
- Both photosystem works at the same time.

i. Non-cyclic electron flow

1. Light hits P680/PS II, absorbs and transfer the energy to

P680.

2. Energy excites electron in P680, then proceed to

primary electron receptor. 

3. Electron is replaced by the electron from water molecule

that enters PS II. Light Independent Reaction
- Photolysis - light splits the water molecule into Starts with Carbon Fixation and followed by Calvin-Benson
H2 and O atom.  Cycle.
Carbon fixation - CO2 will attached to ribulose
bisphosphate (RuPB), with the help of enzyme ribulose
bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase (RuBisCO).

- The most common carbon fixation is C3 (most

plants), C4 (mostly Poaceae or grass family), CAM
or Crassulacean Acid Metabolism are for cacti and
succulents.

Calvin-Benson Cycle - discovered by Melvin Calvin and

Andrew Benson.

Utilize adenosine triphosphate and nicotinamide adenine

dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) from light dependent
reaction.

i. Carbon fixation - the molecules of CO2 will attach to 3-

molecules of 5-carbon compound called Ribulose
Bisphosphate (RuBP).

- This create the 3-molecules of 6-carbon

compound.
- RuBisCO helps CO2 to bond with RuBP.
- 6-carbon compound rapidly splits into 6
molecules of 3-Phosphoglycerate (3-PGA).

ii. Reduction - consumes ATP and NADPH.

- 6-molecules of adenosine triphosphate is used to

convert 6-molecules of 3-PGA into 6-molecules of
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. (Notice that adenosine
triphosphate gives off its phosphate group to
phosphoglycerate.)
- 6-molecules of NADPH used to convert 6-
molecules of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to 6-
molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).

iii. Regeneration - involves network of complex reaction.

        The remaining 5-molecule of glyceraldehyde-3-

phosphate will regenerate 3-molecules of RuBP with the
help of 3-molecules of ATP and the cycle will start again. 

iii. Regeneration - involves network of complex reaction.