050 Meteorology
050 Meteorology
050 Meteorology
Meteorology
EASA
Aviatione^am
FIRST EDITION 238
Aviatione^am
Copyright © 2022 Aviationexam
ISBN: 978-80-908583-7-4
Aviationexam s.r.o.
Kovarova 39/23
155 00 Praha 5
Czech Republic
READ DISCLAIMER L-
Contents
About This eBook Series
Foreword
1. The Atmosphere
1.1. Composition, extent, vertical division
centres aloft
1.6. Altimetry
2. Wind
2.1. Definition and measurement of wind
gradient wind
2.6. Turbulence
2.7.1. Description
3. Thermodynamics
3.1. Humidity
5. Precipitation
5.1. Development of precipitation
6.2. Fronts
7. Pressure Systems
7.1. The principal pressure areas
7.2. Anticyclone
troughs
movement >
Harmattan
9. Flight Hazards
9.1. Icing
9.2. Turbulence
9.5. Tornadoes
9.6. Inversions
passage
obscuration
10.1.2. The World Area Forecast System and meteorological offices >
observations >
A. Glossary
B. Abbreviations
C. Literature and Regulations
D. Formulae
E. Learning Objectives
About This eBook Series
Thank you for choosing Aviationexam as your study tool. The team of authors
that has collaborated on the content of this ebook was very carefully and
purposefully selected by Aviationexam to include both experts on the
respective subject matters as well as professional pilots with considerable
operational experience. The objective of the publisher, Aviationexam, is two
fold:
• The eTexbooks with white covers follow the structure of the EASA Learning
Objectives AMC/GM to Part-FCL - Amendment 2, ED Decision
2016/008/R that were in effect before 2020.
• The eTexbooks with dark blue covers comply with the newest Learning
Objectives - Amendments 4, 6 and 8 to AMC/GM to Part-FCL (ED Decision
2018/001/R, ED Decision 2018/011/R and ED Decision 2019/017/R) that
came into effect in 2020.
If you are unsure which of the two is applicable in your case, please consult
with your flight school.
Aviationexam has been the leading provider of theoretical exam preparation
materials in Europe since 2004. Over the last decade, we have achieved
extensive expertise in the knowledge requirements of EASA exams, which we
have transferred into this study book series. This ebook covers every topic
outlined by the EASA ATPL, CPL and IR syllabi for this subject.
However, in many areas this ebook goes well beyond the minimum
information required by the syllabus to pass your exams. You will find many
practical tips from experienced airline pilots to aid you and to give you an
opportunity to reach a higher degree of proficiency in all relevant aspects of
flight operations. The goal of this ebook is simple - to help you become a
proficient and, more importantly, a safe professional pilot.
In the second half of the book the main weather systems - such as pressure
and wind systems as well as associated frontal zones and local phenomena -
will be explained. Besides that, main chapters are the subject of other
disciplines of atmospheric science such as climatology which help us to
associate characteristic weather phenomena to specific regions on Earth. The
previously mentioned make it possible for us to recognise hazardous
atmospheric situations as well as to understand weather reports and forecasts
which contain meteorological information that are used for flight planning and
during the flight.
The Atmosphere
The Earth’s atmosphere can be divided into layers with specific characteristics.
The lowest layer of the atmosphere is called the troposphere which is widely
used for civil aviation. It contains half of the mass of the atmosphere and
almost all water vapour in the air. Air temperature is not equally distributed
horizontally and vertically, which leads to differences in air density and air
pressure. These differences result in the formation of weather phenomena like
wind, low and high pressure systems.
Note: In a mixture, components are not united in the chemical sense of the word.
Therefore, they do not have fixed proportions to each other unlike in solutions or
compounds.
Constituents below 1 % by volume are called trace gases. Besides argon, other
noble gases are found in the air, namely neon, helium, krypton and xenon.
These are inert gases; therefore, they do not react with other components.
Water vapour, methane, nitrous oxide and nitrogen dioxide are also present.
Furthermore, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ozone, ammonia, sulfur dioxide and
hydrogen sulfide are constituents of the atmosphere but at much lower levels
than the above-listed components.
It is worth mentioning that because the shape of the Earth’s surface is not
perfectly spherical, the lower vertical boundary of the atmosphere cannot be
considered a plane surface. The Earth's landforms including hills, mountains,
valleys, seas and oceans have to be taken into account; for example, altimeter
calculations of physical quantities in the Earth’s atmosphere such as air
temperature, air pressure and air density change with height.
Note: In this chapter words "height" and "altitude" are used in the same meaning.
However in Section 1.6, the above-mentioned words have different meanings.
• Troposphere (Greek tropo, "turn"), referring to fact that mixing processes are
significant in this layer
• Stratosphere (Latin stratum, "layer")
• Mesosphere (Greek mesos, "middle")
• Thermosphere (Greek thermo, "heat")
• Exosphere (Greek exo, "outside")
Altitude in feet
(km)
Sun-synchronous MfHlites Exosphere
Figure 1.1. Layers of the atmosphere based on the vertical profile of the air
temperature
The temperature at the lowest point of the vertical profile is about 15 °C,
which can be considered the Earth’s average near-surface temperature. Note
that the height of the tropopause varies with the seasons and geographical
latitude. The height of the stratopause and mesopause also vary, but these
changes do not have significant effects on weather and aviation, so only
average values are presented.
The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, found between the
surface of the Earth and approximately 25 000 ft and 60 000 ft (ca. 8 km and
18 km) depending on seasonal and latitudinal variations. The typical height of
the tropopause can be considered 36090 ft (11 km). It is a layer with a
constant height of 11 km without seasonal and latitudinal variations in the
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), which is explained later. The
troposphere contains half of the mass of the air. Most weather processes take
place here. In general, the air temperature decreases from the ground to the
tropopause, the upper boundary of the troposphere, where an abrupt
decrease in air temperature is observable. In an isothermal layer the
temperature is constant. The tropopause can almost be considered an
isothermal layer. Commercial airplanes fly primarily in the troposphere but can
rise above the tropopause, making the troposphere and tropopause the most
important layers from the perspective of aviation.
The stratosphere starts just above the tropopause. Air temperature in the
lower part of the stratosphere remains (nearly) constant, then starts to rise
until reaching about 0 °C. The region in the stratosphere with the highest
amount of ozone is called the ozone layer. The increasing air temperature in
the stratosphere is the consequence of the chemical reactions in the ozone
layer where the majority of ozone forms and decomposes constantly at
altitudes from approx. 65 600 ft (ca. 20 km) to approx. 98400 ft (ca. 30 km).
The boundary of the stratosphere is called the stratopause, and it can be
found at the altitude of approx. 164 000 ft (ca. 50 km). Few weather
processes, in particular wind and turbulence, occur in the stratosphere. Lower
regions of the stratosphere are used for aviation purposes. Weather balloons
with radiosondes used by meteorological agencies to measure weather
conditions of the troposphere above the surface of the Earth often intrude
into the stratosphere and provide data not only about the state of the
troposphere but also the stratosphere.
In the layers above the stratosphere, air pressure (and air density) is very low
because of the small number of air parcels. Therefore, air temperature in those
layers - which is proportional to the kinetic energy of the moving air parcels -
is difficult to interpret. Consequently, high temperatures are not dangerous to
aircraft entering the thermosphere or the exosphere.
Not only air temperature but also wind speed varies with altitude, which
reaches maximum speeds near the tropopause. Because the tropopause is not
a continuous surface, breaks can be observed in it. (In Figure 1.3 those breaks
can be clearly seen between the tropical and mid-latitudes tropopauses and
between the mid-latitudes and polar tropopauses). Air currents with the
highest wind speeds in the atmosphere are located near those breaks, called
jet streams (Section 2.7). More precisely, the core of the jet streams (in other
words, the jet streak) are located closest to those breaks.
The height of the tropopause varies with air temperature and air pressure.
First, variations of the height of the tropopause are examined because of the
changes in air temperature. The spatiotemporal distribution of the heat energy
near the surface is not equal. Because of the higher elevation of the Sun (in
other words, the altitude of the Sun), the amount of heat energy is greater
along the Equator than over the North and South Poles and greater during the
summer than during the winter.
Note: If a physical quantity e.g. heat is not equally distributed then it means that it
varies in time (e.g. the quantity has seasonal changes) or in space (e.g. the quantity
varies with geographical latitudes). In these cases we speak about the
spatiotemporal distribution of the quantities.
The tropopause extends higher over warmer surfaces and lower over colder
surfaces. It is the equivalent to saying the troposphere is thicker over warmer
surfaces and thinner over colder surface. This means the following:
1. The thickness (in other words, the vertical extent) of the troposphere
reaches its maximum value during the summer and decreases to its
minimum during the winter.
2. Low air pressure implies less air in the air column, which decreases the
height of the tropopause.
3. High air pressure implies more air in the air column, which increases the
height of the tropopause.
3. Polar tropopause: Over the polar regions, the tropopause can be found
between approx. 25 000 to 30000 ft (ca. 8-9 km) where the air
temperature is ca. -50 °C.
4. Arctic and Antarctic tropopause: Over the Arctic and Antarctic regions,
the tropopause begins at about 25 000 ft (ca. 8 km) where the air
temperature is about -45 °C.
Note: Because of its height, the air temperature of the tropopause is the lowest
above the Equator and it increases as geographic latitude increases. Of course,
there are cases in which the height of the tropopause or its temperature falls
outside the ranges listed above. For example, air temperature can fall below -80 °C
over the Arctic in winter.
Using the below-listed values, one can easily consider the followings. For
example, the tropical tropopause has an average height of approx. 54000 ft
(ca. 16.5 km) with an associated temperature of -75 °C. The tropopause over
cities at relatively low geographic latitudes - among others Dakar (Senegal),
Recife (Brazil), Bermuda or Ponta Delgada (Azores) - is found between approx.
50000 to 60000 ft (ca. 15-18 km) throughout the year.
Figure 1.2. Typical height of the tropopause and its associated temperature
on the Earth
Figure 1.3. The height and temperature of the tropopause according to
geographic latitude
Humid air contains water vapour, which is one of the most powerful
greenhouse gases. The percentage of water vapour in humid air is 0.4 % by
volume but can rise as high as 4 %. This proportion seems to be small
compared to nitrogen or oxygen, but it is significant from a meteorological
perspective because weather processes such as cloud formation and
precipitation depend on the volume fraction of the water vapour.
The Earth’s atmosphere contains not only gases and liquid droplets but also
solid particles, though in much smaller fraction. Those liquid and solid
components are called aerosol particles and have a major role in the
formation of precipitation and clouds.
From the North and South Poles to the Equator, the tropopause is not a
continuous surface (see Figure 1.3) which means that it has breaks where
different air masses interact with each other. An air mass is a large body in the
atmosphere, characterised by nearly the same conditions of air temperature
and humidity. The boundary between two air masses is called a frontal zone.
The tropopause breaks can be found near the core of jet streams with the
maximum wind speeds in the atmosphere. This area is critical in aviation
because strong turbulence and wind shear occur here, especially on that side
of the jet stream where the colder air mass is located. A special type of
turbulence is associated with the tropopause breaks and jet streams, causing
one of the most dangerous phenomenon in aviation, clear-air turbulence (CAT,
see Section 2.6.3). As its name implies, this type of turbulence is not
accompanied by clouds, but instead occurs when the sky seems to be clear.
Because of this, CAT cannot be detected without using remote sensing
instruments.
The four main forces of flight - lift, weight, drag and thrust - are affected by
the structure of the atmosphere. For example, thrust is affected by the vertical
distribution of the air temperature. The thrust decreases slowly as the lapse
rate increases. This means that thrust will decrease above the tropopause
entering the stratosphere. Altitude also affects these forces of flight. The
speed of the airplane increases as altitude increases; therefore, the fuel
consumption decreases with altitude. However, drag and thrust also decrease,
which has a negative effect on the stability of the airplane.
The height of the tropopause depends not only on the geographic latitude but
also on the season. The tropopause can always be found higher in summer
than in winter. Generally, in winter, air temperatures and atmospheric
pressures are lower than in summer, implying less air in the air column and
leading to a decrease in the height of the tropopause during winter. In
summer, higher air temperatures and atmospheric pressures imply more air in
the air column, which increases height of the tropopause. This means that
aircraft cross the tropopause more often during winter than summer.
The biggest difference regarding the constituents of the air below and above
the tropopause is the amount of water vapour. The majority of water vapour
can be found in the troposphere because almost all weather processes take
place in that layer besides wind and turbulence. Vertical mixing in the
stratosphere is less intense than in the troposphere, but because of the
horizontal mixing processes the composition of the air is still uniform.
Remember that the stratosphere is also part of the homosphere.
Because of the seasonal and latitudinal variations of the tropopause, the lower
boundary of the stratosphere is at approx. 25 000 ft and 60 000 ft (ca. 8 km
and 18 km). The upper boundary of the stratosphere is the stratopause, which
can be found at an average height of approx. 164000 ft (ca. 50 km). Because
of the height variations of the tropopause, the vertical extent of the
stratosphere also depends on seasonal and latitudinal changes. (The latter can
be seen in the figure below.)
20
Stratosphere
Latitude
Figure 1.4. Vertical extent of the troposphere and the lower portion of the
stratosphere
The distribution of the stratospheric ozone varies not only in space but also in
time. It changes with the seasons; more precisely the amount of ozone
increases during winter and reaches its maximum value at the beginning of
spring. After that, the amount of ozone starts to decrease until its minimum
value at the beginning of autumn. It is worth mentioning that ozone can be
found not only in the stratosphere (called stratospheric ozone) but also in the
troposphere (called tropospheric ozone).
Here we see the inner core, the outer core, the mantle and the crust of the
Earth. Note that the Earth has a radius of approx. 20 900 000 ft (6 378 km). In
geologic terminology, the crust and upper part of the mantle are called the
lithosphere and the lower part of the mantle is called the asthenosphere. As
we mentioned, below the lithosphere is the rigid surface of the planet Earth.
Note that the word "sphere" derives from the Greek word sphaira, meaning
globe, not layer. Layer comes from the Greek word strato. However, we use
the word layer to explain the structure of the spheres surround the planet (see
the figure below). In that sense, the atmosphere is the layer of air that
surrounds the Earth. The lithosphere is the layer of rocks and minerals, the
solid surface of the Earth. The hydrosphere refers to liquid water above and
below the solid surface of the Earth, in particular oceans, lakes, rivers and
groundwater. The cryosphere is often distinguished from the hydrosphere. It is
the mass of ice on the Earth, including ice sheets, ice caps, glaciers etc. The
biosphere is composed of the Earth’s ecological systems with all its life forms.
Of course, the previously mentioned spheres can be divided into subspheres.
For example the atmosphere has five major layers. From ground to top these
are the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere and
the exosphere.
The Earth is not only a complex but also a dynamic system; the structure and
the interactions of the previously listed spheres change on timescales of
millions of years. Therefore, information about the spheres helps us to
understand the processes in the atmosphere more precisely.
400-1
380 J
360 i
340 »
320^S/vWvV
300 4
1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 2014 2018
year
The fraction of atmospheric carbon dioxide reached the level of 400 ppm in
April 2014 for the first time at the Mauna Loa Observatory (red dashed line).
Note: Data are missing in June and October 1958, from February to April 1964, in
December 1975 and in April 1984.
The upper boundary can be defined as the distance where the Earth’s
gravitational force decreases to the level when it cannot force an air parcel to
stay in orbit around the Earth. Therefore, the air parcel escapes from the
Earth’s atmosphere. The gravitational force is denoted by Fga. The air parcel is
moving on a circular trajectory around the Earth's axis. If we observe the
movement in a coordinate system fixed to the Sun (inertial reference frame)
then the circular motion is the consequence of the centripetal force which
the effects of forces, let us take a closer look at Fga and Fcp.
universal gravitation, every object attracts every single other object by Fga
which points along the line intersecting both points. This physical law was
formulated by English mathematician and physicist Sir Isaac Newton. The
force exerted by the larger object with mass mi on the smaller object with
mass m2 can be described as:
(1.1)
]7 = x X
r ga 7 f2 A r
Where:
Gravitational force and all force-type measurements use the SI°° unit of
newton (abbreviated as N).
Fcp always directs towards the center of the circular trajectory. The
magnitude of centripetal force (FCD) is the following:
(1.3)
Fcp = m2^
where v is the speed [/s] of the object moving on the circular trajectory and r
is the radius [m] of this trajectory. Assuming circular motion, v is calculated as
v = rcj, where tu = -^ is the angular velocity [1/s] of the circular motion and
T is the period of time for one rotation [s]. Substituting w into the formula of
the velocity:
(1.4)
r2z
T
Based on the above described formulas, the distance where the magnitude of
Let mi be the Earth’s mass, approx. 6 x 1024 kg and m2 the mass of the air
parcels. We can calculate r, which is the distance between the Earth’s center
and the center of the air parcel if we describe the balance of the forces
regarding their magnitudes (Fga=Fcp):
mim2 v2
—r~
2 ~r Ym2
The mass m2 cannot be zero; therefore, we can divide both sides of the
equation above with it:
mi v2
7— = Y
mi 2
?Y = v
7mxT2 3/ 7mxT2
3
=> r
4-7T2 V 4-7T2
/ 3
. / 6.67 x IO"11 — x 6 x 1024 kg x (86400 s)2
3/ kg s2
V 4 x 3.142
= 42311825 m = 42311.825 km
of the air parcel above the Earth where Fga balances Fcp, the radius of Earth
(6378 km) should be subtracted from r. Therefore the altitude above the
This is why the vertical extent of the atmosphere can be considered approx.
115 000 000 ft (ca. 35 000 km).
There are other definitions for the atmosphere’s upper vertical limit. For
example, one theoretical boundary of the atmosphere is the Karman line
(named after Hungarian-born American physicist and engineer Theodore von
Karman), found at the altitude of 330000 ft (100 km) where aerodynamic
force does not have significant role in the lifting of airplanes.
equator mean vertical , . 45*$ mean vertical . 45*N mean vertical Antartic Circle mean . Antartic Circle mean
temperature profile D) temperature profile C) temperature profile Ci) vertical temperature C) vertical temperature
(2016 January) (2016 July) (2016 January) profile (2016 July) profile (2016 January)
temperature (°C)
temperature (°C)
Figure 1.9. Vertical profile of the temperature in January and June 2016
Note: Above the Equator the summer temperature is slightly lower for astronomical
reasons: the Earth is closer to the Sun in the winter of the Northern Hemisphere
(January).
Note: The intensity of the Earth's magnetosphere is unique among the inner
planets. The magnetic fields of the Mercury and Venus are weaker than the
magnetic field of the Earth, while Mars does not have a magnetosphere at all.
Figure 1.10. Interaction between solar wind and the Earth’s magnetosphere
STU DY TEST
1.2. Air temperature
The Sl-derived unit of temperature is degree Celsius (symbol: °C). The Celsius
scale has two reference points. It is based on the freezing point of water (i.e.
the melting point of ice) and the boiling point of water at standard
atmospheric pressure, defined as 0 °C and 100 °C. The freezing point and
boiling point of water are 100 degrees apart which means that a degree on
the Celsius scale is 1/100 of the interval between the two reference points.
The Fahrenheit scale has two reference points, similar to the Celsius scale. The
unit of measurement is degree Fahrenheit (symbol: °F) which is not listed as an
SI unit. The reference points are the freezing point of water and the boiling
point of water at standard atmospheric pressure defined as 32 °F and 212 °F.
The two reference points are 180 degrees apart. Consequently, a degree on
the Fahrenheit scale is 1/180 of the interval between the two reference
points.
The following formulas can be used for conversions between the above
described scales of temperature. (See the figure below.)
Symbols T[K], T[°C] and T[°F] are temperatures measured in kelvin, degree of
Celsius and degree of Fahrenheit. One can easily calculate that the Celsius and
Fahrenheit scales have one common point: -40 °C equals to -40 °F.
Kelvin scale -> Celsius scale T [K] = T [°C] + 273.15 T [°C] = T [K] - 273.15
Kelvin scale -> Fahrenheit scale T [K] = 5/9 x (T [°F] + 459.67) T [°F] = T [K] x 9/5 - 459.67
Celsius scale -> Fahrenheit scale T [°C] = 5/9 x (T [°F] - 32) T [°F] = T [°C] x 9/5 + 32
Liquid thermometers can measure only between the freezing and boiling
points of the chosen liquid. Therefore, the mercury thermometer can be used
between -37 °C and 356 °C. For meteorological purposes, it is used to
measure maximum temperatures. Alcohol thermometers cover lower ranges of
temperatures. Because of this, they are mainly used to measure minimum
temperatures. The exact values of the freezing and boiling points depend on
the type of alcohol which is used. Commonly ethanol is used. Its freezing point
is about -70 °C and its boiling point is about 80 °C. Despite the fact that liquid
thermometers are easy to use, they have several disadvantages. For example,
mercury is toxic, so using mercury thermometers can be dangerous to human
health, so its usage is restricted in the countries of the European Union.
Another disadvantage is the evaporation of liquids. Because of the above-
mentioned disadvantages, thermometers manufactured with solid, non-toxic
materials such as RTDs are widely used today. RTDs cover a wider
temperature range which is another advantage over liquid thermometers.
Those devices can measure temperature from -200 °C to hundreds of degrees
of Celsius, depending on the type of metals.
It is worth to mention that the Celsius scale was established almost a century
before the Kelvin scale. It was invented by Swedish physicist Anders Celsius in
1742. However, the scale was the reverse of the scale now commonly used:
the boiling point of water was 0 °C and the freezing point of water was
100 °C. The Fahrenheit scale is older than the Celsius scale. It was proposed
by Polish-born Dutch physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit in 1724.
Incoming radiation from the Sun heats the Earth's surface more efficiently
than it heats the air, thus the greatest amount of heat accumulates on the
ground's surface. The surface then warms the air above it. As altitude
increases, the amount of transferred heat is reduced. Thus, in normal
conditions, the air temperature decreases with height. The mean temperature
near the surface is about 15 °C. The tropopause can be found between
approx. 25 000 ft and 60000 ft (ca. 8 km and 18 km) depending on seasonal
and latitudinal variations. At the top of the troposphere, the air decreases to
its average minimum temperature around -60 °C, but in extreme cases it can
reach -80 °C.
The altitude at which the temperature changes from positive to negative can
be important in aviation because when liquid water turns to solid it can cause
icing. This is called the 0 °C isotherm or zero degree isotherm. An isotherm is
a line on weather maps connecting points with the same temperature. It is
usually found over the poles around ground level. In mid-latitudes, the 0 °C
isotherm occurs between approx. 6 600 ft and 9 800 ft (ca. 2 km and 3 km),
while over the tropical region it can be found between approx. 16400 ft and
18000 ft (ca. 5 km and 5.5 km).
All of the above-mentioned values are average values, but of course the state
of the atmosphere is continuously changing in time and space. Air
temperature depends on latitude, seasonal changes, diurnal (daily) variations
and regional weather conditions.
Heat is transferred via radiation from the Sun to the Earth’s surface. Primarily,
insolation can be considered the process via which the atmosphere is heated.
After insolation, the surface heats the atmosphere from the ground to the top
through the following processes: conduction, convection and condensation.
Note terrestrial radiation can be interpreted as both an atmospheric warming
and= cooling process, as emitted terrestrial radiation warms the lowest layer
of the atmosphere while radiation is also directed from the ground to the
outer space, taking energy away from the atmosphere and causing the Earth
to lose heat.
The primary source of energy that heats the Earth’s atmosphere is incoming
solar radiation (insolation). Other much smaller sources are the dissolution of
radioactive particles in the Earth’s core and incoming cosmic rays from the
Universe.
Note: EM waves travel through some kind of medium (e.g. air, water) and the speed
of propagation depends on the density of the medium. If EM waves travel through
vacuum, then they propagate at the speed of light (ca. 300000 km/s). Waves such
as EM waves have periods in the time and spatial domains which means that there
is a distinct time interval and distance until the wave's shape starts to repeat.
Frequency is expressed by the time period which is given in SI base units of 1/s or
SI derived units of Hertz (Hz). Wavelength is expressed in the SI units of m.
10J‘Hz 10" Hz 10" Hz 1O'*Hz 1O‘Hz 10*Hz 10*'Hz 10°Hz 10*Hz 10‘Hz 10*Hz 10*Hz
7x10*Hz 4x10*Hz
The largest amount of solar radiation can be measured at the upper boundary
of the atmosphere. The surface of the Earth receives a much smaller amount
of energy because of transmittance, the filtering effect of the atmosphere.
High (low) values of transmittance indicate that atmospheric constituents
absorb small (large) amounts of radiation. Its values vary between 0 and 1 (or
can be expressed in percentage). In other words, transmittance is a
measurement of the transparency of the atmosphere. The band of
wavelengths where transmittance is almost 1 is called the atmospheric
window, where incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial radiation
penetrate the atmosphere without any obstacles.
The atmosphere completely filters out solar radiation with high energy such as
gamma rays and X-rays, as well as waves with low energy such as longwave,
mediumwave and shortwave radio waves. Atmospheric gases including
oxygen, carbon dioxide, ozone and water vapour absorb EM waves with
certain wavelengths. For example, nitrogen, oxygen and ozone absorb EM
waves in ultraviolet. In particular, water vapour, carbon dioxide and ozone
have absorption bands in visible and infrared light (A summary of absorption
regions can be seen on Figure 1.14.). The atmosphere is completely
transparent to visible light.
The emitted energy depends only on the temperature of the body: the higher
the temperature, the shorter the wavelength of the EM wave. At the centre of
the Sun, temperatures exceed 10 million K, and due to the processes in the
Sun such as radiation, convection and conduction, its surface has a
temperature of ca. 6000 K. The surface of Earth has a mean temperature of
about 15 °C (ca. 288 K), causing it to emit radiant energy, called terrestrial
radiation. The Earth emits EM longwaves in the range of infrared light with a
maximum wavelength of about 10 pm.
In the figure below, we can see that the atmosphere is characterised by high
transmittance values around 10 pm. The atmospheric window can be found
around that wavelength.
Atmospheric components absorb some fraction of emitted terrestrial radiation.
However, if the amount of variable and highly variable atmospheric gases
increases, in particular the amounts of water vapour and carbon dioxide, then a
larger fraction of emitted terrestrial radiation will be absorbed by water vapour
and carbon dioxide particles and then re-radiated uniformly in all directions. This
means that a fraction of the radiation will be re-radiated in the direction of the
Earth’s surface. Because of this the air temperature near the surface increases.
This process is called greenhouse effect and its drivers are greenhouse gases
(abbreviated as GHG). Due to the greenhouse effect, near-surface air temperature
has an average value of about 15 °C. Without the greenhouse effect, the
temperature would be about -18 °C. The greenhouse effect can be caused by
natural processes, like after a rainy day when rain evaporates from the ground into
the air, or by anthropogenic processes, as is the case with the increasing amount
of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere.
wavelength (pm)
After incoming solar radiation reaches the Earth’s surface, it transforms into
the heat energy of the air parcels directly above the ground. This means that
the Sun does not heat the air directly. According to the figure above, there are
broad regions where EM waves from the Sun can reach the surface without
significant obstacles. The surface releases solar radiation in the form of EM
longwaves which heat the air indirectly. Then, heat is transferred to higher
layers in the atmosphere. Because of this, the highest temperature is to be
found in the layer which contracts the surface. In normal conditions,
temperature decreases as altitude increases until the tropopause.
The incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial radiation interacts with
clouds in the Earth’s atmosphere. Clouds can reflect, scatter and absorb solar
radiation. Reflection is the returning of radiation that reached a surface.
Scattering means that emitted radiation deviates from its original paths. The
amount of incoming radiation is equal to the amount that is returned or
scattered .
Note: A fraction of the EM waves absorbed by clouds will reach the surface after
the clouds re-radiate them.
To simplify, one part of solar radiation is reflected and scattered by clouds and
the Earth’s surface, one part is absorbed by the ozone layer and the majority is
absorbed by the Earth’s surface.
Incoming radiation
Transfer of heat can also be realised by the process of conduction. This means
that heat travels between the particles of the material in question via collision
For example, conduction can be observed in the wall of a ceramic stove. The
two objects, stove and surrounding air, are contacted; therefore, heat
transfers from the latter to the former. In the atmosphere, the surface of the
Earth and the atmosphere are in contact. During the day, the air is warmed by
the ground via conduction. At night, the surface cools faster than the air.
Because of this, conduction cools the air from the ground to higher levels of
the atmosphere, leading to inversion.
Turbulent heat transfer (or sensible heat flux) is a type of heat exchange in
which the temperature of a system changes, but other conditions such as
volume or pressure remains unchanged. In a turbulent flow, the heat exchange
is enhanced by the complexity of motions within it. The opposite of a
turbulent flow is a laminar flow in which the substance flows in smooth layers.
In a turbulent flow, more particles can interact with each other and so the
exchange is more efficient than in laminar flow. A turbulent flow is a quickly
changing air flow with small scale vortices in which the speed of the flow
changes continuously in both magnitude and direction. A vortex is the flow of
air which revolves around a horizontally or vertically directed axis. The
development of turbulent flows depends on the ratio of frictional forces to
inertial forces close to the surface. Surface friction and thermal effects cause
turbulence in the friction layer where frictional force cannot be considered
negligible. In other words, it has a significant effect on the movement of the
air. The friction layer is sometimes called the turbulent layer because of the
turbulent mixing typical in it. It can be found in the lowest part of the
troposphere. The thickness of this layer changes over time. During the day ,
convective motions help to increase its thickness to the rage of 3 300 ft and
6 600 ft (ca. 1 km and 2 km), and at night it decreases to a few hundred feet. In
this case, heat exchange happens by interaction of two air masses with
different temperature.
• Absorptivity
• Emissivity
• Transmissivity
• Reflectivity
a + g + t = 1
For example, in the case of the blackbody, a=l, p=0 and t=0, while in the case
of a perfect atmospheric window, a=0, p=0 and t=1.
Note: Watt (abbreviated as W) is the energy per unit time (1 W is equal to 1 J/s;
therefore, 1 kW is equal to 1 kJ/s).
The previously mentioned relationships are established by the following
physical laws. In connection with (a), according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law,
formulated by Slovene physicist Josef Stefan and Austrian physicist Ludwig
Boltzmann, the emitted energy (denoted by E) is proportional to the fourth
power of the temperature (denoted by T):
E = <zT4
(1.5)
/A'max —
— —
t
250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
wavelength (nm)
On the y axis, irradiance is expressed as energy reaching a unit area per unit
time per one nm. Its SI derived unit is W/(m2nm). The yellow-shaded area
refers to the emitted radiation by the Sun at the top of the atmosphere, while
the red-shaded area is the solar radiance reaching the surface of the Earth at
sea level. The latter is smaller than the former, because of the absorptivity and
reflectivity of atmospheric components and clouds, such as absorption bands
of the atmospheric gases. The black curve refers to a theoretical case: it is the
emitted radiation of the blackbody with the temperature of 5 400 K.
. _ 2900 ^mK _
A max, Earth 288 K 10. 07
Radiation differs from the other processes that facilitate the transfer of heat in
the following sense: the transfer of heat through radiation does not require
any matter (in other words, medium) in which the EM waves propagate, while
conduction, convection and condensation can be implemented only in some
kind of matter. This means that radiation can be observed not only in the
Earth’s atmosphere but also in a vacuum, which is necessary for the transfer of
heat from the Sun to the Earth through outer space.
Temperature [°C]
When the Sun starts to heat the surface, the inversion layer begins to rise
from the ground level. The surface heats the air above the ground in the
friction layer, and convection helps to mix the air. Above the friction layer,
cold and dry air can be found. Its temperature increases as altitude increases.
The density of the colder air is greater than that of warmer air, causing stable
stratification in the atmosphere. Under these circumstances convection is
prevented, and therefore mixing of the air parcels with different temperature
is limited. Only strong convection can penetrate into this layer.
Valley inversion occurs when dense, cold air flows down a slope into a valley
at night where it starts to accumulate. During the day, a light wind carrying
warmer air with lower density will blowin above the cold air, thus avoiding the
mixing of air parcels with different temperatures. Therefore, it cannot
interrupt the valley inversion, so the cold air remains in the bottom of the
valley until strong wind or strong insolation dissolve it.
Coastal inversion (in other words, advection inversion) develops at night when
warmer air above the surface of sea or ocean is flowing over the coast. The
surface of the coast has a lower specific heat than water, hence the former is
colder than the latter and an inversion layer develops.
Frontal inversion occurs when a cold front near the surface moves faster than
in higher levels and wedges itself under the warmer air mass creating an
inversion.
In winter, every type of inversion can lead to freezing rain if warmer air
contains the liquid form of precipitation above the inversion layer, which then
falls through the colder air with temperatures under 0 °C.
Cold air pool occurs when the fog created by radiation inversion cannot break
up in the day and lasts for days or weeks. This is common in valleys and basins
in winter (for example, in the Carpathian Basin). For a termination of a cold air
pool, an intense cold front or the advection of warm air is required. (An
example can be found in the figure below).
2. It revolves around the Sun in a nearly circular orbit, called the plane of
the ecliptic, or just the ecliptic. It is parallel to the equatorial plane of the
Sun.
One revolution on its axis takes the Earth one day (about 24 hours) and one
full revolution around the Sun lasts one year (approx. 365 days).
The Earth’s rotation on its axis leads to diurnal variations of air temperature,
while the Earth’s revolution around the Sun causes seasonal variations in air
temperature.
First, seasonal changes in air temperatures will be explained. The Earth’s axis
always points in almost the same direction as it moves around the Sun.
However, the elevation of the Sun (or altitude of the Sun) over a certain (fixed)
point of the Earth's surface changes from day to day because the Earth’s
rotation axis is not perpendicular to the ecliptic (see the figure below). As a
result, a different part of the Earth’s surface is always receiving the largest
amount of solar radiation during the year, which leads to the changing of
seasons and seasonal variations of air temperature.
Note: The altitude of the Sun varies with geographic latitude as well, because of
the nearly-spheroid shape of the Earth. The angle of incidence of the Sun on the
surface of the Earth decreases as the latitude increases (see Figure 1.23).
There are four notable turning points of the year, namely the summer and
winter solstices, and the spring (or vernal) and autumn equinoxes. The summer
(winter) solstice occurs when the elevation of the Sun is the highest (lowest).
During the summer (winter) solstice, days (nights) are the longest of the year.
The equinoxes occur twice a year when day and night have the same length
(aequinoctium, Latin for 'equal night1). After the spring (autumn) equinox, the
length of days (nights) increases (decreases). Notable turning points are shown
in the figure below.
Equator
Ecliptic \
Summer solstice
Winter solstice
21ItJune
21” December
Sun over 23.5’N
Sun over 23.5’S
(Tropic of cancer)
(Tropic of capricorn)
Earth s
Autumn equinox
23,d September
Sun over the equator
Note: The orbit of the Earth is not so elongated. It is closer to a perfect circle.
Figure 1.23. Angle of incidence of the Sun
The elevation of the Sun, and therefore the duration of the insolation,
depends on the changing of seasons. The amount of incoming solar radiation
increases as the elevation of the Sun increases above any point of the Earth's
surface. A sketch of the elevation of the Sun over mid-latitudes can be seen in
the figure below.
5d/j/1>3 un iim East an iha
wtosafaiEa Sun/baaniijawiunMwJ
mid ’Jamul d'julnvzds
Figure 1.24. Elevation of the Sun (or the path of the Sun in the sky) over mid
latitudes
The point of zenith (nadir) is the overhead point of the sky in the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere.
The air temperature above the surface is affected by two main factors: heat
capacity and colour of the surface. Heat absorption and emission by a surface
can be characterised by the physical quantity of heat capacity. It is the amount
of heat that is required to increase the temperature of a substance by 1 °C.
The heat capacity of a unit mass of a substance is called its specific heat
capacity (henceforth: specific heat). Surfaces with faster (slower) warming and
cooling processes have lower (higher) specific heats.
Let us consider some examples. In general, land surfaces have lower specific
heat than sea surfaces. This means that sea surfaces warm and cool more
slowly than land surfaces. As a consequence of the higher specific heat, air
temperature is higher over sea surfaces than land surfaces during the winter
and lower during the summer, because sea surfaces do not have enough time
to warm up and cool down the way land surfaces do. Because of this, on a
diurnal and seasonal timescale, air temperature varies at a lower rate over sea
surfaces than land surfaces.
2. At night, at a given point in time, surfaces with lower (higher) specific heat
are colder (warmer) than surfaces with higher specific heat.
Because of the Earth’s rotation, days and nights follow each other. Generally,
diurnal variation of the air temperature can be described as follows. Let us
assume a clear sky and calm wind. Solar radiation reaches the Earth after the
Sun rises. The amount of insolation rises until local noon (12 p.m.) when the
elevation of the Sun is the highest. In general, air temperature rises with
increasing elevation of the Sun. Because of the thermal inertia in the
atmosphere, the air temperature starts to increase after sunrise with some
delay and reaches its maximum value after local noon, between 2 p.m. and
4 p.m. (see figure below). Then, the air temperature starts to decrease and
speeds up after sunset. The minimum temperature is reached half an hour
after sunrise. The previously established conditions of a clear sky and calm
wind imply that the temperature of the air contacting the Earth's surface is
lower than the temperature of the atmosphere just above it, which leads to
inversion.
sunrise sunset
Note: Among others, humidity of the air, clouds, wind, vegetation and orography
have major influences on the diurnal variation of air temperature.
Concerning the influence of clouds on air temperature, reflection and
absorption can be examined. Darker surfaces absorb larger amounts of heat
than lighter surfaces. Therefore, the former reflects smaller amount of heat
than the latter.
Like wind and the amount of liquid water in a material, clouds also contribute
to a decreasing diurnal variation of air temperature. From this aspect, the
thickness of a cloud is crucial. The thicker a cloud is, the darker the colour in
its lower section, because of the increased amount of water droplets there. In
the day, thicker clouds cools the surface of the Earth because they reflect
larger amounts of incoming solar radiation. Note that the upper parts of those
clouds, which receive incoming solar radiation, are white because of ice
particles. Increased reflectivity means that smaller amounts of solar radiation
reach the surface of the ground, causing near-surface air temperatures to
increase more slowly. However, at night, thicker clouds can contribute to the
warming of the surface of the Earth. They can serve as "boundaries" which
prevent terrestrial radiation from leaving the atmosphere and reaching outer
space. After absorbing terrestrial radiation, cloud particles re-radiate them
uniformly in all directions, a part of which reaches the surface of the ground.
Therefore, air temperatures decrease more slowly.
The ratio of liquid water to ice is greater in lower clouds than in higher clouds,
so the former absorbs more heat than the latter. In other words, high clouds
reflect more radiation than low clouds. Thin clouds can be found at various
altitudes. The amount of ice particles increases as height increases; therefore,
a thin cloud at a lower altitude can be a better absorber than a thin cloud at a
higher altitude. Thick clouds are often convective clouds. Because of its large
vertical dimensions, the ratio of liquid water to ice is greater in the lower
portion of a thick cloud than closer to its top. As a result, outgoing longwave
radiation can be absorbed by the lower part of the cloud while incoming solar
radiation can be reflected off the top.
Regarding wind, two main effects are described on the cooling and warming of
the air near the Earth's surface. First, wind turbulently mixes colder air just
above the surface with warmer air. Therefore, wind can decrease the diurnal
variation of the air temperature. Second, wind increases temperature
differences between the surface and the air near the surface because of the
following reason. Let us assume a surface with a constant temperature. If the
wind is calm then a certain amount of heat transfers vertically from the
surface to the air. However, if the wind is blowing, which is the horizontal
movement of the air, then heat is also flowing horizontally. Therefore, a
smaller amount of heat can be transferred vertically from the surface to the
air.
Humidity can also start to evaporate from the Earth's surface, which
decreases the diurnal variation of the air temperature because of the
following. During the day, evaporation cools the air, so the volume fraction of
water vapour in the air increases. During the night, increased levels of water
vapour re-radiate a part of the terrestrial radiation, which slows down the
cooling of the air. (Remember that water vapour is a GHG.)
Diurnal variation decreases above surfaces with high specific heats such as
humid surfaces. For example, sea water has a high specific heat, so air
temperatures over sea surfaces vary little during the day. The greatest diurnal
variations of air temperature can be observed above desert areas at high
altitudes for the following reasons. First, deserts consist of sand, which has a
low specific heat capacity; therefore, its temperatures change very fast. (In
other words, sand is a poor conductor in the thermal sense.) Second, air above
high altitudes contains smaller amounts of water than air near the surface. In
general, the thermal conductivity of a material increases with increasing
amounts of humidity. Along mid-latitudes, the diurnal variation of air
temperatures is typically within ± 6 °C from the mean temperature.
Astronomical reasons, namely the effect of the Earth’s orbit and rotation on
the horizontal distribution of air temperature, will be explained on timescales
of thousands of years. After that, terms related to heat capacity and colour of
the material will be explained in more detail.
The focuses of an ellipse are the same distance from the centre. Eccentricity is
the ratio of the distance between the centre and one focus (denoted by c), and
half of the major axis (denoted by a). In the case of the circle, the centre
coincides with the focuses; therefore c=0, that is e=0.
The Earth’s orbit has a shape close to a circle. Its eccentricity is about 0.01.
Consequently, the distance between the Sun and the Earth changes slightly
during the year. The Earth is closer to the Sun in January than in July.
Therefore, larger amounts of solar radiation can be measured during the
summer over the Southern Hemisphere than over the Northern Hemisphere.
However, the Earth moves faster in perihelion (closest to the Sun) than in
aphelion (farthest from the Sun), so the summer (winter) in the Southern
(Northern) Hemisphere is slightly longer than in the Northern (Southern)
Hemisphere. Because of the above, the variation in air temperature is not
connected to the eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit on a seasonal timescale. The
Earth’s eccentricity varies between 0.003-0.05 on a timescale of hundreds of
thousands of years. Larger eccentricities mean larger differences between the
amount of radiation in perihelion and aphelion.
As we have mentioned, the Earth revolves around the Sun on the plane of the
ecliptic and rotates on its own axis. The non-zero angle between the ecliptic
plane and the Earth’s equatorial plane leads to seasonal variation in air
temperature. This is to say, the Earth’ axis is not perpendicular to the plane of
the ecliptic (see the figure below). We have also stated that the Earth’s
rotation leads to diurnal variations in air temperature.
Plane of equator
Plane of ecliptic
Figure 1.27. Earth’s orbital elements (equatorial plane, ecliptic plane, axis)
If the plane of ecliptic and the Earth’s equatorial plane were parallel to each
other, then the Earth’s axis would be perpendicular to those two planes
respectively and the amount of solar radiation would be the same throughout
the year at any given latitude. However, the Earth’s rotation axis is not
perpendicular to the Sun’s equatorial plane; the deviation of the axis from the
equatorial plane at 90° is 23.5° at the present time. This angle is called the
axial tilt. The sides of the angle of axial tilt are perpendicular to the sides of
the angle between the ecliptic and equatorial planes. Therefore, the angle
between those two planes is 23.5° as well. Incoming radiation from the Sun
reaches its maximum intensity when the beams of the radiation are
perpendicular to the surface. Because of the non-zero axial tilt and the orbital
movement of the Earth, the zone with maximum intensity on the surface of
the Earth changes during the year. This means that in a rotating reference
system fixed to the Earth, at a given point of the surface, the elevation of the
Sun also varies during the year. For a given latitude (denoted by 4>) the
maximum value of the altitude of the Sun can be calculated as 90°-cp. For
example, over to the poles the Sun seems to circle around the horizon during
the year, while over the Equator the Sun can reach elevations as high as 90°,
which means that incoming solar radiation is perpendicular to the surface.
Over middle-latitudes like Prague, Czech Republic at cf>=50°, the elevation of
the Sun cannot exceed 40°.
To summarise, if the axial tilt were 0° then the radiation with the maximum
intensity would reach the Earth on the Equator. The value of the axial tilt
varies between 22.1° and 24.5° on a timescale of tens of thousands of years.
Due to greater (lesser) axial tilt, the radiation with the maximum intensity
reaches the surface of the Earth farther from (closer to) the Equator.
The Earth makes a full rotation on its axis in about one day (more precisely 23
hours and 56 minutes), which causes the diurnal variation of the air
temperature. If the axial tilt were 0° then duration of insolation would be
about 12 hours uniformly on the Earth’s surface. Because of the non-zero axial
tilt, the duration of insolation varies with season, and so air temperature
changes with geographical latitude on a diurnal timescale.
Note: In this sense of the word 1 K is equal to 1 °C. More precisely, to change the
temperature of a material with 1 K is equal to change its temperature with 1 °C.
Not to confuse the above-mentioned with the following, namely if the substance in
question has a temperature of 1 K then it is equal to -272.15 °C.
Warming and cooling processes over surfaces with higher specific heat
capacities take place more slowly than those over surfaces with lower specific
heat capacities. As a side note, measuring the heat capacity of various
materials is the subject of calorimetry.
(1.6)
q = c x AT
(1.7)
q = cs x m x AT
Water vapour has a crucial role in weather processes. We distinguish dry and
humid air by whether or not the air contains water vapour. Specific heat of
humid air is higher than dry air, which means that humid air warms and cools
more slowly than dry air.
The surface of the Earth can be characterised by its albedo as well (from albus,
Latin for 'white'). Darker surfaces such as wet soil and the ocean have lower
albedos than lighter surfaces like sand and ice. The average albedo of the
Earth is called the planetary albedo and its value is 30 %. Darker surfaces have
higher specific heat capacity than lighter surfaces.
Specific heat is expressed in J/(kg K). Note that these are average values that
can vary depending on the amount of water or the age (colour) of the surface.
Equation q = cs x m x AT can be used in the following way in practical
calculations. Let us compute the energy that is required to increase temperature
from 20 °C to 25 °C in dry air and in water with a mass of 10 kg at constant
atmospheric pressure. That is, we intend to calculate q.
AT = 5 °C = 5K
m = 1 kg
Specific heat capacity for dry air at constant atmospheric pressure is about cs air
1001 J/kg K and for water at constant atmospheric pressure is about cs water =
4181 J/kg K, at constant atmospheric pressure at 25 °C.
which means that (about four times) more energy is required to raise the
temperature from 20 °C to 25 °C in the case of water than in dry air with a mass
of 1 kg.
Typical values of specific heat capacity of some materials at constant
atmospheric pressure
STUDY TEST
1.3. Atmospheric pressure
surface
Units besides Pa are also used to measure pressure like millibars (abbreviated
as mbar, 1000 mbar = 1 bar), millimetres of mercury (abbreviated as mmHg),
inches of mercury (abbreviated as inHg), torr (symbol: Torr), standard
atmosphere (symbol: atm), or pounds per square inch (symbol: psi). Note that
bar, inch of mercury, torr and psi are non-SI units. In meteorological practice,
hectopascal (abbreviated as hPa) is the most commonly used unit to measure
air pressure, which is Pa multiplied by 100. Inch of mercury is frequently used
in the United States of America. For further information see Section 10.2.1 in
Chapter 10.
The device which allows us to measure air pressure is called a barometer. Two
prominent types of barometers can be distinguished. Liquid barometers are
made from a vertical tube with some kind of liquid (e.g. water or mercury). The
tube is closed on its top while its lower part is dipping into the liquid in an
open reservoir. The air exerts pressure on the surface of the liquid in the open
reservoir, and consequently the liquid moves up and down in the tube.
Because of this, the height of the liquid column in the tube indicates changes
in air pressure. In a mercury barometer, at standard pressure at sea level
(1013.25 hPa or 1 atm) mercury rises up to 760 mm (29.92 inches).
Aneroid (from Greek, "using no liquid") barometers are empty boxes made
from elastic metals. The walls of the box are distorted through contraction and
expansion because of changes in air pressure. Therefore, it is an efficient
indicator of air pressure changes.
The lines on weather maps that connect the points with the same pressure
normalised to sea level are called isobars. In meteorological practice isobars
are drawn with an average spacing of 2 or 4 hPa on surface weather maps.
Isobars are drawn on surface weather maps (or surface weather charts). This
means that these lines connect points with the same air pressure reduced to
mean sea level (abbreviated as MSL), which is the average level of the surface
of the oceans. Air pressure reduced to MSL is denoted as QFF. Therefore,
isobars on surface weather charts are lines of equal QFF.
Isobars are lines that are one dimensional objects. In the two-dimensional
space, surfaces with the same values of pressure are called isobaric surfaces
(500 hPa surface contains points in the space where air pressure is measured
to be 500 hPa). By analogy, surfaces with the same temperature can be called
isothermic surfaces. In the three-dimensional space layers of the atmosphere
can be considered isobaric, isothermic etc.
Isobars are useful to detect atmospheric low and high pressure systems near
the surface of the Earth, such as cyclones and anticyclones. The most
important atmospheric pressure systems will now be introduced.
We are speaking about a low pressure area or simply "a low" if the air pressure
is lower than its surrounding environment. The air pressure is the lowest in the
centre of the low and it increases as we move away from its centre
horizontally. A high pressure area or "a high" is an area where the air pressure
at the surface is higher compared to its environment. The air pressure is the
highest in the centre of the high and it decreases as we move away from its
centre horizontally.
Large-scale low pressure areas are called troughs. These are elongated, V-
shaped phenomena that can be thought of as atmospheric "pressure valleys".
If the air pressure in the centre of the low decreases (increases), then it is
intensifying or deepening (filling or weakening). Cyclones and frontal zones
may be associated with troughs.
Cyclones and depressions are low pressure areas with almost circular, closed
isobars. The lowest air pressure is to be measured in its centre. A cyclone
contains different types of weather fronts (e.g. a warm and cold front).
Anticyclones with closed but not very circular isobars are found at in areas
with ridges.
Troughs and cyclones are considered lows, and ridges (or wedges) and
anticyclones are considered highs. The words trough and cyclone cannot be
used interchangeably. The same is true for the words ridge (or wedge) and
anticyclone.
The area between two ridges and two troughs is called a col (or saddle). The
weather of a col is affected by the surrounding pressure systems. Generally
speaking, in winter inversion and fog and in summer thunderstorms often
occur in the area of a col.
In the figure above, only one low pressure area and one high pressure area can
be seen, noted as trough and ridge respectively. The trough on the right-hand
side of the figure is an elongated, V-shaped area, compared to the low
pressure area on the left-hand side of the figure, which might be a cyclone or
another type of depression.
In cyclones, the wind blows inward towards the centre near the surface of the
ground where the air converges and starts to ascend, or rise. If the air contains
water vapour then it forms clouds above the level of condensation, which can
lead to precipitation and poor visibility. Otherwise, visibility is good due to the
ascending air. Then, the air diverges aloft which means that the air flows out
from the centre of the cyclone. Precipitation can be experienced with
different intensity (e.g. light to moderate rain or heavy showers) depending on
the type of the front. As the cyclone intensifies (deepens), the isobars become
closer to each other, leading to stronger winds.
On the contrary, in anticyclones the wind blows outward from the centre. The
air converges aloft then starts to descend, or subside, where it diverges. The
descending movement of the air works against cloud formation and
precipitation, resulting in a clear sky. However, because the air warms while it
descends, inversion can be developed. It leads to fog in winter and haze in
summer, which reduces visibility. Similarly to cyclones, the isobars become
closer to each other as the anticyclone intensifies. Because of this, light to
strong winds and wind gusts can occur. In general, isobars are more widely-
spaced in anticyclones than in cyclones.
The direction of the air flow depends on the hemisphere. The flow around the
centre of a cyclone is anticlockwise and around the centre of an anticyclone is
clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. The opposite is true in the Southern
Hemisphere because of the forces acting on the flow. Flow around the centres
of cyclones and anticyclones can be seen in the figure below.
Figure 1.31. Air flow in cyclones (A) and anticyclones (B) in the Northern
Hemisphere
Note: The direction of the rotational movement depends on the hemisphere.
First law: In the inertial reference frame, without any force, the object remains
at rest or moving along a linear path with a constant velocity.
Second law: Assuming an object in the inertial reference frame, the vector
sum of the forces (denoted by F —>) is proportional to the acceleration
(denoted by a —»). The proportionality factor is the mass (denoted by m).
(1.8)
F = ma
Third law: In the inertial reference frame, if an object (a) exerts a force Fa on
another object (b), then (b) simultaneously exerts a force Fb on (a), which has
equal magnitude but opposite direction, that is:
Fa = — FbandFa = Fb
(1.9)
_ F ma
P — A ~ A
_ lks] x [7]
[m2]
__ [kg]
[m] x [s2]
Note: Pressure is not a vector but a scalar quantity, meaning it does not have any
direction. Consequently, pressure acts in every direction in the air. After multiplying
pressure with the normal vector 7i, we can use the word "direction" regarding
pressure.
force is called the weight (denoted by Fg) of the air column. The acceleration
of the object (i.e. air parcel) caused by the gravitational force is the
gravitational acceleration (denoted by g ). Its SI unit is m/s2. Because of this,
the weight of the air column with a mass of m can be described as follows:
(1.10)
Fg = mg
Position vectors ri and 12 point from the centre of the inertial reference
frame to the centre of the objects, respectively. Note that the centre of the
inertial reference frame has zero acceleration which means that it remains at
rest or it moves along a linear path with a constant velocity according to
Newton’s first law. According to Newton's law of universal gravitation, the
mjin, r2 ~ rj,
F
■rgaj \ 2 r2 - rx
-- >
The force, denoted by Fga2, exerted by the object with mass m2 on the object
with mass mi can be described as:
-- > mim2 ri ~ r2
F
rga2 = 7 X
ri - r2\) 2 ri - r2
The direction of the difference of the two position vectors and the directions
—
of F ga and Fga can be seen in the figure below and Figure 1.33.
object with mass rrh
centre of the
reference frame
centre of the
reference frame
Note: The description of force in the formulas above are in accordance with
Newton’s third law, which says:
r gal ri2
m1m2
r?
(1.11)
Fga, = m2 g
The equation above describes the weight of the object with mass m2 based
on the gravitational force of the object with mass mi.
We can calculate the magnitude of "g of an air parcel just above the Earth’s
surface from Equation 1.11 as follows:
(1.12)
In this case r is the Earth’s mean radius, which is about 6371 km and mi is the
Earth’s mass, which is ca. 6 x 1024 kg. Therefore:
6 x 1024 kg
g = 6. 67 x KT11 x
kg2 (6371000 m)2
m
kg
7
= 9.86 = 9.86 ^7
kg s2
The pressure of the air column on the unit area A can be expressed with
density q and height h of the air column instead of mass m. If density is
constant then it can be expressed as the mass [kg] of a material per unit
volume V [m3], that is:
(1.14)
m
P = V
To replace mass with density after rearranging the formula above, the right
hand side of Equation 1.13 must be multiplied by volume V. The product of
the area A and the height of the air column h is equal to the volume V;
therefore, h can be substituted into Equation 1.13 in the following way:
(1.15)
mg QgV ,
p = — = — = psh
If we consider a column filled with liquid, the pressure at the depth of h is the
sum of the atmospheric pressure and the product in the equation above.
However, in some cases we cannot disregard the fact that density and
gravitational acceleration vary with height h.
which means that the weight of a mercury column with the height of 0.76 m
equals the weight of an air column with the same cross-section.
Note: The standard air pressure at mean sea level is 1013.25 hPa, according to the
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA).
Measurement of pressure
Air pressure can be measured using various devices, such as liquid barometers,
aneroid barometers and even electronic pressure sensors that can be built into
smartphones (microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) barometers). The
mercury barometer was first constructed in 1643 by Italian physicist
Evangelista Torricelli, a student of Italian physicist, mathematician and
astronomer Galileo Galilei. Torricelli created a tube with the height of one
meter that dips into an open reservoir (see the figure below).
Figure 1.34. The schematic of a mercury barometer
The air pressure acts on the surface of the liquid in the open reservoir. The
liquid in the scaled tube rises (shrinks) as the atmospheric pressure increases
(decreases). The empty space above the mercury inside the tube is called the
Torricellian vacuum. Air pressure values are assigned to the changes of the
height of the liquid column. The air exerts pressure on the surface of the
liquid, and consequently the liquid moves up and down in the tube. Because
of this, the height of the liquid column in the tube indicates the changes in the
atmospheric pressure.
Aneroid barometers do not contain any liquid and are much smaller than liquid
barometers. They are made of an empty box from elastic metals invented by
French physicist Lucien Vidi in 1844. After the air is removed from the box,
the air pressure outside the box is compensated with springs. The walls of the
box undergo extraction (contraction) with the intensification of a low (high)
pressure area; that is to say, the distortion indicates the current weather
conditions.
Note: Aneroid barometers are served as parts of altimeters which are applied on
board of aircraft, with their static port connected to the outside.
A pointer and a scale are connected to the barometer, so the value of air
pressure can be easily read.
Functioning mercury and aneroid barometers can be seen in the figure below.
Thermometer and barometer Aneroid barometer
Regarding the aneroid barometer, air pressure is given in mmHg as well as hPa.
Both of the barometers have scales that indicate the most likely weather
conditions associated with the measured air pressure.
The barometric lapse rate is not constant in the atmosphere. It depends on the
height and the air temperature as follows. Decreases in air pressure slow
down as height increases, so the decrease in air pressure is lower at higher
levels in the atmosphere than at lower levels.
The rate of decrease also depends on the air temperature. Air pressure falls
more rapidly in cold air than in warm air because the distance between the air
parcels (more precisely gas molecules) in cold air is less than in warm air. To
visualise it, imagine two air columns between pressure p^ and p2 with colder
and warmer air, with the same amount of air parcels, respectively. In the
colder air column air parcels are closer to each other than in the warmer air
column, and therefore the height of the cold air column is less than the height
of latter as is shown in the figure below. Because of this, decreases in air
pressure at the same rate occur within a shorter height in the cold air column
than in the warm air column.
The warmer air column is taller than the colder air column containing the same
amount of air parcels because the distance between air parcels in the warmer
air column is greater than in the colder air column.
In practical calculations the following barometric lapse rates are used. Near
mean sea level it is considered (in absolute value) 27 ft (8 m) per 1 hPa and
above 18 000 ft (5 500 m) it is considered 50 ft (15 m) per 1 hPa.
Height in the troposphere Barometric lapse rate
30000 ft (9150 m) AMSL - 40000 ft (12190 m) AMSL 100 ft (30 m)/ 1 hPa
After being sealed at 14000 ft (4267 m), the bottle was taken down to
9 000 ft (2 743 m) and then to 1000 ft (305 m).
To calculate air pressure (p) at a given height (h) in the troposphere, the
following formula is suitable:
(1.16)
0.0065 - xh
m
p hPa = 1013.25 hPa 1 288.15 K
where 1013.25 hPa is the mean sea level pressure and 0.0065 K/m is the
absolute value of the temperature lapse rate in dry air in the troposphere and
the temperature 288.15 K (15 °C) is the air temperature at mean sea level,
according to the ISA.
Applying the equation above, we can calculate the pressure in hPa at a given
altitude (expressed in metres). For example, at the height of 5 250 ft (h
=1600 m), the air pressure (p) is about 836 hPa.
Note that the equation above can be rearranged to calculate height at a given
pressure level as well:
(1.17)
288,15 K p [hPa]
h m 1013.25 hPa
0.0065 -
Using the equation above, we are able to calculate the height in m at a given
pressure level (expressed in hPa). For example, at the pressure level of
700 hPa, the height is about 3010 m. For detailed calculations see
Section 1.5.
Closed curves are isobars which show a high pressure system (such as an
anticyclone) on the bottom of the figure. This means that the maximum air
pressure is measured in the centre.
The height, ormore precisely the geopotential height, is measured from the
mean sea level to the given pressure level. It is expressed in decametres (1
decametre = 10 metres), a unit of geopotential (abbreviated as gpdm or
gpdam). For example, if an isohypse has a value of 550 gpdm at a 500 hPa
surface then that 500 hPa can be measured at a height of 5 500 m (ca.
18044 ft) above mean sea level.
In general, isohypses with high values indicate high pressure and isohypses
with low values indicate low pressure.
Pressure values are computed for 15 °C, according to the ISA. Zero percent
humidity means dry air and air pressure is given in kPa (1 kPa equals 10 hPa).
Note: The function is decreasing, which means that the air pressure decreases as
height increases.
We examine the pressure between levels z and z + Az. The forces that act on
the surfaces at the levels of z and z + Az are £gzA and £g(z + Az)A,
respectively. Their difference is:
Note that a minus sign is required because force points in the direction of the
ground. It is worth mentioning that the magnitude of p(z) A is greater than
p(z + Az)A because pressure decreases with altitude.
Az - £>g
(1.18)
Ap
Az - £>g
Rearranging the equation above we can give the following approximation for
the increase of height (Az) per unit of pressure change (Ap):
Az =
Qg
In Figure 1.37, we can see that a 1 hPa decrease in air pressure means a ca.
8 m gain in height near the surface of the Earth. Let us prove it using the
equation above. For this purpose, air density q, which is difficult to measure,
will be replaced with —according to the ideal gas law where Rj is the gas
RdT
Ap xz RdT
Az = z\
2
Using the following values: p = 1013.25 hPa, Rj = 287 J/kg K, g = 9.81 m/s1
and T = 15 °C = 288.15 K the height increase (Az) per 1 hPa (Ap) is:
(1.19)
dp
dz - £>g
Using the fact that the difference of the logarithms can be expressed as the
logarithm of their quotient, and raising the two sides of equation above to the
power of e:
g
x (z - z0)
RdT
The equation above describes the dependency pressure and can be called the
barometric formula.
(1.20)
gM
/\ ?h \ r7
P = po 1 - zr )
X J-o /
gM
The exponent —— contains the gravitational acceleration g, the molar mass of
R7
dry air M, the ideal gas constant R and the temperature lapse rate of dry air in
the troposphere 7. Let us consider the following values: g = 9.81 m/s2, M =
0.0289 kg/mol, R = 8.314 J/mol K and 7 = 0.0065 K/m. Replacing those
values into the exponent, the result will be the following dimensionless
constant:
9.81 - x 0.0289 —
gM s2 mol
R7 8.314 — x 0.0065 -
molK m
5.246
2
where J = k x — = Nm.
s2
Note that Equation 1.20 is only usable in the troposphere where pressure
variation with height can be considered linear.
On surface weather charts, QFF values are plotted as values of mean sea level
pressure and are connected with isobars usually in the range of 950 hPa and
1050 hPa.
In Figure 1.42 and Figure 1.43 vertical cross sections of the atmosphere are
shown. Assume the following simple cases. If there are no horizontal
differences in the distribution of air temperature then the isobars are parallel
to each other as we can see in section a in Figure 1.42 and Figure 1.43. Low
and high pressure areas can be developed in upper levels of the troposphere
(e.g. at the height of the 500 hPa surface level) without any effect on the
surface (section b in Figure 1.42 and Figure 1.43). These are called upper-level
lows and upper-level highs, respectively. There are cases, when low and high
pressure areas are identified near the surface of the ground without any
effects on upper levels (section d in the figure below and Figure 1.43).
However, low and high pressure areas can also effect both lower and upper
levels of the troposphere, which can be called cold core lows and warm core
highs (section c in the figure below and Figure 1.43).
Figure 1.42. Cross section of the atmosphere regarding low pressure areas
a. Parallel isobars
b. Upper-level low
Figure 1.43. Cross section of the atmosphere regarding high pressure areas
a. Parallel isobars
b. Upper-level high
We should mention two special cases (see the figure below). A warm core low
can be identified if a low pressure area develops near the surface of the
ground and a high pressure area is detectable at a higher level in the
troposphere. On the contrary, if a high pressure area develops near the
surface of the ground and a low pressure area is detectable at higher level in
the troposphere then we are speaking about a cold core high.
Figure 1.44. Cross section of the atmosphere. Warm core low (section a) and
cold core high (section b)
STUDY TEST
1.4. Air density
Air temperature, air pressure and air density mutually effect each other. If we
consider the air as an ideal gas, then the relationship between temperature,
pressure and density can be described by the gas laws as follows. Assume that
the number of air parcels is constant:
ii. If the volume is constant, then the quotient of pressure and temperature
is constant
iii. If the pressure is constant, then the quotient of volume and temperature
is constant
We can combine those three statements (i-iii) into one law. It states that the
product of pressure and volume is directly proportional to the temperature.
Density can be substituted into the general gas law. Hereby, density will be
directly proportional to pressure and inversely proportional to temperature.
According to the general gas law, we can say that high pressure and low
temperature lead to the greatest air density. Furthermore, at a given height, air
density is greater in cold air than in warm air.
To define ideal gas in more detail, we introduce the term mole, which
measures the amount of a chemical substance. Its symbol is n. The mole is an
SI unit denoted by mol. One mole of a substance contains 6.022 x 1023
particles. For example oxygen has the atomic mass number 16. This means
that 16 g of oxygen contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms. The constant 6.022 xlO23
1/mol has the symbol Na and it is called Avogadro’s constant, named after
Italian scientist Amadeo Avogadro . The International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) defines an ideal gas as follows: one mole of an
ideal gas has a volume of 0.0224 m3 at a temperature of 273.15 K and 105 Pa
(1000 hPa). Note that previously the value of pressure was 1013.25 hPa,
which is still used by some sources.
—
n
= const,
This is called Avogadro’s law, which will be used to formulate general gas law
below.
(1.21)
pV = const.
This law was first published by Irish physicist and chemist Robert Boyle in
1662.
(1.22)
— = const.
This law was formulated by French physicist and chemist Joseph Louis Gay-
Lussac.
(1.23)
V X
— = const.
This law was described by French scientist Jacques Charles in the 1780s but
he did not publish it. It was formulated again by Gay-Lussac in 1802.
The combined gas law describes the above-mentioned three laws as follows:
(1.24)
pV
const.
The curves that connect the points with the same temperature, volume and
pressure are called isotherms (A), isochors (B) and isobars (C), respectively.
Let us consider the same chemical substance under two different sets of
conditions regarding pressure, volume and temperature, denoted by lower
indices 1 and 2. Then, laws in Equation 1.21 - Equation 1.24 can be described
as:
P1V1 = P2V2
(1.25)
Pl _ _P£
Ti “ T2
Vi = V2
Ti T2
P1V1 _ P2V2
Ti ” T2
In accordance with Avogadro’s law, we can formulate the general gas law as
follows. First, Equation 1.25 is multiplied with the quotient of the volume (Vi
and V2) and the amount of chemical substance (ni and 112) according to
Avogadro’s law:
(1.26)
P1V1 P2V2
Tjii! T2n2
P2V2
P1V1
T2n2
x Tini
T)9 2
where —— is the gas constant. If we use the above-listed values of ideal gas
T2n2
(in the case of pressure 1013.25 hPa, which equals 1013.25 Nm2), then we
can determine the value of the ideal gas constant (denoted by R) as follows
(remember that 1 Nm equals to 1 joule and 1 N/m2 equals to 1 Pa):
Removing the lower index 1, the general gas law can be described as:
(1.27)
pV = nRT
According to equation above, the product of pressure and volume is directly
proportional to the temperature.
Density can be substituted into the equation above in the following way. The
amount of chemical substance is the quotient of the mass of the chemical
substance (in other words, the mass of the sample), denoted by m and the
molar mass of the chemical substance, denoted by M. Because of this, the
equation above can be reformulated as:
P V = 77 RT
1 M
m = 77
P- M RT
V ?
where — is the specific volume with the symbol of a and the SI unit of nrr/kg,
so:
(1.28)
pa = 77 T
1 M
R
The quotient — is called the specific gas constant. It depends on the molar
mass of the gas which is examined. For example, the specific gas constant of
dry air and water vapour (denoted by Rj and Rw) can be calculated as follows.
The molar mass of dry air and water vapour (denoted by Mj and Mw) is
approximately 29 x 10’3 kg/mol and 18 x 10'3 kg/mol. Note that dry air is a
mixture of various gases, while water is a compound in which the elements
have fixed ratios. Thus,
8.314 ——
__ R __ mol K 287
d “ M? “ 29 x IO’3 i ~
mol
and
8.314 ——
Rw = -5- = ------- ~ 462 -2-
Mw 18 x 10-3 22. kg K
mol
(1.29)
111
<? = V
(1.30)
2 = R*T
Note that according to the Equation 1.29, air density is constant in time and
space. However, in the atmosphere air density depends on time and space; in
other words, density varies with height and its horizontal distribution is also
not homogeneous. For example, in a Cartesian coordinate system where
independent coordinates are x, y, z and t, density can be described as
^(x, y, z, t). In the following section, the relationship between height and
air density will be explained.
In normal atmospheric conditions, air temperature, air pressure and air density
decrease as height increases. In Section 1.3.1 we saw that the number of air
parcels decreases as height increases. Because of this, the total mass of air
parcels decreases with increasing height. By definition, at a constant volume
density decreases as mass decreases; therefore, air density decreases with
increasing height.
We have written above that air temperature and air density decrease as height
increases. This seems to be in contradiction with the gas law that states that
air density increases (and volume decreases) with decreasing air temperature.
However, the law is only valid at a constant pressure, which is not the case
here.
Air density decreases with height nonlinearly, as the decrease in the lower
layers is greater than at higher altitudes. At around 20 000 ft (ca. 6 km), air
density is half of the mean sea level value and air density is approximately a
quarter of the mean sea level value at 40000 ft (ca. 12 km).
Density altitude increases as air density decreases. Based on the general gas
law, this means that density altitude increases as air pressure decreases and
air temperature increases. Density altitude also increases as humidity in the air
increases, because humid air is less dense than dry air at a constant volume.
During takeoff, growing speed is required in warm air with low air pressure,
which increases the need for runway. This leads to growing fuel consumption.
Air density depends on air temperature and air pressure. Because of this,
changes in air density also effect aviation. In accordance with the general gas
law, when the air warms then it becomes less dense. Furthermore, air density
increases with increasing air pressure. So, in less dense air the needed for
runway increases. At a constant air temperature, air pressure and volume,
humid air is less dense than dry air. Therefore, the performance of an airplane
decreases as the humidity of the air increases.
Note: The highest civilian aerodrome is located in the region of the Tibetan plateau
at a height of 4411 m (14472 ft).
During flight, if the air temperature and humidity of the air increases, then the
lift of the plane may decrease, which also leads to increased fuel consumption.
STUDY TEST
1.5. ICAO Standard Atmosphere
(ISA)
The temperature deviation from the standard value at a given altitude can be
positive or negative under real conditions. For example, in an inversion
situation the standard decreasing lapse rate turns into increasing lapse rate or
the layer will be isotherm with a lapse rate of 0 °C.
Altitude can also be given in pressure levels. These are always rounded to
integer values. Therefore, 1013 hPa was given at the altitude of 0 m instead of
1013.25 hPa, the mean sea level pressure according to the ISA.
Note: Air density is approximately half of the mean sea level value at 20 000 ft and
approximately a quarter of the mean sea level value at 40 000 ft.
The ISA atmospheric pressure levels, flight levels and the corresponding altitudes and air densities from highest
altitude to ground level
Pressure level
Flight level Altitude in feet Altitude in metres Air density in kg/m’
in hectopascals
Please keep in mind that a specific pressure level based on a given height and
a specific height based on a given pressure level can be approximated by using
Equation 1.16 and Equation 1.17 in Section 1.3. Detailed calculations can be
found later in this chapter.
Deviation from the ISA is marked with ISA- or ISA+ whether or not the
measured value of the atmosphere is below or above the value of the ISA. For
example, ISA+4 means that the observed temperature at mean sea level is
19 °C because it is 4 °C above the value of the ISA standard temperature at
mean sea level, which is 15 °C.
In accordance with Figure 1.46, the following temperature lapse rates are
used in the ISA. Air temperature decreases at a rate of 1.98 °C per 1000 ft.
Above the top of the troposphere at 11000 m (ca. 36 090 ft), air temperature
remains constant up to 20000 m (ca. 65 617 ft). From this altitude, air
temperature increases slightly again at a rate of 0.3 °C per 1000 ft up to the
standard altitude of the stratopause.
Flight levels
As can be seen in Figure 1.47, pressure levels correspond to different
altitudes. In conjunction with this, we introduce the concept of flight levels
(abbreviated as FL). Flight levels are based on the datum pressure of
1013.25 hPa, the mean sea level pressure in the ISA. Flight level is expressed
in units of distance (feet or metres) and its value is the vertical distance from
1013.25 hPa, considering the ISA temperature conditions throughout the
layer. The goal of using flight levels is having a convention to determine
aircrafts' levels compared to each other with the same reference pressure and
thus the same deviation. There are distinct flight levels that are separated
from each other by specific pressure intervals.
Flight levels are given by their acronyms, FL and with a two or three-digit
number which expresses pressure altitude in units of hundred feet. There is a
minimum distance between flight levels of 500 ft at lower levels and 1000 ft
at higher levels. For example, 500 hPa is equivalent to 18 000 ft. Therefore,
the corresponding flight level is FL180.
STUDY TEST
1.6. Altimetry
True height (or absolute altitude) is the real distance beneath the aircraft to
the ground. Indicated altitude (for example, the flight level) is only the same as
true altitude if the temperature and pressure conditions are equal to the ISA
conditions. Note that altitude measured by an altimeter is called the indicated
altitude. Because of its definition, flight level is not equal to true altitude,
which is the actual altitude of the aircraft above the mean sea level. If a given
flight level descends (ascends), it means that the pressure is decreasing
(increasing) at the given height. If the temperature is warmer than the ISA,
then the true altitude is higher than the indicated altitude. If the temperature
is colder than the ISA, then the true altitude is lower than the indicated
altitude (see the figure below).
Figure 1.49. Effects of deviations from the ISA air temperature and pressure
on true altitude
1.6.2. Altimeter settings
As we mentioned in Section 1.5, an altimeter is an instrument used to
determine the vertical location of the aircraft, which indicates the approximate
distance between two pressure surfaces. The altimeter's ability to indicate
altitude is based on the fact that pressure decreases with altitude. Altitude is
calculated using air pressure, according to the barometric formula. In the
altimeter, there is an aneroid capsule with a specific air pressure that measures
the static pressure surrounding the aircraft. The box expands and contracts
depending on the aspect ratio of the external and internal air pressures (in
other words, the altimeter contains an aneroid barometer). With a knob on the
instrument you can set a reference pressure. You can choose different
reference pressure types (see below). Therefore, the altimeter indicates the
vertical difference between the pressure level surrounding the aircraft and the
reference pressure set in the altimeter reference window. If external pressure
decreases (increases) when altitude of aircraft is increasing (decreasing), then
the box expands (contracts). If we attach an indicator and scale to the box, we
can measure the altitude.
Altimeter setting refers to the value set on the altimeter subscale. To have
standard values, the following types of air pressure "Q codes" settings were
introduced. Q codes are three letter codes all starting with the letter Q, which
originated in radiotelegraph communication. The letter Q has no set meaning,
but sometimes meaning is assigned to it, as we can see below.
QFF is QFE reduced to mean sea level with regards to the actual outside air
temperature (abbreviated as OAT). If the air temperature is standard (in
accordance with the ISA) then the QFF is equal to the QNH. If the
temperature is colder than the ISA, then the QFF will be higher than the QNH
due to an increase in the molecule number between the QFE level and the
mean sea level. If the temperature is warmer than the ISA, then the QFF will
be lower than the QNH (table below).
Note: QFF is introduced only for meteorological purposes. It is not used to measure
altitude. QNH, QFE and QFF can have the same value only at an airport at MSL
and this is true not just in the ISA conditions.
QNE QNE is the standard altimeter setting when the reference pressure is
1013 hPa. It gives the pressure altitude of the aerodrome and is used in the
case of flight levels to determine altitude. In the case of assigning flight levels,
a pressure level of zero is the ISA standard mean sea level pressure, which is
1013 hPa. This can be at, above or below the real mean sea level, depending
on the actual weather conditions. Thus, the standard altimeter setting
indicates that the value of 1013 hPa is set in the altimeter reference window.
During an instrument approach QNH settings are used. Using QNH as an
altimeter setting is safer closer to the ground, as it is using measured pressure
value as a reference. Standard setting procedure guarantees that when two
aircraft meet each other, they always have the same reference pressure and
thus the same deviation.
Terrain clearance is the height of an aircraft above the highest obstacle i.e.
above the ground level (abbreviated as AGL). There are different types of such
altitudes:
Note: For simplicity's sake, this rule of thumb is used in every calculation at the end
of this chapter.
In practice, pilots read the value of the currently needed correction from a
temperature correction table. The values were calculated for a sea level
aerodrome with a formula using linear approximation for temperature change.
We apply the corrections for the mass of air between the ground and the
indicated altitude if the ground is above the reference pressure surface. The
result will be the difference between the indicated and the true altitude. If the
air mass below the aircraft is warmer than the ISA, the true altitude is higher
than the indicated altitude, and thus we must add the value of the deviation
to the indicated value. When the air mass below the aircraft is colder than the
ISA, the true altitude is lower than indicated, and thus we must subtract the
value of the deviation from the indicated value. This can be a dangerous
situation when flying at low altitudes or over mountains. These low
temperatures are generally measured within the cold season, depending on
the latitude.
The values in the table were calculated assuming that the aerodrome is
located at sea level. The following formula gives a more accurate
approximation of temperature correction values for different heights and for
different temperature deviations from the ISA temperature conditions with a
maximum of 5 % error. It is recommended by the International Civil Aviation
Organization (abbreviated as ICAO).
Temperature
r
correction = H x ---------- ——-----------
273 + t0 - 0.5 Lo (H + Hss)
— taeroc[rome + LoHaerodrome
The taerodrome and Haerodrome are the temperature and the elevation of the
aerodrome, respectively.
The pressure altitude and the true altitude will be equal only when standard
atmospheric conditions exist, i.e. there is no temperature deviation from the
ISA and the pressure at sea level is 1013 hPa.
Note that when maintaining flight levels, you can be sure that your true
altitude is above the minimum safe altitude if the temperature equals or is
warmer than the ISA and if the local QNH is equal to or higher than 1013 hPa.
For calculating the lowest usable flight level for clearing the obstacle, you
must know the highest negative temperature deviation from the ISA and the
lowest value of QNH below 1013 hPa. These conditions will provide the most
dangerous situation, which is a negative ISA temperature deviation and a very
low QNH, which make your true altitude lower than the indicated altitude.
If the aircraft is descending and passing the Transition Level, the pilot must
change the altimeter setting from standard setting (flight level) to the QNH
setting. If the aircraft is in a climb and passing the Transition Level, the pilot
must change from the QNH to the standard,, so calculation of the difference
between the actual QNH and 1013 hPa is required. To calculate the QNH
adjustment, we apply the correction of 27 ft for each 1 hPa difference
between the QNH and 1013 hPa. Thus, if the actual QNH in the area that we
are flying over is lower than 1013 hPa, then the true altitude is lower than the
indicated altitude, and we have to add 27 ft per every hPa difference to have
the indicated altitude after switching from QNH to flight level. If the QNH is
higher than 1013 hPa, the true altitude is higher than the indicated and we
must subtract 27 ft per every hPa of indicated altitude from the QNH setting,
while switching into flight levels. Overall, we can say that changing the
altimeter setting (the reference pressure value) to a lower (higher) reference
value means the indicated altitude will decrease (increase).
Calculations
In the following section, different readings on the altimeter will be calculated
based on changes to the altimeter setting.
During the calculations, the following principles will be taken into account:
b. The value for the barometric lapse rate near mean sea level is 27 ft (8 m)
per 1 hPa (1 inch of pressure change 11000 ft altitude in non-SI unit).
As we have seen before, the QFE setting shows 0 ft at airport level, because
QFE is the measured ground level air pressure at the airport. QNH is the air
pressure converted to mean sea level. When the pilot sets the current QNH
into the altimeter, the indicated altitude will be the elevation of the airport
when on the ground.
Assume that the QFE at an airport is 1000 hPa and the elevation of the
airfield is 984 ft (300 m). The barometric lapse rate near the surface is 27 ft
(8 m) / 1 hPa; therefore, we can calculate the QNH by increasing the altimeter
setting by 1 hPa for each 27 ft (8 m). Consequently, 984 ft / 27 ft/hPa =
36 hPa must be added to the QFE value, so the approximate value of QNH is
1000 hPa + 36 hPa = 1036 hPa. To summarise, QNH can be calculated as the
sum of the QFE and the quotient of the airport elevation (in feet) and 27 ft.
To calculate QFE from QNH, only the elevation of the airfield must be known.
If we know the QNH and the elevation of the airport and we divide the value
of the elevation (given in feet) by 27 ft and subtract this value from the QNH,
we get the QFE.
For example, the elevation of Prague is 1247 ft (ca. 380 m). The QNH is
1000 hPa. We can calculate QFE based on the given data. If the pilot sets the
current QFE into the altimeter setting window, the altimeter will indicate zero
when on the ground. In this case the altimeter indicates the QNH, which is the
elevation of the airport when on the ground. Therefore, the altimeter will
indicate 1247 ft. We need to find out the QFE, which is the altimeter setting
that will cause a reading of 0 ft. When we set a lower value into the altimeter
window, the altimeter indication decreases and vice versa. In this case, we
need to reduce the altimeter indication by 1247 ft, so we must reduce the
altimeter setting value. A 1247 ft-reading reduction means a reference value
change of approximately 1247 ft / 27 ft/hPa = 46 hPa. This must be
subtracted from the QNH, which means that QFE is 1000 hPa - 46 hPa =
954 hPa.
If the local QNH was 980 hPa after changing the altimeter setting to standard
(1013 hPa), the indicated altitude will increase. Doing the following
calculation: 1013 hPa - 980 hPa = 33 hPa, the pressure correction is 33 hPa x
27 ft/hPa = 891 ft. The indicated altitude will increase with this value.
Assume that an airplane is flying at FL040 and changing to QNH 1000 hPa.
Calculate the altimeter indication after the setting change. In this case you
change the setting from 1013 hPa (standard pressure setting) to 1000 hPa.
The difference is 13 hPa. 1 hPa is approximately equal with a 27 ft-change in
altitude. 13 ft multiplied with 27 ft/hPa gives us a result of 351 ft. We have to
subtract this from 4000 ft (FL040). Thus, the result will be 3 649 ft.
Assume that an aeroplane is flying at FL300, the OAT is -60 °C and the
pressure at MSL is 1010 hPa. For calculating the true altitude, we must know
the ISA air temperature for FL300. In the ISA, air temperature at sea level is
15 °C and the temperature lapse rate is -2 °C/1000 ft. FL300 means there is a
30000 ft indicated altitude. 15 °C - 30 °C x 2 = -45 °C would be the ISA
temperature. (We assume that the difference between actual temperature and
the ISA temperature is valid for the whole troposphere). First, we have to
calculate the pressure correction with the deviation from the standard mean
sea level pressure: 1013 hPa - 1010 hPa = 3 hPa. The barometric lapse rate
near the surface is 27 ft (8 m) / 1 hPa, so the pressure correction will be 3 hPa
x 27 ft/hPa = 81 ft, which we must subtract from the indicated altitude
(30000 ft-81 ft = 29 919 ft).
Consider an aeroplane flying with a QNH altimeter setting of 3000 ft (the ISA
air temperature is 6 °C colder at this level, compared to MSL, i.e. 9 °C) and the
OAT is -4 °C. The true altitude has to be corrected with temperature
correction. The temperature difference between the ISA air temperature and
the OAT is 13 °C. Because of this, we have to subtract 5.2 % of the 3 000 ft
from the altitude of the aeroplane. In this case, 3 000 ft -156 ft = 2 844 ft is
the true altitude.
Let us calculate the thickness of the layer between FL060 and FL100 in the
case of +10 °C temperature deviation from the ISA temperature. If the real
temperature conditions were equal to the ISA conditions, the thickness would
be 4000 ft. But in this case, a 10 °C deviation from the ISA is approximately
equal to a 4 % difference in altitude. In the case of a warmer air mass, the
deviation is a thicker layer, so we have to add the 4 % of 4000 ft to 4000 ft,
which is 160 ft. The result will be a 4160 ft layer thickness.
Assume that the altimeter is set to 1000 hPa QNH. You must fly over a
mountain with a 10000 ft elevation and a terrain clearance of at least 1500 ft.
What is the required minimum indicated altitude when the QNH at the
nearest airport is 980 hPa and the temperature is 10 °C colder than the ISA?
We must fly at 11500 ft AMSL. This altitude must be the true altitude of the
aircraft. As the altimeter setting in this example is 1000 hPa, the indicated
altitude will not be the true altitude. First, we have to adjust the QNH
deviation, which is 20 hPa. The deviation is 20 hPa x 27 ft I hPa = 540 ft, so
the true altitude will be 540 ft lower than the indicated altitude. The second
step is to adjust the temperature deviation from the ISA. A 10 °C deviation is
approximately equal to a 4 % deviation in altitude. If the temperature is colder
than the ISA, the indicated altitude will be lower, so 4 % of 11500 ft is 460 ft.
Because of this, the indicated altitude has to be higher than these values. The
minimum indicated altitude for safely clear the obstacle must be 11500 ft
540 ft + 460 ft = 12 500 ft.
STUDY TEST
The air is a mixture of various gases which contains mainly nitrogen (ca. 78 %),
oxygen (ca. 21 %) and argon (ca. 0.9 %). Carbon dioxide (ca. 0.04 %) can also be
found as a trace gas.
The Earth’s atmosphere is divided into stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere
and exosphere. The thin boundary layers between them are called the
tropopause, the stratopause, the mesopause and the thermopause.
The troposphere is the most important layer for aviation as it contains half of
the mass of the air and more than 90 % of all water vapour (weather processes).
The normal lapse rate in the troposphere is about -2 °C/1000 ft (or
-0.65 °C/100 m). At the tropopause, temperatures remains almost constant.
The thickness of the tropopause (troposphere) is higher (thicker) over warmer
surfaces, and lower (thinner) over colder surface. When temperature is equally
distributed, then the air pressure at the surface can also cause changes in the
height of the tropopause.
Uneven heating of the Earth by the Sun can be considered the primary source
of all weather processes. Transfer of heat is primarily realised through radiation,
conduction, convection and condensation. The Earth’s atmosphere is heated
primarily by insolation.
Inversion is a specific situation in the troposphere where temperatures increase
as height increases.
The amount of incoming solar radiation depends on the time duration of
insolation absorbed by the Earth and the elevation of the Sun.
Lower (higher) specific heat belongs to surfaces with faster (slower) warming
and cooling processes. Surfaces that contain higher amounts of water (e.g. sea
surfaces, vegetation) have higher specific heat than drier surfaces (e.g. desert).
Surfaces with higher (lower) specific heats warm up and cool down more slowly
(faster) than surfaces with lower (higher) specific heats.
Atmospheric (air) pressure is the weight of the air column in the Earth’s
atmosphere per unit area.
Isobars are connecting points with the same air pressure on surface weather
maps.
Pressure variation with height is not linear. Barometric lapse rate is the change
Lower (higher) specific heat belongs to surfaces with faster (slower) warming
and cooling processes. Surfaces that contain higher amounts of water (e.g. sea
surfaces, vegetation) have higher specific heat than drier surfaces (e.g. desert).
Surfaces with higher (lower) specific heats warm up and cool down more slowly
(faster) than surfaces with lower (higher) specific heats.
Atmospheric (air) pressure is the weight of the air column in the Earth’s
atmosphere per unit area.
Isobars are connecting points with the same air pressure on surface weather
maps.
Pressure variation with height is not linear. Barometric lapse rate is the change
of air pressure with height. It is considered to be 27 ft (8 m) / 1 hPa near MSL
and 50 ft (15 m) / 1 hPa above approx. 18 000 ft (ca. 5 500 m).
The barometric lapse rate depends on height and air temperature. If the height
of the air column decreases, then the air temperature decreases and the air
pressure increases.
A "low" (a "high") develops if the air pressure at the surface of the Earth in a
given area is lower (higher) than its surrounding environment. Cyclones
(anticyclones) are low (high) pressure areas and are often associated with
troughs (ridges).
In cyclones, the air flows inwards to the centre near the surface of the Earth
with an ascending movement, which leads to cloud formation and precipitation
with poor visibility. The closer the isobars are, the deeper the cyclone is and the
stronger the wind blows.
In anticyclones, the air flows outwards from the centre near the Earth's surface
with a descending movement, which mainly blocks cloud formation and
precipitation resulting clear sky. As air descends it warms, thereby developing
an inversion. Poor visibility can be experienced due to fog and haze.
QFF is the atmospheric pressure reduced to the mean sea level, corrected for
the air temperature. It is only for meteorological purposes.
Isohypses are lines on upper-level weather maps that connect points with the
same height on an isobaric surface above mean sea level.
In normal atmospheric conditions, air temperature, air pressure and air density
decrease as altitude increases.
Humid air is less dense than dry air.
precipitation resulting clear sky. As air descends it warms, thereby developing
an inversion. Poor visibility can be experienced due to fog and haze.
QFF is the atmospheric pressure reduced to the mean sea level, corrected for
the air temperature. It is only for meteorological purposes.
Isohypses are lines on upper-level weather maps that connect points with the
same height on an isobaric surface above mean sea level.
In normal atmospheric conditions, air temperature, air pressure and air density
decrease as altitude increases.
Humid air is less dense than dry air.
Density altitude increases with decreasing air density. This means that density
altitude increases as air temperature increases and air pressure decreases.
Density altitude also increases as humidity of the air increases.
The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is the theoretical model of the real
atmosphere. In the ISA, the most important standard values of mean sea level
are: 1013.25 hPa for mean sea level pressure, 15 °C for mean temperature and
-2 °C/1000 ft temperature lapse rate, the tropopause is found at 11 km
(36 090 ft) and its temperature is -56.5 °C.
QNH, QFE and QFF can have the same value only at an airport at Mean Sea
Level.
Flying into a colder (warmer) temperature area, true altitude will be lower
(higher) than the indicated altitude; in other words, the altimeter will overread
(underread). Flying into a lower (higher) pressure area, the true altitude will be
lower (higher) than the indicated altitude.
The most dangerous situation in an altitude measurement is the negative
deviation from the ISA temperature with a very low QNH. These conditions
make your true altitude lower than the indicated altitude if you are using a
standard altimeter setting. For calculating the lowest usable flight level for
clearing the obstacle, you must know the highest negative temperature
deviation from the ISA and the lowest value of QNH below 1013 hPa.
Changing the altimeter setting into a lower (higher) reference value will cause
the indicated altitude to decrease (increase).
Wind
On Earth, the uneven distribution of air temperature causes pressure
differences between areas located along different geographic latitudes from
which pressure gradient originates. The pressure gradient is proportional to
the pressure gradient force (PGF) which causes the formation of wind
systems.
Wind is defined as horizontal movement of the air. Wind can form anywhere
and anytime, which means various horizontal ranges and life spans. For
example, if the PGF acts along a geographic latitude permanently then it
results in the development of wind systems on planetary scales, such as trade
winds between the Equator and the Tropic of Cancer I Tropic of Capricorn. On
smaller scales, characteristic wind systems form which are associated with
troughs and ridges, mid-latitude cyclones and anticyclones etc. These are
considered large-scale systems. The life span of the above-listed small and
large scale phenomena is a couple of days or a few weeks. Even smaller scale,
local winds are observable with diurnal variation in the vicinity of
mountainous area and sea.
In the opening chapter, the definition of wind and its measurement will be
described. Then, atmospheric forces which act on the air parcel and lead to
the formation of wind will be explained. The track of the air parcels is often
curved, which means that - besides the PGF - other forces also affect them
significantly. In a rotating reference frame such as the Earth, the Coriolis force
and the centrifugal force may influence atmospheric movement. Furthermore,
due to the roughness of the ground, frictional force also has a considerable
role in the formation of winds. The relationship between these forces will be
also discussed in this chapter. The above-mentioned effects determine the
general global circulation of the air on Earth. A conceptual model of this
circulation will also be explained. After that, winds on smaller scale, such as
local winds and turbulent air flows will be described. Finally, the formation and
main characteristics of jet streams will be described.
2.1. Definition and measurement
of wind
Wind direction is the direction from which the wind blows. The four cardinal
directions are north (N), east (E), south (S) and west (W) at 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°,
respectively. They divide a full circle (360°) into four equal parts. The four
intercardinal directions are distinguished from the cardinal directions of
northeast (NE), southeast (SE), southwest (SW) and northwest (NW) at 45°,
135°, 225°, 315°, respectively. These directions can be displayed on a
compass rose (or wind rose). If only the cardinal directions are shown, then it
is called a four-point compass rose (see the first figure below). If it contains
both the cardinal and intercardinal points, then it is called an eight-point
compass rose (see the second figure below).
N
More information about the units of wind can be found in Section 10.2.1.
To convert SI units of speed to knots and vice versa, the following rules of
Figure 2.1. A four-point compass rose and an eight-point compass rose
More information about the units of wind can be found in Section 10.2.1.
To convert SI units of speed to knots and vice versa, the following rules of
thumb can be used to give us good approximations:
1. m/s —> kt: Double the m/s value to get the approximation of the kt
value. (One m/s is approximately two kt.)
2. kt —> m/s: Divide the kt value by two to get the approximation of the
m/s value.
3. km/h —> kt: Divide the km/h value by 1.852 to get an approximation of
the kt value.
Finally, we introduce two important terms that are suitable to characterise the
wind direction. If there is a clockwise (counter-clockwise) change in wind
direction then the wind is veering (backing). See the figure below.
Example of using m/s —> kt:
The wind speed is 20 m/s. It is ca. 40 kt, because 2 x 20 m/s = 40 kt.
In physics, wind speed and wind direction can be described by the velocity
vector (denoted by V). In the case of wind, the magnitude of the velocity
vector is the wind speed (denoted by v) and its direction corresponds to the
wind direction.
Please keep in mind that pressure is a scalar quantity. This means that it acts
in all directions in a point. Velocity is a vector quantity. Consequently, its value
depends on its direction.
r (t + At) —r (t)
= lim
At—>0 At
Note that velocity can be formulated as the limit in the equation above. The
position of the object is the function of the time. It has a dimension of length.
Consequently, it is given in the SI unit m. Time is expressed in the SI unit s.
Therefore, the SI unit of velocity is y.
In the Cartesian coordinate system, the position vector has three components,
namely x, y and z. Therefore, the components of the velocity, denoted by u, v
and w, can be described as:
—> f,\ / dx dy dz
V y J \ dt ’ dt ’ dt /
Note that wind is defined as the horizontal movement of air parcels, which
means that only horizontal components of the velocity (u and v) are taken into
account. However, vertical components of the velocity (w) cannot be
negligible. Their importance will be emphasized concerning atmospheric
convection.
The method to calculate the magnitude of velocity, i.e. wind speed, depends
on the path of the movement. If the wind blows along a linear path with a
constant velocity, then its speed can be calculated as the quotient of its
displacement between two points (denoted by s, measured in the SI units m)
and its period of time:
(2.1)
If the air parcels flow along a circular path while the magnitude of the velocity
remains constant, then wind speed can be calculated as the product of the
radius of the circular path and the angular velocity.
It is worth mentioning that the wind speed increases as the height increases.
There is a logarithmic relationship between wind speed and height in the
troposphere.
Wind direction
As in Figure 2.1 we can see the four cardinal and the four intercardinal
directions divide a full circle into eight equal parts. We can distinguish
secondary intercardinal directions between cardinal and intercardinal
directions (see the figure below).
However, there are some cases when wind direction is given in degrees
referenced to the magnetic north. The deviation from magnetic north from
true north is shown in the figure below. The needle of a magnetic compass
points in the direction of magnetic north. Consequently, if the wind blows
from south to north, then the velocity vector points in the direction in which
the needle of the magnetic compass points.
Figure 2.5. Differences between geographic and magnetic poles of the Earth
The magnetic field of the Earth changes over time, so a shifting can be
observed regarding the Magnetic North Pole. The magnetic north was
discovered over the northern territories of Canada in the 18th century but it is
moving towards Russia. Its movement is shown in the figure below. The
magnetic poles of the Earth are not antipodal, which means that they do not
move symmetrically. It is worth mentioning that, the magnetic field of the
Earth changes polarity after every period of hundreds of thousand years. The
signs of the changes can be detected in magnetised rock layers.
Figure 2.6. Modelled movement of the north magnetic pole from 1900 to
2020
There are other quantities to characterise wind such as wind pressure, which
is the pressure of the wind applied to a unit area of surface. Therefore, its SI
unit is the Pa. Another quantity is the wind distance, which is the length of
the moving air parcels during a period of time. It has the SI unit of m.
As we stated before, one knot is equal to one nautical mile per hour where
one nautical mile is equal to 1852 m.
For example, the wind speed of 11 m/s can be expressed in km/h and knots as
follows. First, we convert m/s to km/h:
s X 3 .6 = 39 .6
11 - h
39.6 ,
h __ x kt
1.852 1 kt
h
Note: If the given value is in the units of kt, then it has to be multiplied with 1.852
to get the value of km/h.
On weather maps the observed wind direction and wind speed are indicated
by wind barbs. See the figure below and Figure 2.8. A wind barb consists of a
line that points in the direction of the wind. At the end of the line various
symbols represent the observed wind speed. These symbols are the
followings: a short line represents 5 kt, a long line represents 10 kt and a black
rectangular triangle (or pennant) represents 50 kt. Values represented by the
above mentioned symbols can be added to each other. For example, a wind
barb with one short line, three long lines and one pennant means a wind
speed of 85 kt, because: 5 kt + 10 kt + 10 kt + 10 kt + 50 kt = 85 kt. An empty
circle means that the wind is calm.
wind calm
270°/5 kt
270°/10 kt
270°/15 kt
270°/50 kt
Note: The wind direction is 270°, which indicates that the wind is blowing from
west to north.
50 + 10 ♦ 10 + 5
wind blowing from the wind blowing from the
west at 75 knots south at 5 knots
Devices such as a weather vane (or wind vane) and windsock allow us to
determine wind direction. A weather vane is made of a horizontal rod that can
freely rotate around a vertical axis (In the following, horizontal means that the
device is parallel to the surface). A metal plate and an arrow-shaped object can
be found on its ends. The metal plate will turn into a position that is parallel to
the wind direction. The arrow will point in the opposite direction from which
the wind blows. A wind vane can be seen in the figure below (A).
A windsock is a cone shaped object made of fabric that can turn around a
vertical axis. It points in the opposite direction from which the wind blows.
Stripes on the windsock can be used to estimate the wind speed. A wind sock
is shown in the figure below (B).
Figure 2.9. Wind vane (A) and wind sock (B)
Note: A cup anemometer can also have a built-in anemometer as we can see in
section A.
Weather balloons filled with hydrogen or helium are used to measure physical
quantities and conditions of the air in upper levels in the atmosphere.
Weather balloons are equipped with radiosondes that allow observational
stations located on the ground surface to track the route of weather balloons
and receive their data in real-time. The measuring devices are found in a box
that is attached to the weather balloon by a rope. They measure the vertical
profile of air pressure, air temperature, speed and direction of the wind as well
as atmospheric humidity. Balloons can reach the lower levels of the
stratosphere. They are able to detect clear-air turbulence and jet streams, and
thermodynamic diagrams can be created on the basis of the data that are
collected by the observational stations.
In upper levels of the atmosphere, instruments such as the wind profiler are
applied to measure wind speed. Among other remote-sensing devices, radars
can serve as a wind profiler, which emit electromagnetic waves that scatter
onto the particles in the air. Based on the measured energy of the
electromagnetic waves that are scattered back, the wind speed can be
determined.
Note: Anemometers are used to measure surface wind speed; therefore, they only
provide data for one level of the atmosphere, which is about 10 m above the
ground. Radars emit electromagnetic waves on different altitudes, so they measure
wind speed at different heights. Based on the measurements, three-dimensional
profiles of wind can be composed.
STUDY TEST
2.2. Primary cause of wind
Figure 2.12. Relationship between isobars and wind speed in a high pressure
system
In the section A of the figure above, on the right-hand (left-hand) side of the
figure, there are isobars that are closer (farther) to (from) each other. Thicker
(thinner) arrows indicate stronger (weaker) PGF and wind. The letter "H"
indicates the centre of the high pressure area. The slope of the contour lines
(isohypses) increases as PGF increases. In the section B, we can see the slope
of the contour lines (isohypses) increasing as PGF increases.
PGF is the force on unit surface due to the changes in the pressure
distribution. Henceforth, the vector PGF and its magnitude are denoted by
Note that in meteorology, forces are often expressed with respect to unit
kg kg s2
(2.2)
—>• —>
AFsf = P x n x AA
mechanics is the force per unit area from external forces. Consequently, the
elements of the stress tensor are scalar quantities that have the same SI unit
as pressure (N/m2, which equals Pa). Note that AA is expressed in the SI unit
ofmrand n is unitless.
where elements crm]l in the main diagonal are the principal stress components
(marked with n as normal components), and elements rnt outside the main
diagonal are the shear stress components (marked with t as tangential
components).
If we multiply the elements of the stress tensor by 1?, then the direction of
the stress becomes meaningful. If we multiply the principal elements of the
stress tensor by li A A, then the product will be an outward-pointing vector
with reference to the surface, defined as pressure on the surface of a cuboid
air parcel.
Assume that the air parcel has plains perpendicular to the coordinate axes of a
positively oriented three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system (Positive
orientation means that coordinate axes x, y and z follow each other in a
A -- >
counter-clockwise direction.). In this case A F sf and n have components
parallel to the coordinate axes:
/(AFsf) \
AFsf = (AFsf)y
\ (AFst)z)
To summarise, the principal and shear stresses on the surface of a cuboid air
parcel are shown in the figure below.
Figure 2.13. Principal and shear stresses on the surface of a cuboid element
(i.e. air parcel)
Note: The sides of the cuboid element are parallel to the axes of the Cartesian
coordinate system.
(2.3)
(AFsf)x — crxxiix A A T- TXyiiy A A -I- Txz^z A A
(2.4)
(AFsf)y Tyxllx A A “I- (Tyylly A A “I- ^yZ^Z A A
(2.5)
(AFsf)z — Tzx-Px A A H- T-Zyiiy A A -I- <Tzznz A A
Note: Vector is multiplied by a matrix in the following way: elements of each row of
P are multiplied by the components of ti , respectively. Then, they are added to
each other.
To summarise, normal and shear stresses cause pressure differences and fluid
If the fluid is ideal, then it does not resist to any compression, which means
that fluid friction is zero and the fluid is totally compressible. In that case,
shear stress elements are zero; in other words, P only has non-zero elements
F grad rises from principal stress components. If the fluid is real, then a
—
molecular friction force rises besides F grad- ln the case of the molecular
friction, P has non-zero elements outside the main diagonal as well.
The minus sign expresses that pressure contracts an air parcel while tangential
stress has a counter-effect on it, namely, it will expand the air parcel. If there
are pressure changes, then the diagonal elements of the stress tensor P are
If the cuboid air parcel has parallel edges to the coordinate axes of a positively
oriented three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system with the lengths of
—
Ax, Ay and Az, then F grad has three components Fgradx, Fgrady and Fgradz.
The cuboid air parcel has six sides denoted by ABCD, EFGH, EADH,
FBCG, EFBA and HGCD. They can be seen in the figure below. Opposite
sides ABCD and EFGH, EADH and FBCG, EFBA and HGCD are
parallel to each other.
The components of F grad are the differences of the forces' effects on the
sides opposite to each other:
(2.6)
Fgradx = pAyAz - (p + Ap)AyAz
(2.7)
Fgrady = pAxAz - (p + Ap) Ax A z
(2.8)
Fgradz = pAxAy - (p + Ap)AxAy
where Ap is the pressure change between sides ABCD and EFGH, EADH
and FBCG, EFBA and HGCD, respectively. It is given in units of Pa. The
lengths Ax, Ay and Az are expressed in units of m.
p (x + Ax,y,z ) - p (x,y,z )
(x,y,z) = lim Ax
Ax—>0
= Ax^O
lim “AxV
~(x, y,
J
z)7
Ap 7 X
= ^(x-y-z)
(2.9)
Ap = dx
Ax
Similarly in the case of Fgraj and Fgra<jz the following can be described:
(2.10)
Ap = |Ay
(2.11)
Ap = | A z
<7Z
(2.12)
Fgradx = P Ay Az - (p + Axj Ay A z
= p Ay Az — p Ay Az — Ax Ay Az
= - |AxAyAz
Ox J
(2.13)
Fgrady = pAxAz - (p+|Ay)AxAz
= - |AxAyAz
dy J
(2.14)
Fgradz = P A X A y - (p + | A z^ Ax A y
= - |AxAyAz
dz J
With respect to unit mass of m, the q is reciprocal of V. In that case, the mass
was divided by p so its SI unit is -A-. In other words, volume = mass I density.
nr
Thus:
Ax AyAz
J
= V= —Q
Substituting V, then q into the equations above, F grad can be described as:
(2.15)
In the equation above, we consider q as constant so it can be multiplied out.
The gradient of the scalar function p is denoted Vp where V is the nabla
symbol. In the three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system gradient of p is
given by Vp=—, -7-, — .
\ dx dy dz /
P _ J_ v Ap
rgradx - g x Ax
P _ 1 v Ap
rgrady - Q * Ay
P _ J_ v Ap
rgradz - e x Az
The exact formula for pressure gradient contains partial derivatives — and
which are approximated by and according to the finite
difference method. This formulation is useful for practical calculations where
and are the pressure changes per unit distances along the axes x and
y-
Theoretically, F grad could increase beyond all limits if there were a lack of
balancing forces. However, under real atmospheric circumstances it never
occurs because of other forces. These forces will be introduced as follows.
In the Earth’s atmosphere, not only the pressure gradient force acts on wind
systems. However, the introduction of other forces requires an understanding
of the type of movements that can be observed on the surface of the Earth.
Assume that an observer stands on the surface of the Earth. From the
observer’s point of view, paths of cyclones and anticyclones, which originate
from the pressure gradient force, seem to be deflected by some invisible
(inertial) force called the Coriolis force (abbreviated as CF).
To put it briefly, the Earth, cyclones and anticyclones are not moving together
with the same speed. Therefore, the movements of the previously mentioned
wind systems can be seen along curved lines from the surface of the Earth.
This effect is expressed by the CF. As a result, the direction of movements will
alter compared to their original direction.
The CF affects the path of an object (i.e. air parcels, wind) that moves
horizontally (in other words parallel to the surface) as follows. The CF deflects
the wind to the right (left) relative to its original direction in the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere. Deflections with respect to the geographic latitude
are shown in the figure below.
Maximum deflections at pole
Assume that isobars are parallel to each other at equal distances. This would
mean that there is no friction over surfaces and that the pressure field does
not change rapidly over time (the ideal state of the atmosphere). In this case,
isobars are straight lines at equal distances on weather maps.
If horizontal air pressure differences occur, then PGF rises and acts on the
object (i.e. the air parcel), which starts to move to the area with lower
pressure. As has been said before, the PGF is perpendicular to the isobars. If
we take into account the Earth’s rotation, then CF will affect the flowing air
parcel. The CF is perpendicular to the direction of the flowing air parcel. It
deflects the air parcel to the right (left) in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere
until the air parcel flows parallel to the isobars. The PGF and the CF will be
opposite to each other with the same magnitude. This state is called
geostrophic equilibrium.
988 mb
990 mb
992 mb
994 mb
996 mb
998 mb
988 mb
Air pressure is given in millibars (denoted by mb). One mb is equal to one hPa.
F
•grad Fcor Fgrad
i ◄--------------
----- ► =
The PGF, the CF and the velocity vector that represents geostrophic wind are
The direction of the geostrophic wind can be determined by the Buys Ballot’s
law, which states the following. In the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere if
someone stands with their back to a flow, then an area with low pressure can
be found at their left-hand (right-hand) side.
As a side note, the law was established by Dutch meteorologist and chemist C.
H. D. Buys Ballot in the 19th century.
Inertial forces
Assume an object with linear motion with constant velocity in the inertial
reference frame. It can be seen as a curved line (in other words, a curvilinear
motion) from the surface of the rotating Earth. During curvilinear movements,
the object is undergoing acceleration because the direction of the velocity
vector changes over time. According to Newton’s first law, without any force,
objects move along a linear path with a constant speed. To use Newton’s laws
in the non-inertial reference frame, some forces have to be introduced. These
are the inertial forces (in other words, the invisible or fictitious forces). The
two main types of inertial forces are the Coriolis force and the centrifugal
force. The Coriolis force acts on moving objects while the centrifugal force has
to be taken into account if an object seems to be at rest in a non-inertial
reference frame.
Coriolis force
In the section a) of the figure above, the observer is above the centre of the
disc, perpendicular to it. Blue arrows show the linear path of the ball. In the
section b) the observer is fixed to the disc. Blue arrows show the curved path
of the ball. The curvilinear motion is the result of the CF.
The F cor can be expressed as the cross product of the angular velocity Q of
the rotating system and the velocity V of the moving object in the rotating
reference frame:
(2.16)
—> —> _> _> —>
F Cor — — 2m Q x v = 2m v x Q
Note: The mass of the object m is constant. The magnitude of the Coriolis force
Fcor is proportional to the magnitude of the velocity v and the magnitude of the
angular velocity 4?. The SI units ofm, v and ST are kg, m/s and 1/s, respectively.
Because of the properties of the cross product, F cor, v and Q are
perpendicular to each other.
If the rotating system in question is the Earth, then the magnitude of its
angular velocity is the following:
Q= —
T
__ 27T 2 x 3.14
~ 86400 s ~ 86400 s
ss 7 .27 x IO-5 x i
s
—
The vector Q can be expressed as the sum of a tangential and a normal
vector (to add the tangential and normal vectors, the parallelogram method is
used), Qt and Qn. The vectors are parallel to axis y and axis z, respectively.
The vector Qt expresses its rotation with an axis parallel to the direction
The object moves with a velocity of ~v , which has the following components
(u, v, w), where u and v are parallel to the axis x and axis y, respectively;
furthermore w is perpendicular to the plane xy. The three components of the
i
= 2mQ
cos 92 sin 99
/ vsin 99 — wcos 99
= 2mQ — usin 99
ucos 99
fv — Iw
F cor — 2mQ j — fu j
\ In /
Note that the horizontal components of the F cor are fv — Iw, and — fu and
the vertical component of it is lu.
the F cor is parallel to the weight of the object (denoted by Fg), but the F COr
is one order of magnitude smaller than Fg. Therefore, the third component of
Based on the shape of the sine function, we can say that the Fcor decreases as
the geographic latitude decreases. According to equation above the Fcor is
zero along the Equator. However, it is not correct if we are neglecting w and
the third component of the F cor. In that case the Fcor is small but not equal
to zero.
Calculate the f at the latitudes of the Equator (0°), the Tropic of Cancer
(23.5°N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S), the arctic circle (66.5°) and at
the poles (90°) using the equation above. Assuming that u, v are constants,
then:
—
The F cor has three prominent effects on the paths of the movements of the
object (i.e. air parcel, wind, airplane).
1. If the object moves horizontally - i.e. the wind blows parallel to the
—
plane xy - then F cor deflects it to the right (left) in the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere. (This effect can be seen in Figure 2.15.)
In this case, Fcor, v and the normal angular velocity vector Qn
generate a positively oriented three-dimensional orthogonal coordinate
system that is numbered in the figure below.
2. If the object moves horizontally from east to west (west to east), then
the weight of the object decreases (increases), regardless of the
hemisphere.
—> _> —
In this case, Fcor, v and the tangential angular velocity vector form
a positively oriented three-dimensional orthogonal coordinate system
that is numbered in the figure below. If the object moves from east to
west (west to east), then the F cor points in the same (opposite)
the F cor deflects the path of the freefalling (lifting) object to east (west)
regardless of the hemisphere.
the F grad and the horizontal components of the F cor. The former is denoted
(2.18)
F
1 grad
j I F cor I
/ h / h
Assume that the object has a unit mass. This means that the F grad and
h
the ( F cor ) are described as force per unit mass. Because of this, their SI
X / h
unit is -7. In this case, based on Equation 2.15 and Equation 2.16, the
s2
geostrophic equilibrium can be described as:
(2.19)
1 / dp
- 2 Q x vg
q \ dx ’
where v g is the velocity vector in the case of the geostrophic wind. The
scalar equations are:
(2.20)
— fvg
(2.21)
fug
where ug, vg are the components of the v g. The equations above can be
called geostrophic wind equations. As we mentioned before, because of the
Multiply Equation 2.20 with ug and Equation 2.21 with vg and then
summarise them. Therefore:
C . e 1 dp 1 dp
— tVp Up + tUp Vg =------- X — Ug — - X — Vg
& & 1 aa q dx Q dy s
—> —
The equation above is the scalar product of v g and F grad, thus:
l(dp dp\
Q \ dx ’ dy J = 0
If two vectors are perpendicular to each other, then the scalar product of the
—> —
two vector is zero. This means that v g and F grad are perpendicular to each
other.
Simple calculation regarding geostrophic wind
•A
Let us consider the following example. The horizontal distance between the
isobaric levels of 500 hPa and 504 hPa is 200 km. Calculate the magnitude of
the geostrophic wind (in other words the geostrophic wind speed) in dry air
between the two isobaric levels along the arctic circles at the altitude of
5.5 km where the air temperature T is -30 °C.
To estimate the geostrophic wind speed, Equation 2.21 will be used; therefore
q, f and — can be calculated. Density q is computed by applying the ideal gas
law, where p is the arithmetic mean of 500 hPa and 504 hPa is:
and Rd = 287 is the specific gas constant for dry air. The air temperature
equals to 243.15 K. Thus:
____ p
Q ~ RdT
_ 50200 Pa
287 -2- x 243.15 K
kg K
« 0 .72
111'5
x kg
Pa x kg
J kg x 4
X X kg
m2 s2 6
kgx
kg
m3
As we calculated before:
That is:
Ap __ 400 Pa __ q 002 Pa
Ax ~ 200000 m — U >UU TT
1 Ap
s
6 — QIr Ax
Geostrophic wind only occurs if the isobars are parallel to each other with
equal distances and there is no friction over the surface. Under common
atmospheric conditions isobars are rarely parallel straight lines but closed
curves, which often appear like "islands" on weather maps.
If isobars are curved lines, then the resultant force that coerces the air parcels
into a circular path is called the centripetal force (abbreviated as CP). It points
to the centre of the curvature. If we assume that an observer is fixed to the
rotating air parcel, then another invisible force, the centrifugal force, has to be
taken into account. It points in the opposite direction as the CP, but it has an
equal magnitude as the CP. Because of this, the wind speed is the same,
regardless of the magnitude of CP or the magnitude of centrifugal force is
used to calculate it.
Please note that CF does not mean centrifugal force, but means Coriolis force.
Horizontal motion of air parcels along curved path, namely the gradient wind,
comes from the resultant force of the PGF and the CF. Remember that the
term "horizontal" means the wind blows parallel to the surface. Because of the
above-mentioned relationship, gradient wind is often explained as the results
of the PGF, the CF and the centrifugal force.
Curvilinear motion means that some forces act on the wind. Movements are
required to fulfil Newton's laws of motion. In line with Newton’s first law,
curvilinear motion results from some forces acts on the wind.
In low pressure systems PGF is directed inward to the centre of the circular
path. The CF points in the opposite direction from the PGF. In the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere CF deflects the motion to the right (left). The resultant
force of PGF and CF induces cyclonic circulation in a counter-clockwise
(clockwise) direction. This is shown in the figure below, in sections a) and c).
In high pressure systems PGF is directed away from the centre of the circular
path. The CF points in the opposite direction from the PGF. In the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere this induces anticyclonic circulation in clockwise
(counter clockwise) direction. This can be seen in the figure below, in sections
b) and d).
Figure 2.23. Gradient wind and forces
Comparison of the geostrophic wind speed and the gradient wind speed
Some sources explain the relationship between the geostrophic and gradient
wind speed by introducing the concept of the centrifugal force as follows.
In cyclones, the centrifugal force opposes the PGF. The difference of the PGF
and the centrifugal force is equal to the CF; therefore, the CF has to decrease
in comparison to its value in a theoretic geostrophic equilibrium. As was
discussed previously, if the CF decreases then the wind speed also decreases.
Consequently, the gradient wind speed is lower than the geostrophic wind
speed.
In anticyclones, the centrifugal force is added to the PGF. Their sum is equal to
the CF. The CF increases in comparison to its value in a theoretic geostrophic
equilibrium. The wind speed increases as the CF increases. Consequently, the
gradient wind speed is greater than the geostrophic wind speed.
• in cyclonic circulation:
PGF - centrifugal force = CF
• in anticyclonic circulation:
PGF + centrifugal force = CF
Detailed explanation of the gradient wind
Centripetal force and centrifugal force
(2.22)
rcp —
F — —
r
where v is the velocity of the moving object and r is the magnitude of the
radius vector that points to the moving object (i.e. the air parcel) from the axis
of rotation. In other words, the radius of the curvature is r. The equation
above states that Fcp is proportional to the square of the velocity and
inversely proportional to the radius of curvature.
points in the opposite direction from the F cp; in other words, it is directed
away from the centre of the curvature. The magnitude of F cf is equal to the
—
magnitude of Fcp and therefore it can be calculated using equation above.
force of F grad and F cor. The vector sum of F grad and F cor is equal to F cp.
The velocity vector in the case of the gradient wind is marked with ~v gr. Both
in low and high pressure systems, the F cp points to the centre of the
curvature.
As can be seen in Figure 2.23 in sections a) and c), in a low pressure system
F grad is directed inward to the centre of the circular path. In the Northern
F grad is directed away from the centre of the circular path and F cor is
directed inward. In the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere this induces
anticyclonic flows in a clockwise (counter clockwise) direction.
In both cases, F grad and are perpendicular to each other. The definition
The resultant force F cp that leads to the development of the gradients wind,
can be described as the difference of the F grad and F cor. So, the gradient
wind speed can be expressed using Equation 2.22, Equation 2.17 and
Equation 2.15 as follows:
(2.24)
2^ = fv 1 x
r sr Q dr
In cyclonic circulation:
(2.25)
In anticyclonic circulation:
(2.26)
where vgr is the gradient wind speed in cyclonic circulation.
Note that the calculations were based on the equations Fcp = Fgrad — Fcor
in cyclonic circulation and Fcp = Fcor — Fgrad in anticyclonic circulation.
The same results would have been given, if we used the magnitude of the
centrifugal force (Fcf) in the calculations because Fcp = Fcf, thus
Fgrad — Fcf = Fcor in cyclonic circulation and Fgrad + Fcf = Fcor in
anticyclonic circulation.
Comparison of the geostrophic wind speed and the gradient wind speed
Based on the Equation 2.20, the geostrophic wind speed in the polar
coordinate system is:
(2.27)
1 dp
vg6 = “ F x
£>I
77
OT
= - fr^+fr Vg + fr vg
fr vg = vgr2 + fr v
(2.28)
fr
2
gr
Vgr
The quotient — is positive; therefore vg is larger than vgr in cyclonic
circulation.
Second, the gradient wind in anticyclonic circulation is compared to the
geostrophic wind.
Raise Equation 2.24 to the power of the second as follows, then substitute vg
in accordance with Equation 2.26:
f2r2 r / f2r2 r r
= “V — *r A / —;------- fr Vg — IT Vg
2 V 4 S S
e /TT2 ~e
fr vg = - vgr2 + — fr a / —----- fr v
y 4
(2.29)
I Vgr
Vgr = Vg + —
Vgr
The quotient — is positive; therefore vg is smaller than vgr in anticyclonic
circulation.
The same equations can be used to describe the magnitude of the gradient
wind speed in both hemispheres.
The friction force always acts on air parcels in the opposite direction as their
motion (thus the velocity vector of the flow); in other words, it exerts drag
force on the moving object.
Above 2 000 to 3 000 ft the flow of the wind can be considered parallel to the
isobars. Therefore, the geostrophic and gradient wind can occur. The wind
speed will be higher at that level than in the friction layer.
a) Northern Hemisphere b) Southern Hemisphere
low high low high
990 1000 1010 1020 990 1000 1010 1020
hPa hPa hPa hPa hPa hPa hPa hPa
Changes in the direction of the geostrophic wind near the surface due to the
friction, force a) in the Northern Hemisphere, b) in the Southern Hemisphere
are seen above. Deflected geostrophic wind, friction force, pressure gradient
____
force, Coriolis force and resultant force are denoted by v g , F fr, F grad,
Changes in the direction of the gradient wind near the surface due to the
friction force in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere a) and c) in a cyclonic
flow, b) and d) in an anticyclonic flow. Deflected gradient wind, friction force,
—> *
pressure gradient force, Coriolis force and resultant force are denoted by v g ,
Near the surface, the geostrophic and the gradient winds back in the Northern
Hemisphere and veer in the Southern Hemisphere because of the friction
force that exerts drag on the winds. Backing means counter-clockwise change
in wind direction and veering means clockwise change in wind direction. To
observe the changes in the direction of the wind speed between the ideal
state of the atmosphere where winds are unaffected by the friction force and
the real state of the atmosphere where friction force acts on the winds, please
_ _ *
compare the direction of vectors v g and v g in Figure 2.17 and Figure 2.65
_ _ *
or vectors v gr and v gr in Figure 2.23 and Figure 2.26.
The friction force decreases as the altitude increases; therefore, from the
ground to the top of the friction layer the direction of the wind veers in the
Northern Hemisphere and backs in the Southern Hemisphere while the wind
speed increases.
In the other direction, from the top of the friction layer to the ground, the
direction of the wind backs in the Northern Hemisphere and veers in the
Southern Hemisphere while the wind speed decreases.
In normal conditions, the wind stops veering or backing at the top of the
friction layer. If a warm (cold) front arrives, then wind continues to veer (back)
above the friction layer in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern
Hemisphere, the opposite is true.
As was discussed above, the friction layer has an average thickness of about
3000 ft. The extent of the friction layer has diurnal variations. Its extent
increases as the amount of solar radiation increases as explained in the next
section.
During the day, the surface of the Earth heats up because of solar radiation. In
warmer air, the vertical movement of the air parcels (in other words,
convection) intensifies. This means that the warm air mixes in a thicker layer
than in colder air. Therefore, the properties of the surface affect higher
altitudes. Due to the intensive mixing processes, surface winds and faster
winds at higher altitude mix, which results in an increasing surface wind
speed. Its maximum value can be measured after noon locally, during the mid
afternoon, ca. 3 p.m.
At night the extent of the friction layer decreases as the surface of the Earth
cools. The intensity of the convection decreases as the air temperature
decreases. Consequently, surface wind speed also decreases. Its minimum
value is to be observed around sunrise.
Note: The thickness of the friction layer is not only diurnal but also has seasonal
variations.
Factors influencing the vertical extent of the friction layer
Wind speed is also a crucial factor that influences the vertical extent of the
friction layer. Increasing wind speed intensifies the mixing of air mass on lower
and upper levels.
Another important factor is the roughness of the Earth's surface. The mixing
of air masses at lower and upper levels increases as the roughness of the
surface increases. For example, the friction layer is thicker over land surfaces
than over large water surfaces.
As was discussed above, wind speed decreases as the friction force increases.
We assume that the pressure gradient does not change rapidly over time.
Note that the variation of wind in the friction layer can be characterised by
the following approximate values from the ground to about 2000 ft, as
introduced by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO).
Over water The friction force reduces the surface wind speed to about 70 %
and its direction changes by about 10°.
Over land The friction force reduces the surface wind speed to about 50 %
and its direction changes by about 30°.
Please keep in mind that the roughness of the surface is an important factor
regarding the intensity of the friction. Sea surfaces are smoother than land
surfaces, which leads to more intense friction above land than sea.
Let us consider the following examples in the Northern Hemisphere above
land surfaces where the above-mentioned values are used for calculations.
It is worth mentioning that the geostrophic wind speed varies with the
altitude above the friction layer because of horizontal temperature differences
of the same pressure level. This phenomenon is called thermal wind. For
further details see Section 2.7.
In the description of the geostrophic and gradient winds, we assumed that the
pressure field does not change rapidly over time. However, for example, in the
vicinity of weather fronts the pressure field varies rapidly, which leads to the
formation of isallobaric winds. Consequently, the wind speed that can be
measured along fronts differs from the geostrophic or gradient wind speeds.
Besides the above mentioned wind systems, other types of wind are
observable. For example, in the r Equatorial region,where CF can be
considered negligible,air flow with a circular path develops in which PGF
results in the circular orbit of the air parcels via the coercion of centripetal
force. This type of flow is called a cyclostrophic wind (e.g. dust devils and
waterspouts) and has a relatively small radius. The direction of the rotation
can be either clockwise or counter-clockwise.
The PGF can be balanced with not only the CF but also with the friction force,
which leads to another curvilinear motion that is called antitriptic flow (e.g.
sea breezes).
(2.30)
F fr
h h
where the forces are described as force per unit mass. Their SI unit is ■=•.
s2
(Please compare the equation above with Equation 2.18 that describes
geostrophic equilibrium, in which there is no friction force.
where n is the coefficient of friction with the SI unit of - and (ug , vg ) are
—> *
the horizontal components of the wind velocity vector v g in the friction
layer. By analogy with Equation 2.19, Equation 2.20 and Equation 2.21 can be
described as:
1 / dp dp \ , o > / * *\
fy)+2 X V8 = K(US ’ V8 )
(2.31)
1 dp | r * *
- - X -X- + IVg =
Q dx 6 6
(2.32)
1 dp c * *
---- X — — tue =
Q dy & s
Note: The figure shows wind directions over the Northern Hemisphere, but the
same calculations can be made regarding conditions over the Southern
Hemisphere.
j|c s|c
First, the magnitudes of ug and vg can be determined based on
Equation 2.31 and Equation 2.32.
Multiply Equation 2.31 with k, and Equation 2.32 with f then summarise them,
thus:
* i (* x I i x M
ug K2+f2 dx £? dy )
Multiply Equation 2.31 with f and Equation 2.32 with (—k) then summarise
them, thus:
Therefore,
g
*___«2+f2 \ Q dx Q dy )
If the axis x of the Cartesian coordinate system is parallel to the isobars then
(2.33)
- X
VR K2 +f2 P dy
tga = — f
Ug 1 X
K2+f2 0 dy
So:
We could turn Equation 2.33 into the following summary. The magnitude of n
is greater over land surfaces than over the ocean. Therefore, at the same
latitude a is increasing as k, is increasing, which means that the angle of
deflection is greater over land surfaces than over the ocean. Above the same
surface, a increases as the latitude decreases.
(Remember that the Coriolis parameter f is equal to 2 Qsin 92, where Q is the
Earth’s angular velocity and 92 is the geographic latitude.)
In cyclones (anticyclones) the air flows into (away from) the centre of the low
(high) pressure systems. Cyclonic (anticyclonic) circulation has a counter
clockwise (clockwise) direction in the Northern Hemisphere and a clockwise
(counter-clockwise) direction in the Southern Hemisphere. The centres of the
low and high pressure systems are marked with the letters L and H,
respectively.
As we look at the vertical cross-section of a low and a high pressure system,
the zones of convergence and divergence can be identified. See the figure
below.
a) b)
divergence ◄---- H----- ► aloft ---------- k L 4---- convergence
Cyclone Anticyclone
Convergence means that the air flows toward one point, which occurs in low
(high) pressure systems near the surface (aloft). Near-surface convergence is
the result of the friction force. Divergence indicates that the air flows outward
from one point, which occurs in high (low) pressure systems near the surface
(aloft).
In a low pressure system, the converging air near the surface starts to ascend.
The ascending air cools down, which leads to the condensation of moisture,
cloud formation and precipitation, if the air contains enough humidity.
Therefore, the air diverges at upper levels of the atmosphere.
In a high pressure system, the converging air starts to descend from above.
The sinking air warms, which works against cloud formation and precipitation.
Finally the air diverges near the surface.
However, convergence and divergence cannot last forever. More precisely, the
mass in a fixed volume is constant over time. According to the law of
conservation of mass, it cannot be added or removed in a system with
constant quantity of mass, therefore, divergence arises aloft in a low pressure
system and divergence can be observed near the surface in a high pressure
system.
STUDY TEST
2.3. General global circulation
The average state of the Earth’s atmospheric circulation has been modelled in
different ways. The three-cell model gives us a general picture about the main
wind systems. According to the model, atmospheric circulations are modelled
with three circulation cells, or circulation loops, that rotate around horizontal
axes. The term "horizontal" means that axes are parallel to the plane tangent
to the Earth’s surface. The cells can be interpreted as the average motions of
the air around the globe. See the figure below.
NORTH
sinkinks winds
(dry)
Tropical Easterlies
Subtropical High
(deserts) sinkinks winds
Prevailing Westerlies (dry)
sinkinks winds
(dry)
SOUTH
Figure 2.30. The three-cell model of the general global circulation with
related winds
Equatorial circulation cells (Hadley cells), indirect circulation cells (Ferrel cells)
and polar circulation cells are denoted by I, II and III, respectively. Note that
this is an idealised model of the atmosphere. In the real atmosphere, the
system is larger with complexity and variability. However, the model describes
surface wind systems in a relatively good way. For example, high pressure
areas do not develop uniformly around the globe.
The zone where the greatest amount of solar radiation reaches the surface of
the Earth is called the Intertropical Convergence Zone (abbreviated as ITCZ).
The middle line of this zone is called the thermal equator or less frequently,
the heat equator. This does not coincide with the Earth’s Equator (henceforth,
geographical Equator). The ITCZ migrates with the overhead Sun during the
year, northward in the summer of Northern Hemisphere (July) and southward
in the winter of Northern Hemisphere (January). It can be seen in the figure
below. Also, the monsoon phenomenon relates to the migration of the ITCZ.
Rising air enhances cloud and precipitation formation above the ITCZ. The
ITCZ changes its location depending on the surface type beneath. Above the
land the ITCZ deviates from the Equator more than it does above the ocean.
Figure 2.31. The seasonal migration of ITCZ
As we mentioned above, the region along the thermal equator receives the
highest amount of solar radiation, which leads to a higher air temperature in
comparison to other regions on a yearly average. Because of this, the air
density and the air pressure decrease above the surface. On one hand, the air
starts to rise and flow in the direction of the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of
Capricorn. On the other hand,due to the decreasing amount of air mass near
the surface along the thermal equator, the air moves in the direction of the
Equator. The equatorward flows near the surface are called tropical easterlies
(or trade winds), which are northeasterly winds in the Northern Hemisphere,
and southeasterly winds in the Southern Hemisphere. Rising air and tropical
easterlies induce the circulation of the air. Tropical easterlies do not blow
perpendicular to the Equator because of the rotating Earth. If an observer is
fixed to the rotating Earth, then it can be explained with the Coriolis force.
Please keep in mind that the Coriolis force has to be introduced because of
the rotating reference frame. Horizontal movements seem to be deflected to
the right (left) by the Coriolis force in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
Because of the ascending air, the thermal equator is characterised by a low
pressure area. Due to the high moisture content of the air, heavy rainfalls are
frequent over that region.
However, air pressure will be higher above the tropics, rather than above
higher latitudes at the same height; therefore, the air diverges aloft. Near the
tropopause the air starts to flow towards the poles. It cools down while
becoming denser, which is the equivalent of an increasing mass at a constant
volume. Therefore, the air sinks along the Tropic of Cancer (ca. 23.5°N) and
the Tropic of Capricorn (ca. 23.5°S) develops a high pressure area called the
subtropical high zone. Sinking movements work against precipitation forming,
so deserts are located in this area. As the flow reaches the surface, on one
hand it engages with the tropical easterlies and closes the equatorial
circulation cell in which the airflows in a clockwise direction. On the other
hand, the air flows towards the poles.
Above the poles, cold and dense air sinks and diverges near the surface. The
sinking air starts to flow towards the Equator. It is not perpendicular to the
Equator, also because of the Coriolis force, which deflects it to the east. In
other words, the surface winds are northeasterly in the Northern Hemisphere
and southeasterly in the Southern Hemisphere. These winds are often called
polar easterlies. In the zone of the confluence of the equatorward and
poleward flows, the former starts to ascend due to its lower density.
Therefore, low pressure areas form near the Arctic Circle (ca. 66.5°N) and the
Antarctic Circle (ca. 66.5°S), called the subpolar low zones. The ascending air
diverges at the tropopause and flows both in the direction of the Equator and
the poles, creating the polar circulation cell in which the air flows in the same
direction as in the equatorial circulation cell.
The equatorial and polar circulation cells indirectly form another circulation
cell (henceforth an indirect circulation cell) over the mid-latitudes, in which the
direction of the flow is counter-clockwise. In that cell the air flows near the
surface towards the poles. Because of the Earth's rotation, its direction is
deflected to the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and northwest in the
Southern Hemisphere. The winds that pass over the mid-latitudes are called
prevailing westerlies. Over the subpolar low zone the warmer southwesterly
air collides with the colder northeasterly air from the poles, then climbs up
over it. The border between the two air masses, with significantly different
temperatures that originate from the polar and the tropical region, is called
the polar front (abbreviated as PF). It is located between the indirect and the
polar circulation cell. There is an abrupt change in the air temperature along
the PF; in other words, a steep horizontal temperature gradient can be
observed. The location of the PF changes seasonally. It moves south in winter
and draws back north in the summer in the Northern Hemisphere. To the
contrary, the PF moves north in winter and south in summer in the Southern
Hemisphere. Along the PF troughs and ridges develop, which are associated
with low (cyclonic) and high pressure (anticyclonic) systems. Mid-latitude
cyclones (horizontal circulations with vertical axes, the term "vertical" means
that axes are perpendicular to the plane tangent to the Earth’s surface.) have
great importance regarding the transfer of heat from lower latitudes to higher
latitudes. They determine the weather in the mid-latitudes.
Along the regions with a steep temperature gradient (e.g. just below the
tropopause), narrow bands of westerly winds are observable at maximum wind
speeds. These are called jet streams (see Section 2.7). The two main jet
streams are the subtropical jet stream and the polar jet stream. The former is
located above the PF, while the latter can be found above the subtropical high
zone.
Distribution of the surface pressure and resulting wind patterns at low levels
in the atmosphere
As has been said before, the ITCZ migrates with the seasons, which leads to
the seasonal movement of circulation cells that make up the wind systems in
the atmosphere. Because of this, the wind pattern of the Earth also varies with
the season.
In January, during the Northern Hemisphere’s winter, the ITCZ deviates to the
south from the geographical Equator, which can be seen in the figure below.
Because of this, the tropical easterlies i blow across the geographical Equator.
In lower latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere, outside the region of the
Equator, the Coriolis force deflects the wind to the left. Therefore, the wind
changes its direction from northeasterly to northwesterly, which is called the
monsoon. To summarise, in the Southern Hemisphere, the southeasterly
tropical easterlies are replaced with the northwesterly monsoon. In the
Northern Hemisphere, the subtropical high zone, the subpolar low zone and
the PF move closer to the Equator, so a westerly wind with moister air can be
expected around the Tropic of Cancer. Increasing cyclonic activity with a
westerly wind is observed over the southern regions of the mid-latitudes
leading to an increased amount of precipitation (e.g. over the Mediterranean
region in Europe). The high pressure zone around the polar region that
extends to the Arctic Circle causes northeasterly wind just above the surface.
Meanwhile in the Southern Hemisphere northwesterly monsoon winds
dominate the region over the lower latitudes. The subtropical high zone with
southeasterly winds and the subpolar low zone with westerly winds move
towards the South Pole, so the high pressure area around the South Pole with
southeasterly wind, contracts.
Sea-Level Pressure and Surface Winds
Jan
Figure 2.32. Average wind and sea level pressure distribution near the
surface of the Earth in January between 1959-1997
Letters L and H denote low and high pressure areas, respectively. The ITCZ is
marked with a red line. Air pressure is given in millibars. The average wind
speed increases as the length of the arrows increases.
In July, during the Northern Hemisphere’s summer, the ITCZ deviates to the
north from the geographical Equator, which is shown in the figure below.
Therefore, the tropical easterlies in the Southern Hemisphere blow across the
geographical Equator and the Coriolis force deflects the wind to the right. The
northeasterly tropical easterlies are replaced with the southwesterly monsoon.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the subtropical high zone, the subpolar low
zones and the PF can be found closer to the North Pole. The high pressure
area with northeasterly tropical easterlies is expected to extend northward by
January causing a decreased amount of precipitation (e.g. over the southern
part of Europe). Cyclonic activity and intense westerly winds are retracted to
the north. A high pressure zone with northeasterly wind is contracted around
the North Pole. Meanwhile, in the Southern Hemisphere the subtropical high
zone with southeasterly winds and the subpolar low zone with westerly winds
move closer to the Equator. A high pressure zone with a northeasterly wind
can be found around the South Pole pushes to the north.
Figure 2.33. Average wind and air pressure distribution near the surface of
the Earth in July between 1959-1997
Letters L and H denote low and high pressure areas, respectively. The ITCZ is
marked with a red line. Air pressure is given in millibars. The average wind
speed increases as the length of the arrows increases.
Case 1
1. towards a low (away from a high) then the wind is blowing from the left
slightly on the nose of the aircraft, which will be drifting to the right (see
the figure below in section a);
2. away from a low (towards a high) then the wind is blowing from the right
slightly on the tail of the aircraft, which will be drifting to the left (see
the figure below in section b).
3. towards a low (away from a high), then the wind is blowing from the
right slightly on the tail of the aircraft, which will be drifting to the left
(see figure below in section c);
4. away from a low (towards a high) then the wind is blowing from the left
slightly on the nose of the aircraft, which will be drifting to the right (see
the figure below in section d).
Figure 2.35. Experienced wind by an aircraft flying a-c) towards a low, b-d)
away from in the friction layer
Note that in every case the aircraft is in front of a low pressure system, or in
front of a high system.
Case 2
Assume that the observer is in the Northern Hemisphere (see the figure
above):
c. The observer is north of the cyclone. If the cyclone moves from west to
east, then the wind direction veers. The wind is northwesterly when the
cyclone approaches the observer, then changes to northeasterly as it
moves away from the observer.
a. The observer is south of the cyclone. If the cyclone moves from west to
east then the wind direction veers because of the following. In the
cyclone the air flows in a clockwise direction. Therefore, the wind is
southwesterly when the cyclone approaches the observer, then changes
to northwesterly as it moves away from the observer.
c. The observer is north of the cyclone. If the cyclone moves from west to
east, then the wind direction backs. The wind is northeasterly when the
cyclone approaches the observer, then changes to northwesterly as it
moves away from the observer.
Just above the Equator in a narrow zone, a weak easterly wind direction can
be experienced at high levels because of the convergence of trade winds from
the two hemispheres.
In January, the winds at high levels are stronger, especially over the mid
latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. The average value of the maximum
wind speed can be found at around 30°N in January. On the contrary, in July it
is around 30°S. The wind direction is westerly on average. Temperature and
pressure differences and the resulting air motions are stronger in January in
the Northern Hemisphere in comparison to the Southern Hemisphere.
In July, upper tropospheric winds are weaker and less characteristic in the
Northern Hemisphere when compared to the Southern Hemisphere.
At upper levels of the troposphere the prevailing winds are mostly westerly
and poleward during the year. However, in winter, the wind speed is
increasing over the mid-latitudes.
The term true altitude was introduced in Section 1.6 as the actual altitude of
the aircraft above the mean sea level. If an observer is at a constant pressure
level, then its true altitude decreases (increases) as the air pressure decreases
(increases). Consequently, if an aircraft is flying towards a low (high) pressure
area then the true altitude is decreasing (increasing).
It is worth mentioning that the main wind systems at lower latitudes were
named during the Age of Exploration between the 15th and the 18th century.
Tropical easterlies are called trade winds. These winds blow constantly from
the same direction that helps with sailing. Doldrums refer to the ITCZ ,where
the northeasterly and southeasterly trade winds come together, leading to
calm winds, which are dangerous for sailing. The regions of the subtropical
high zone are called horse latitudes. Further details about the typical wind
systems of the tropics are available in Section 8.2.
Laws of conservation
As was mentioned above, if an observer is fixed to the rotating Earth, then the
deflection of the wind systems can be explained by the Coriolis force. In the
inertial reference frame (e.g. if the observer is fixed to the Sun), the circulation
of the air is required to fulfil the following physical laws.
The energy is transmitted by wind systems and oceanic currents from lower to
higher latitudes. If we are speaking about the transfer of energy, then linear
(2.34)
P = mv
where mass and velocity is marked with m and , respectively, so the SI unit
of the linear momentum is kg y.
The Earth can be considered an isolated system. The sum of the momenta of
its particles that establish the system remains constant at time. To understand
(2.35)
L = r x P = r x mv
This can be shown in Figure 2.38. Note that the magnitude of the angular
2
momentum is L = rmv. It is measured in the SI unit of kg The cross
Let us consider the Earth as an isolated system. Wind systems in the Earth’s
atmosphere can be explained with the above-mentioned physical laws. A brief
overview of the atmospheric circulation is to be found below.
(2.36)
Ekin = |mv2
Comparing the atmosphere to the ocean, the following can be said. The ocean
has a much larger mass than the atmosphere; however, oceanic currents are
much slower than atmospheric currents (i.e. wind systems). The latter is more
significant; therefore, the atmosphere carries more energy from lower to
higher latitudes than the ocean.
As has been said, at lower latitudes near the surface, northeasterly winds
blows. The easterly component of the wind can be explained in the inertial
reference frame by the following. The air parcels rotate with the Earth.
However, the air mass that contains air parcels with the same characteristics
has inertia. Consequently, the Earth rotates faster than the air mass, which
drags behind. Because of the surface friction, the air mass receives linear
momentum from the Earth, which also increases its angular momentum. To
obey the law of conservation of angular momentum, the air mass has to be
transmitted back to the Earth, which can be done by westerly winds.
Therefore, the existence of the zone of westerly winds over the mid-latitudes
is inevitable. The PF (that is the border of the poleward and equatorward
flows), makes wave-like movements, so it can be seen as a type of planetary
long wave. These types of waves are called Rossby waves because they were
first described by Swedish-born meteorologist Carl-Gustaf Rossby in the first
half of the 20th century. The development of the PF can be modelled by a
differentially heated rotating tank. Its centre is cooled while its walls are
heated, which represents the poles and the Equator, respectively. If the tank
rotates with the Earth, then meanders or swirls develop with increasing
amplitudes. The formation of troughs and ridges can be observed.
Equator Equator
Equator Equator
The ITCZ changes its location depending on (1) the season, (2) the surface
type beneath it, and (3) the topography:
1. The Earth’s rotation axis is not perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic.
Therefore, the ITCZ deviates from the geographical Equator to the north
(south) in the Northern Hemisphere’s summer (winter) as well as to the
south (north) in the Southern Hemisphere’s summer (winter).
STUDY TEST
2.4. Local winds
Anabatic and katabatic winds, mountain and valley winds and land and sea
breezes belong to systems that have a diameter of between about 10 km and
100 km. A diurnal cycle means that during the night, the direction of the
circulation is reversed compared to during the day.
During the night, the surface of the slope emits radiation, thereby cooling it
down. The air contracts and becomes denser. Therefore, it starts to descend.
Because of this the air flows downward in the direction of the valley, which is
called katabatic wind or downslope wind. A katabatic wind can be very strong
at times, but generally, it is a light wind around 10 kt (ca. 5 m/s). The surface
cools down faster than the air above it, so inversion can occur in the valley,
which leads to the formation of fog. See the figure below, section B.
Incoming solar radiation
Cloud absorbed by the slope
A B
Figure 2.42. Schematic of the anabatic (A) and the katabatic wind concerning
a slope (B)
Note: The wavelength of the incoming solar radiation is shorter than the
wavelength of the outgoing (terrestrial) radiation.
Secondly, the horizontal movements of the air along the valley (called
mountain and valley winds) will be described. In a mountainous area, if an
anabatic wind blows along the slope, then the air flows into the valley because
of the ascending movement of the air. The wind that blows into the valley is
called valley wind. It is shown in the figure below, section A. Alternatively, if a
katabatic wind blows along the slope, then the descending movement makes
the air leave the valley. This flow is called mountain wind. It can be seen in the
figure below, section B.
A B
Figure 2.43. Anabatic (A) and katabatic (B) wind concerning a slope
During the day, sea breezes blow from the surface of the sea towards the land
because of the following. After sunrise, the Sun heats the land faster and more
strongly than the surface of the sea due to their difference in specific heats.
Please keep in mind that specific heat capacity of land surfaces is lower than
sea. Therefore, the former warms up and cools down faster than the latter.
Because of this, the air that contacts the ground starts to warm up over the
land. Its density decreases, so low-pressure areas and horizontal pressure
gradients develop between the sea and the land. The PGF®0 points in the
direction of the land. The air starts to rise and the colder air from the sea flows
towards the land, which creates a sea breeze. As the air ascends over the land,
the pressure of the air increases at higher altitudes, higher above the land than
above the sea at the same level. Therefore, the horizontal pressure gradient
changes aloft. The PGF will point in the opposite direction, from the land to
the sea. Consequently, the air starts to flow towards the sea. As has been said
before, the surface of the sea is colder than the land, so the air cools down
and starts to descend above the surface of the sea, creating a closed
circulation cell above the coastal region. The average wind speed is about
5 m/s (ca. 10 kt) and the height of the cell may reach about ca. 1000 to
3000 ft (ca. 300 to 900 m) above the surface. The affected area can extend
about 98400 ft (ca. 30 km) from both sides of the coast depending on the size
of the lake or sea. A sea breeze is most likely to occur during clear nights with
warm sea temperatures. The circulation above a coastal region during the day
is shown in Figure 2.44 section A. Cumulus clouds often form above the land,
which can lead to precipitation (see the figure below).
During the night, the wind blows from the opposite direction near the surface,
which is called a land breeze. See Figure 2.44 section B. A land breeze blows
from land to water and it is weaker than a sea breeze because the PGF
induced by air temperature differences between the land and the sea is mostly
smaller during the night than the day. Its average wind speed is about 2.5 m/s
(ca. 5 kt). The affected area by land breeze is also smaller. It is about 29 500 ft
(ca. 9 km) from the coast. The land cools down faster than the water at night
because of the difference in their specific heats. Above the sea surface the air
that is warmer and less dense starts to rise. A horizontal pressure gradient
develops, and the PGF points in the direction of the sea. Therefore, the wind
starts to blow towards the sea, which is known as a land breeze. At higher
altitudes, the horizontal pressure gradient changes because the pressure
distribution is the opposite to that near the surface. The air starts to flow
towards the land while it is cooling down. Finally, the air descends above the
land, creating closed circulation. The direction of the flow in the cycle that
includes a land breeze is the opposite to the case of the sea breeze. A vertical
extension of the cell is approximately 1000 ft (about 300 m) above surface.
Note: The lowest air temperature can be measured above the middle line of the
sea. Therefore, inversions develop above it, which can lead to the formation of fog.
It is worth mentioning that sea breeze and land breeze develop mainly in
anticyclonic circumstances from early summer to early autumn when the
amount of solar radiation is enough to maintain the above-described local
circulations of the air. Relevant to an aircraft near the surface flying parallel to
the coast line, sea and land breezes result in crosswinds.
We have to mention that during the day, a low pressure area above the land
can be considered a convergence zone. Sea-breeze fronts can be associated
with that convergence zone. That front develops where the sea breeze
collides with the warmer air above the land. It is like a cold front where the
warm air slides up to the cold air. It is shown in the figure below. Because of
the convergence, the air starts to rise, and clouds as well as precipitation may
develop.
H —► L
Assume a horizontal air flow with a constant density that is forced to pass
over a channel with a narrow cross section. The velocity of the air flow
increases as the cross section decreases. Furthermore as the velocity of the air
flow increases, the pressure decreases. This phenomenon is described by
Bernoulli’s principle. The pressure drop caused by acceleration of the air flow
for topographical reasons can be called the Venturi effect.
If the air flow is forced into a channel with a narrow cross section, called a
Venturi tube, its velocity increases and its pressure decreases.
If the wind blows towards the mountain and flows around it, a convergence
zone develops on the downwind side of the mountain. See the figure below.
Convergence leads to ascending air. If the air contains enough moisture,
clouds and precipitation may form.
Figure 2.47. Example of an air flow convergence caused by a mountain
(Olympic Mountains, Washington State, USA)
As a side note, as has been explained regarding valley wind, during the day on
sunny days, some winds ascends s over the slopes while other winds flow into
the valley. This phenomenon can also be considered a convergence of air.
Bernoulli’s principle and the Venturi effect are observable not only in gas but
also in liquid. Henceforth, flows of gas and liquid are called fluids. The
principle was described by Swiss mathematician and physicist Daniel Bernoulli
in the 18th century. The effect was named after Italian physicist Giovanni
Battista Venturi. Bernoulli’s principle can be derived from Bernoulli’s equation,
which can be considered the law of conservation of energy for fluids. To
understand the relationship between pressure and velocity, first Bernoulli’s
equation has to be described.
Assume that the fluid is incompressible (which means that its density q is
constant), the friction force is negligible and there is no heat exchange
between the fluid and its environment. The fluid is in a Venturi tube and flows
along parallel streamlines. Streamlines are lines that are tangential to the
velocity vector of the flow. They do not change rapidly over time. This type of
flow is called a laminar flow. See the figure below.
We can see a cross-section of a tube; the velocity and pressure of the fluid in
points 1 and 2 are A1; A2 and v1} v2 as well as p1? p2 respectively.
Note that the work on the fluid along a linear streamline is the product of the
force (denoted by F) that acts on it and the length of its displacement
(denoted by s), thus:
(2.37)
W = Fs
According to equation above, the work (denoted by Wi) on the fluid, that
comes from its weight can be expressed as follows:
(2.38)
Wi = mgh1 — mgh2
where m is the mass of the fluid, hi and h2 are the height of the fluid in points
1 and 2, respectively, and g is the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration.
Note that mgh is the potential energy that is possessed by the fluid relative to
its environment due to its position, where h is the height of the fluid. Potential
energy is also given in the SI unit of joule. Based on the equation above:
m2
J
s2
Mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy.
The work (denoted by W2) on the fluid that derives from the pressure
(denoted by p) can be described as follows. According to Equation 1.9 in
Section 1.3.1, the force F = pA is substituted into Equation 2.40, where A is
the area that is affected by the force, i.e. the cross-section of the Venturi tube,
thus:
(2.39)
W2 = Pl As - P2 As
According to the work of the energy principle, the changes in the kinetic
energy of the fluid (denoted by AEkin) are equal to the work done by all
forces acting on it. This means that:
(2.40)
AEkin = mghx - mgh2 + pi As - p2 As
(2.41)
|mv22 - |mvi2 = mghx - mgh2 + pi As - P2AS
(2.42)
pi As + |mvi2 + mgh1 = p2 As + |mv22 + mgh2
(2.43)
pAs + |-mv2 + mgh = const.
Remember that As = V.
The equation above can be turned into the following summary. Assume that g
and h remain constant over time. If the pressure decreases, then the velocity
of the fluid must increase. If the cross-section of the Venturi tube decreases
then the velocity of the pressure must also increase.
(2.44)
P + ^£v2 + £gh — const.
in which the terms are expressed in the SI units of pascal. The equation above
can be interpreted as follows. The total pressure of an incompressible fluid
(denoted by ps), which is constant along a streamline, is called a stagnation (or
total) pressure and it is the sum of the static pressure p, the dynamic pressure
^-pv2 and the hydrostatic pressure £gh. The air speed is denoted by v.
Dynamic pressure originates in the kinetic energy of the flow of the fluid,
while static pressure does not depend on the velocity of the flow.
The Pitot tube was first constructed by French engineer Henri Pitot in the
18th century. Its modified version, the Pitot-static tube, determines v by
measuring the total pressure and the static pressure. After that, the equation
above is used as follows. The cross-section of the Pitot-static tube is relatively
small, so we assume that the pressure does not vary with height. Therefore,
the term of hydrostatic pressure is neglected,so:
(2.45)
I 9
Ps = P + 2^V
(2.46)
2.5. Mountain waves (standing
waves, lee waves)
If the air flow collides with an obstacle then it is forced to change its original
direction. If the horizontal range of the obstacle is relatively small (e.g. a hill),
then the air flows around it. A top view of the flow around a relatively small
obstacle is shown in the figure below, section a). However, in the case of an
obstacle with larger horizontal and vertical ranges (e.g. a mountain range), the
air is forced to rise and flow above the top of it. A side view of the flow around
a larger obstacle can be seen in the figure below, section b). It is worth
mentioning that turbulent flows often develop behind obstacles. The wind
blows from left to right in both cases.
a) __________________________________
Assume that the obstacle is a wide mountain range and the air flows nearly
perpendicularly to it, forcing the air to rise. If the wind direction is almost
constant, and wind speeds exceed 15 kt (ca. 7.5 m/s) and increase slightly with
increasing altitude, then mountain waves known as lee waves or standing
waves will form. The term standing indicates that the peak of the wave is not
moving (i.e. it remains at the same position above the surface over a period of
time) while the air masses are exchanged in it. As a side note, these standing
waves can also be referred as stationary waves. The term lee indicates the
downwind side (lee side) of the mountain, shown in the figure below.
Figure 2.51. The upwind side and downwind (lee) side of the mountain range
The downwind side can be considered the domain behind the obstacle (i.e.
mountain range). If the mountain range has a north-south alignment, then it
will create mountain waves in easterly or westerly directions.
Note that stable atmospheric conditions are the most favourable regarding
the formation of mountain waves. If we take into account atmospheric
stability then the development of waves can be explained as follows. As we
mentioned in Section 1.2, in stable atmospheric layers the air parcel that is
forced to rise will return to its initial location after the force is removed. The
elevating topography exerts force on the air parcel, which starts to ascend.
After the force ceases, the displaced air parcel starts to descend to its original
position because of the stable atmospheric conditions. However, due to the
inertia of the air parcel, it will descend lower. This process produces oscillation
of the air parcels around their initial positions, leading to the wave-like
movement of the air.
To summarise, the required conditions for mountain wave formation are as
follows:
1. A wind speed of at least 15 kt (ca. 7.5 m/s) near the surface and a slight
increase in speed with altitude.
4. A great horizontal extent of the mountain that forces the air to rise.
Based on the wind speed and the shape of the mountain, waves with different
structure and properties develop.
Near the surface of the downwind side of the mountain, closed circulation
cells with horizontal axes are developed because of the surface friction. (In
that case horizontal means that the axis of the vortex is parallel to the
mountain range.). That zone is called the rotor zone, which can be considered
a low-level turbulent zone. The vortices are to be found under the wave
crests, which are called rotors. These rotors may cause severe or even
extreme turbulence close to the surface. The heights of the rotors can exceed
the height of the mountain. The strongest rotor can be found under the first
wave crest relative to the mountain range. Because of circulation, updrafts
and downdrafts with different intensities are observable in these vortices. If
the air contains enough moisture, then rotor clouds (in other words, roll
clouds) form because of the updraft.
Note: The flow is from left to right (marked with blue lines). Low-level turbulent
zone is denoted by brown-coloured streaks.
A B
Note: The flow is from left to right (marked with blue lines).
Mountain waves are often associated with turbulent flows on the downwind
side of the mountain; therefore, these domains should be avoided during
flight. In dry air, the whirling motion of dust might indicate the presence of
mountain waves and turbulent air flow. As the air rises to the crest of the
wave, it cools down. If the atmosphere contains enough moisture, then water
vapour in the ascending air starts to condensate, leading to cloud formation.
Therefore, orographic clouds such as altocumulus lenticularis, rotor (or roll)
clouds and cap clouds may be developed. The presence of the above-listed
clouds can indicate the development of mountain waves. These clouds look
like standing stationary over the top of a mountain.
Rotor clouds appear on the top of the rotor circulation. They are small
cumuliform clouds, mainly altocumulus. The zone should be avoided by
aircraft because these clouds are related to intense turbulence.
Cap clouds appear on the upwind side of mountains where the air is forced to
rise due to the increasing elevation of the topography and the decrease in air
pressure. The cap cloud extends over the top of the mountain, from where its
name originates. On the downwind side of the mountain, the sinking air starts
to warm, dissolving the cloud. It is worth mentioning that cap clouds can be
associated with precipitation over the upwind side of mountains. These clouds
are harmless but might indicate turbulence over the downwind side of a
mountain.
Figure 2.56. Cap clouds over the mountains of Bolivia
Clouds are stationary over the mountain top and the upwind side of the
mountain.
1 dp
“ X -T-
Q dz
This means that the sum of the forces acting vertically on the unit mass of the
air (e.g. the pressure gradient force and the gravitational force) is zero.
(2.47)
d2z
dt2
The left-hand side of the equation above expresses the acceleration in the
direction of z. In general, acceleration can be described three-dimensionally as
the derivative of the velocity of the moving object with respect to time.
(2.48)
v (t + At) — v (t)
aw= v(t) = r (t) = nm -----------------------
At^O
(2.49)
a (t) = (u(t), v(t), w(t))
du dv dw \
( dt ’ dt ’ dt /
In connection with cap clouds, we mentioned that over the upwind side of the
mountain these clouds can be associated with precipitation. Because of that,
the moisture content of the air that flows on the downwind side of the
mountain can decrease close to zero. Dry air warms adiabatically, which
means that air temperatures increase with decreasing altitude at a rate of ca.
1 °C per 100 m (3 °C per 1000 ft). That type of warm and dry downslope
wind is called a foehn wind. It has a dissolving effect on clouds and therefore a
gap can be formed between the zones of cap cloud and rotor clouds. It is
called a foehn gap.
STU DY TEST
2.6. Turbulence
Note: The speed of the laminar flow decreases near the wall of the tube. In a
turbulent flow, streamlines can cross each other causing eddies.
The planetary boundary layer has diurnal and seasonal variations, and it is
affected by geographic latitude as well. Based on the above-listed aspects, its
thickness varies between a couple of metres and a couple of hundred metres.
Its diurnal variation can be seen in the figure below. As the incoming solar
radiation increases, convective currents and the consequent turbulent mixing
is dominant in the convective layer, which means that heat and energy are
well hybridised. In other words, eddies develop that transport properties from
the surface such as heat and momentum to the higher levels. This layer is not
fully separated from the free atmosphere. Exchange between them is possible
in the entrainment zone. After sunset, a layer with stable stratification is
formed near the surface in which the air temperature increases with
increasing altitude due to terrestrial radiation. In the stable boundary layer and
above it in the residual layer, laminar flows are more dominant than turbulent
flows. The residual layer contains the remains of the convective mixed layer
that formed during the day. It has a neutral stratification. Due to the lack of
turbulence at night, pollutants from the surface can accumulate and transport
horizontally along laminar flows. Temperature inversion occurs above the
residual layer and is creating a stable layer.
It is worth mentioning that strong wind speed may enhance the mixing of the
planetary boundary layer. Furthermore, just above the surface a thin layer is
observed in which molecular friction must not be disregarded. The thickness
of the planetary boundary layer also varies with the season. Generally, it is
thinner in winter than in summer. In winter, during the anticyclonic conditions
over the mid-latitudes, the stable boundary layer may not be replaced with a
convective mixed layer. Therefore, inversion can be observed throughout the
day until a strong front or enhanced solar radiation dissolves it. This situation
is called a cold air pool as can be seen in a Figure 1.21 and it is often
associated with the formation of smog.
As was discussed in Figure 2.58, laminar and turbulent flows are observable in
a real fluid. This means that friction forces act on the fluid parcels causing the
velocity of the flow to decrease near the wall of the pipe. In real fluids, the
transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow is inevitable as the speed of
flow increases. The critical velocity associated with the transition can be
determined by the examination of the relationship between the inertial and
the friction forces acting on the fluid parcel. In laminar flows inertial forces are
suppressed by friction forces, while in turbulent flows inertial forces are
dominant over friction forces. Therefore, flows can be characterised by the
ratio of the inertial to and friction forces. This is called Reynolds number
(denoted by Re) and can be formulated as:
(2.50)
Re = -
V
As was discussed in Section 2.6.2, CAT often occurs in connection with jet
streams, planetary long waves (e.g. Rossby waves) or mountain waves, so it is
mainly expected at higher altitudes in the atmosphere (i.e. the "free"
atmosphere).
By definition, a jet stream is a narrow band with strong wind speed that
exceeds 30 m/s (about 60 kt). It is mainly located near the tropopause. The
maximum value of wind speed is measured in the core of the jet stream. CAT
related to the jet stream is expected in zones where wind shear is strong
horizontally or vertically. On weather charts it is indicated by closely spaced
isotachs, lines that connect points with the same wind speed.
The main areas of the most intense CAT development are as follows. CAT can
be found on the cold, or poleward, side of the jet next to and below the jet
core. CAT is also expected on the warm, or equatorward, side of the jet, above
the jet core. Furthermore, it can be anticipated in the zones of confluence and
diffluence in the jet stream.
In general, CAT more often occurs over land than over sea. The intensity of jet
streams and therefore the associated CAT vary with the seasons. They are
more intense in winter than in summer due to the greater temperature
gradient.
STUDY TEST
2.7. Jet streams
2.7.1. Description
Explanation of the jet streams
A jet stream is a narrow tunnel of strong air flow with a horizontal axis, mostly
flowing from west to east around the Earth. The term "horizontal" in this case
means that the flow is nearly parallel to the surface. The horizontal extent of
the jet stream is larger than its vertical extent. In general, jet streams are
located close to the tropopause in the troposphere or sometimes in the lower
stratosphere. However, low-level jet streams also exist in lower levels of the
troposphere. Jet streams have a significant effect on the mixing of air globally
and on the development of synoptic weather systems (e.g. in the formation of
cyclones and weather fronts).
The region of the strongest wind speed is the jet core (or jet streak). Its
maximum wind speed can reach 100 m/s (200 kt). In extreme cases it exceeds
150 m/s (ca. 300 kt). The strongest wind shear can be found on the cold (i.e.
polar) side of the jet stream near and below the jet core. The jet axis can be
considered the line that connects the points with strongest wind speed. The
jet core and jet axis are shown in the More info box in Section 2.7.3.
The direction of the flow in the jet streams is mostly zonal, which means that
westerly winds blow dominantly in both hemispheres. Among certain
atmospheric conditions, it can flow from east to west. Meridional flows of
southerly or northerly winds exist with less frequency.
The main jet streams are the polar jet stream (or polar front jet stream) and the
subtropical jet stream. These are present in both hemispheres. Other less
intense jet streams on smaller scales also exist. For instance, the tropical
easterly jet stream. Intermittent jet streams are also present in the atmosphere
such as the arctic jet stream (or arctic front jet stream) and the nocturnal jet
stream.
If we examine jet streams fixed to the Earth, this means that the observer is in
a rotating coordinate system, then the consequences of the Earth’s rotation
can be described by the Coriolis force that acts on the moving air parcels. As
was discussed in Section 2.2, the Coriolis force increases with increasing
geographic latitude, and therefore it does not have an effect on horizontal
movements close to the Equator. The Earth’s rotation is the key factor in the
formation of the subtropical jet stream. Along the jet stream the air does not
flow directly from the warmer area toward the colder area;in other words,
from south to north (north to south) in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
This is because the Coriolis force deflects it to the right (left) in the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere. Therefore, jet streams have westerly directions.
The other factor that leads to the development of jet streams is the large
horizontal temperature gradient between two air masses. As we mentioned in
Section 1.1.2, the boundary between two air masses is called the frontal zone.
The tropopause has breaks where air masses interact with each other. Jet
streams may also develop in relationship to these breaks in the tropopause.
The uneven heating of the Earth leads to air temperature differences that
result in air pressure differences. Due to the horizontal temperature gradient
between two air masses with different temperatures, strong wind shear arises
that leads to the formation of jet streams. The intensity of wind shear
increases as the horizontal temperature gradient increases. For example, the
polar jet stream develops above the boundary of polar and subtropical air
masses where the horizontal temperature gradient is the strongest. It is worth
mentioning that less intense jet streams are related to air masses with smaller
horizontal temperature gradients.
The intensity and location of the jet streams change with the seasons.
Stronger wind speed can be measured in winter than in summer because in
winter the temperature difference is larger than in summer. Jet streams are
located more southerly (northerly) in winter than summer in the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere.
In the following section, the main characteristics of the arctic (front) jet
stream, the polar (front) jet stream, the subtropical jet stream, and the tropical
easterly jet stream are described.
The polar jet stream (or polar front jet stream) can be found along the polar
front almost permanently, separating the subtropical warm air mass from the
polar cold air mass. Note that the cold (warm) side of the jet stream can be
found poleward (equatorward). On average, the jet stream is located between
the latitudes 30° and 60°. In winter, it can be found southerly (northerly) while
in summer it moves north (south) and becomes weaker and fragmented in the
Northern (Southern) Hemisphere. It is located between about 30000 ft and
40 000 ft (ca. 9 km and 12 km). These altitudes correspond roughly to the
pressure levels 250 to 300 hPa. Due to its meandering movement, the jet
stream can split into different parts, so the polar jet stream is not always
associated with the polar front.
On average, the highest wind speed is expected over North America because
the steepest horizontal temperature gradient is observed over that area. This
is due to the absence of mountain ranges with a west to east or east to west
alignment that could serve as an obstacle with respect to the flows from north
to south and south to north.
In the Northern Hemisphere’s winter, from October to March, the arctic front
develops around the North Pole. It is located along the boundary of the arctic
and the polar air masses. Just like the polar front, the arctic front is also
associated with a jet stream, which is called the arctic jet stream (or the arctic
front jet stream). The arctic jet stream separates the colder, northerly, arctic
maritime air mass, which originates over the Arctic Sea, and the milder,
southerly air mass above the land. Note that the warm side of the arctic jet
stream coincides with the cold side of the polar jet stream. The horizontal
temperature gradient is lower along the arctic jet stream than along the polar
jet stream. Because of this, lower wind speeds can be measured along the
arctic jet stream.
The subtropical jet stream is located at the boundary surface between the
tropical and mid-latitude air masses. In general, it is observed above the
boundary of the Hadley and the Ferrel cells. Therefore, its location over the
year is in line with the seasonal movement of the Hadley cell. The meandering
movement of the subtropical jet stream is not as characteristic as in the case
of the polar jet stream. It can be found at higher levels than the polar jet
stream, above 32 800 ft (ca. 10 km), because the height of the tropopause is
larger at lower latitudes than higher latitudes (Please keep in mind that the
tropical tropopause can be found between 50000 ft and 60000 ft or ca.
15 km and 18 km.) Because of this, commercial aviation is mostly unaffected
by the subtropical jet stream. On average, its wind speed is slightly weaker
than the polar jet stream. It is worth mentioning that in winter, the polar and
subtropical jet streams sometimes converge, which leads to enhanced wind
speeds. The subtropical jet stream is present more permanently than the polar
jet stream during the year.
The tropical easterly jet stream develops mainly in the Northern Hemisphere
in the summer. Primarily, it can be found above tropical land masses located
north of the oceans (typically between Southeast Asia and Central Africa). The
horizontal temperature gradient always points from the colder area to the
warmer area. The tropical easterly jet stream points from south to north while
the polar jet stream and the subtropical jet stream points from north to south.
This means that the colder (warmer) side of the tropical easterly jet stream can
be found equatorward (poleward). Therefore, the air flows from east to west
in the tropical easterly jet stream. This type of horizontal temperature gradient
can be formed in relation to the monsoon phenomenon as follows. During a
monsoon, due to the large fraction of clouds and large amounts of
precipitation, the land over the subtropical area does not warm as intensely as
in middle latitudes. Therefore, a temperature gradient develops that points
from south to north.
The altitude of the tropical easterly jet stream is about 40 000 to 50 000 ft (ca.
12 to 15 km). The temperature gradient is the strongest during summer and
therefore the most intense air flow in the jet stream is expected in summer as
well. The wind speed in the jet core is about 40 m/s (ca. 80 kt), which is lower
than the wind speed in the polar and the subtropical jet streams in which
about 70 m/s (ca. 140 kt) and 50 m/s (ca. 100 kt) is expected, respectively.
Isobaric surfaces are denoted by dotted lines. Orange and purple arrows show
the magnitude and direction of the geostrophic wind speed in the Northern
Hemisphere.
(2.51)
RdT r d I vg d_ ( Rd
fvg
P chc dz \ T dz \ P
(2.52)
RdT a? r d | ug d_( Rd
fug
P dz \ T dz \ P
where Rj, T, p and f denote the specific gas constant of the dry air, air
temperature, air pressure and Coriolis parameter, respectively. Assume that
the gravitational acceleration, g, is constant. According to the hydrostatic
,. 1 dp „
equation, — x ~ g — 0-
(2.53)
_d_(jL\ = -AfJk x _§p.A
dx \ T J chc \ P dz J
(2.54)
_d_(jL\ = -AfJk x —
dy \ T J cfy \ P dz J
n r d / Rd dp \ Q ( Rd <9p\ ,
Because of — x — = -^ — x — and
dz \ P dx J dx \ P dz J
x it-") = -£-(— x the following can be described based on the
dz \ P dy J dy \ V dz J &
left-hand sides of Equation 2.51 and Equation 2.52 as well as the equations
above:
(2.55)
d_ (21 \ I X
dz \ t ) f dx\T J
(2.56)
d f ug \
dz \ T J f dy\Tj
Integrate Equation 2.55 between height levels zg and z, then rearrange it:
(2.57)
where T(z) and T(zg) are the temperature at heights z and zg, respectively,
and Vg(z), vg(zg), ug(z) and ug(zg) are the geostrophic wind components at
heights z and zq, respectively. Note that z’ is the variable of integration.
Integrate Equation 2.56 between height levels zq and z then rearrange it:
(2.58)
(2.59)
VT == Vg(Z) - Vg(z0)
(2.60)
g H
ut == ug(z) - ug(zo) f J T(z’) V
Approximate T(z’) with the average temperature of the air column between
height levels zq and z (denoted by T). After that, we take into account that
rz i (^T(z) \ j , i/ar\z \ .
4^^/ = f M/(z~z",ancl
(2.61)
g ar / \
vt
x
= —
fT
x —
dx v
(z — zq)
uy
(2.62)
g &T / \
Ut =----f-T X dy
—v(z — Zq)
u'
Based on the equations above, the following statement can be made. The
magnitude of the thermal wind vector is proportional to the magnitude of the
horizontal temperature gradient vector, to the thickness of the layer as well as
to the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration. The magnitude of the
thermal wind vector is inversely proportional to the Coriolis parameter and
the average temperature of the air column between z and zq.
After examining the equations above, the direction of the thermal wind vector
can be determined. To calculate it, first the horizontal temperature gradient
— / &T ST \
vector can be described as VT = —, 0 . It points in the direction
\ dx ay J
where temperature increases.
Multiply Equation 2.61 with ut and Equation 2.62 with vt then subtract
them from each other:
(2.63)
/'t<T W\ ,; x n
aj x <UT’ VT) = 0
The scalar product of the two vectors is zero, and so the thermal wind vector
and the horizontal temperature gradient are perpendicular to each other.
(2.64)
VT = -zo) X
(2.65)
2 (r,
V T = -=(z
= ( ^?-(z — Zq),
\ fT dy v
be seen in the figure below. In the Southern Hemisphere vectors v*t, k and
VT form a negatively oriented Cartesian coordinate system due to the
opposite direction of the Coriolis force.
Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere
In relation to the thermal wind vector, warm air advection and cold air
advection can be explained. In the case of warm advection, geostrophic wind
blows from a warmer air region to a colder air region. The geostrophic wind
veers (changing to a clockwise direction) as the altitude increases in the
Northern Hemisphere. It can be seen in the figure below, section a). In the
case of cold advection, geostrophic wind blows from a colder air region to a
warmer air region. The geostrophic wind backs (changing to a counter
clockwise direction) as the altitude increases in the Northern Hemisphere. It is
shown in the figure below, section b). In the Southern Hemisphere the
opposite is true. See in the figure below, sections c) and d).
a) warm air advection b) cold air advection
geostropic wind direction is veering pressure geostropic wind direction is backing pressure
with increasing altitude with increasing altitude
geostropic wind direction is backing pressure geostropic wind direction is veering pressure
with increasing altitude with increasing altitude
In the case of the polar and subtropical jet streams, the wind blows nearly
parallel to the isotherms, from west to east. Assume an observer who stands
with their back to the flow. If the regions with warmer air and lower pressure
are on the right-hand side (left-hand side) of the observer, then the
geostrophic wind speed increases with increasing altitude in the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere. This can be seen in the figure below, section a) and c).
If the regions with colder air and lower pressure are on the right-hand side
(left-hand side) of the observer, then the geostrophic wind speed decreases
with increasing altitude in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere. This can be
seen in the figure below, section b) and d).
geostroplc wind speed geostroplc wind speed
is decreasing with
a)
is increasing with
increasing altitude colder
b) increasing altitude warmer
air
OJ i
i > I
I
o i
i
i
i
Q.
u) Vp Vpl
i
E
o i
I
I ....... I
I
i I
I i isobars I isobars
------------------------- i
I isotherms warmer
I isotherms------------- colder
air air
t
i Jt
i I
i
Vpl
I
i ................................... i
I
i
i isobars
i Ii
I
isobars
I
I
i .................................................. i I
i I
isotherms colder isotherms warmer
air air
Note: The atmospheric cells and the jet streams are similarly distributed in the
Southern Hemisphere.
An abrupt change in the isotherm and isobaric surfaces is observed over both
sides of the polar and arctic fronts, respectively. The isobars are widely spaced
on the warm side of the jet stream compared to its cold side, and thus the
same pressure surface can be found at higher levels over its warm side. This
leads to a large horizontal pressure gradient along the jet stream. The
distribution of isobars as well as the distributions of isotherms and isotachs
can be found in the figure below and Figure 2.68.
EQ NP
large temperature
gradient at surface
Figure 2.67. Distribution of the isobaric surfaces related to the polar jet
stream
The polar front separates the colder and warmer air masses. The terms "EQ"
and "NP" denote the Equator and the North Pole, respectively.
Figure 2.68. Vertical cross section of the polar jet stream and associated CAT
A jet stream can be recognised by the presence of specific cloud types; however, it
is not necessarily accompanied by visible phenomena as we have seen in the case
of CAT. Most of the time long streaks of high-level clouds such as cirrus and
cirrocumulus clouds indicate jet streams. The cirrus cloud band is located on the
warm side of the jet stream created by the ascending motion if the appropriate
amount of water vapour is available.
Note: The cold side of the jet stream is characterised by descending motions. See the
figure below.
Source NASA
The polar jet stream is associated with the formation and progression of mid
latitude cyclones (called cyclogenesis) and related weather fronts, which can be
seen in the figure below. In general, the front surface is not perpendicular to the
ground, but is inclined relative to it. (This can be seen in the case of the polar front
in Fieri irn O ZQ \ Thi ic nn fhn crrni me! i-hn rnlrl frnnt ic -ahoorl incfoorl nf
The polar jet stream is associated with the formation and progression of mid
latitude cyclones (called cyclogenesis) and related weather fronts, which can be
seen in the figure below. In general, the front surface is not perpendicular to the
ground, but is inclined relative to it. (This can be seen in the case of the polar front
in Figure 2.68.) Thus, on the ground the cold front is ahead instead of aloft.
Because of this, the jet stream is behind the surface front most of the time. In the
case of cyclones where warm and cold fronts are following each other, the warm
front is behind the jet stream and the cold front is ahead of the jet stream by
hundred kilometres. In a later stage of the life cycle of the cyclone, its centre gets
closer to the jet axis until the jet axis crosses the front line. The front becomes
occluded and both the cold and warm front are joined.
Note that these flows are typical at the altitude of the jet core. Closer to the
surface, the opposite flow pattern is observed. Thus, on the left-hand side (right
hand side) of the confluence zone, divergence (convergence) can be observed as a
consequence of the upper level convergence (divergence). High in the jet stream,
the regions with divergence are iconnected to strong, upward motions and the
regions with convergence areconnected to strong, downward motions. The
strongest jet core is usually located in a pressure trough. It has a significant role in
cyclogenesis. In general, cyclones form on the cold air mass side of the jet core.
To determine the location of the polar and arctic jet streams, the layer of
maximum wind speed can be examined (e.g. at the pressure surface of 300 hPa).
Note: The direction of the flow in the jet stream is from west to east. The jet axis is
Wind direction is the direction from which the wind blows. A clockwise change
in wind direction is called veering. An anti-clockwise change in wind direction is
called backing.
Differences in temperature can be considered the primary cause of wind.
The rate of the pressure changes over a horizontal distance can be expressed by
the horizontal pressure gradient.
PGF increases as pressure gradient increases and decreases as air density
decreases.
If isobars are closer to (farther from) each other on a weather map, then PGF
and wind are stronger (weaker). Strong PGF results in stronger wind while
weaker PGF leads to lighter wind.
In normal atmospheric conditions, wind blows from the area with higher
pressure toward the area with lower pressure.
CF turns the wind to the right (left) relative to the original direction of the flow
in the Northern (Southern) Hemispher and increases with increasing geographic
latitude and velocity.
In geostrophic equilibrium PGF and CF balance each other. The resulting flow is
a geostrophic wind that blows parallel to the isobars.
Geostrophic wind is directly proportional to the PGF and inversely proportional
to the CF, the geographic latitude and the air density, respectively.
According to the Buys Ballot’s law, in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere if
someone stands with their back to the flow, then the area with low pressure
can be found at left-hand (right-hand) side.
Gradient wind is the horizontal motion of air parcels along a curved path that
comes from the resultant force of the PGF and the CF.
In cyclones, wind blows counter-clockwise (clockwise) around the centre of the
low pressure area in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
In anticyclones, wind blows clockwise (counter-clockwise) around the centre of
the high pressure area in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
In cyclones (anticyclones), gradient wind speed is lower (higher) than
geostrophic wind speed regardless of the hemisphere.
the high pressure area in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
In cyclones (anticyclones), gradient wind speed is lower (higher) than
geostrophic wind speed regardless of the hemisphere.
In the friction layer, the friction force changes the direction of the geostrophic
wind and slows it down. Over land (water), the friction force slows down the
surface wind speed to about 50 % (70 %) and their direction changes by about
30° (10°).
Convergence means that the air flows toward one point that occurs in low
(high) pressure systems near the surface (aloft). Divergence means that the air
flows outward from one point, which occurs in high (low) pressure systems near
the surface (aloft).
Global circulation is driven by the unequal heating of the Earth’s surface, which
results in air motions that serve as energy balancing processes.
Along the thermal equator the air converges and rises; thus close to the ground
low pressure develops, and great amounts of precipitation fall.
Along the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn high pressure areas are
observable because of the descending air, which works against the formation of
precipitation (subtropical high zone).
At lower latitudes, mid-latitude and around the poles, prevailing winds just
above the surface come from tropical easterlies, westerlies and the polar
easterlies, respectively.
Tropical and polar air masses are separated by the polar front.
Along the polar front troughs and ridges develops, and therefore cyclones and
anticyclones determine the weather over the mid-latitudes.
If we are flying in the Northern Hemisphere towards a low (high) pressure
system, the wind blows from the left (right) and if we are flying in the Southern
Hemisphere towards a low (high) system the wind blows from the right (left).
At upper levels of the troposphere westerly winds are dominant.
Local wind systems can be formed by the unequal heating of the Earth's
surface. These systems have strong diurnal cycles.
An anabatic (katabatic) wind is the upward (downward) motion of the air along a
slope, mainly during the day (night). It is associated with valley (mountain)
winds, which blow up and out of (down and into) the valley.
Closed circulation can develop over coastal regions. The surface winds are
Closed circulation can develop over coastal regions. The surface winds are
called sea breezes and land breezes. During the day (night),s sea breeze (land
breezes) blow from the sea to the land (from the land to the sea).
Local winds are not affected by the Coriolis force, with the exception of sea
breezes.
High wind speeds may occur near mountains due to geographical features. This
can result in a drop in pressure and an overestimation of the altitude
According to Bernoulli’s principle, if air (with a constant density) is forced to
pass over a channel with a narrow cross section, then the velocity of the air
current increases as the cross section decreases and the velocity of the air flow
increases as the pressure decreases.
Among stable atmospheric conditions, if the wind speed exceeds 15 kt and the
wind direction is nearly perpendicular to a mountain range, then mountain
waves may develop.
Mountain waves can cause severe or even extreme turbulence on the
downwind (lee) side of a mountain, which can be dangerous to aviation.
Water vapour can be found in the atmosphere not only in gaseous but also in
liquid and solid states. Therefore, transitions between them - in other words
phase changes - have to be taken into account. Phase changes such as
condensation, freezing and deposition may lead to the formation of clouds
and precipitation. To understand these processes, first atmospheric humidity
as well as terms and measures such as saturation, vapour pressure, dew point,
relative humidity and mixing ratio will be described. Then, in order to gain a
deeper understanding concerning the formation of convective weather
phenomena such as cumulus clouds, atmospheric stability will be explained.
For the sake of simplicity we assume that there is no heat transfer between
the air parcel under examination and its environment, in other words,
adiabatic processes will be analysed. During the analysis, thermodynamic
diagrams will also be used.
3.1. Humidity
Humidity is the water vapour content of the air. It depends on the air
temperature as follows. Warmer air can contain greater amounts of water
vapour than colder air because the volume of warmer air is larger than the
volume of colder air with the same mass. Due to the changing air temperature
and the unequal distribution of air pressure on the Earth, the volume fraction
of water vapour in humid air changes in space and time. Its average value is
0.4 % but it can reach 4 %, for example, over tropical regions along the ITCZ.
However, it can decrease to nearly 0 % over the poles because of the low air
temperatures and descending movement of relatively dry air. Please keep in
mind that the volume fraction of the water vapour never equals 0 % in the
atmosphere. This means that dry air cannot be observed in reality. The volume
fraction of water vapour varies not only with geographic latitude but with
altitude as well. In general, its amount decreases with increasing altitude. The
troposphere contains more than 90 % of all humidity. Moreover, half of all
water vapour can be found between the ground surface and 2 km. As we
mentioned, the volume fraction of water vapour changes over time. In general,
it is lower in winter than in summer because of the seasonally varying air
temperatures.
Humidity
Absolute humidity is the density of water vapour in the air. It measures the
mass of water vapour in 1 m3 of air, and thus it is expressed in the SI unit of
kg/m3.
Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapour to its maximum
possible quantity for a given temperature and pressure in humid air. It is a
dimensionless quantity that is given in a percentage. It will be explained in
detaiI in Section 3.1.2.
Specific humidity is the quotient of the mass of water vapour and the total
mass of the humid air. It is given in g/kg. It is worth mentioning that the
mixing ratio differs from specific humidity as follows; mixing ratio is the
quotient of the mass of the water vapour and the mass of the dry air. As we
have seen, the difference between the masses of dry air and humid air is small.
Therefore, the specific humidity is almost equal to the mixing ratio.
Atmospheric thermodynamics
Every thermodynamic system has its own internal energy, which is the sum of
the bond energy between the particles and the average kinetic energy of the
particles. If we consider an ideal gas as a thermodynamic system then the
amount of its average kinetic energy is greater than the amount of bond
energy between its particles. Note that bond energy is stronger in solid or
liquid substances than in substances that exist in the form of a gas, while the
average kinetic energy is greater in gaseous substances than in liquid or solid
substances.
(3.1)
= Q + W + L
at
(3.2)
dU
dt
This means that the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium.
(3.3)
at
= w + L
In a closed system where heat and matter are not exchanged between the
system and its environment:
(3.4)
£ = W
at
where W is the pressure-volume work, which is the work that changes the
volume (denoted by V) of the examined thermodynamic system. The volume
can increase or decrease. Conventionally, the W is negative when the work is
done by the system on the environment and positive when the work is done
by the environment on the system. The pressure-volume work can be
formulated as:
(3.5)
W = pdV
Assume a thermodynamic system that is filled with dry air, which can be
approximated by the concept of ideal gas. Remember the diagrams that show
the relationships between temperature, pressure and volume. It is worth
mentioning that if we are speaking about the adiabatic processes of the air,
then we assume that there is no heat and mass transfer across the boundary
of the system and the change of the internal energy over time originates from
the pressure-volume work, according to Equation 3.4 and Equation 3.5.
Note: Dry air can be considered a system filled with a substance in a gaseous state
of matter, which means that only one phase is observable.
The physics of humid air is more complex compared to that of dry air. It can be
a mixture of two components of a gaseous state of matter, namely, water
vapour and dry air or the mixture of two or even three phases such as solid,
liquid and gaseous. Even if the system is closed, the particles in it may change
phases (e.g. water vapour transforms to water). Those transitions involve heat
energy (latent heat), which must be taken into account during the examination
of changes in the internal energy.
Details about the phase changes of the water and adiabatic processes are
available in Section 3.2 and in Section 3.3, respectively.
Note that the mass of humid air is the sum of the mass of dry air and the mass
of water vapour in it. The mixing ratio of humid air is the rate of the mass of
water vapour to the mass of dry air. Note that in meteorological literature it is
also called actual mixing ratio. Its SI unit is g/kg or kg/kg. For example, 1 g/kg
(or 0.001 kg/kg) means that the rate of water vapour is 1 g (or 0.001 kg) to the
dry air with a mass of 1 kg.
If humid air gets saturated with liquid water, then the water vapour starts to
turn into water via the process of condensation. In that case air is called
saturated. The saturation mixing ratio is the mixing ratio of the saturated air.
More precisely, it is the rate of the maximum mass of water vapour to the
mass of dry air that can be held by the humid air without condensation. It is
also expressed in the SI units of g/kg or kg/kg.
Based on its definition, a mixing ratio is influenced by humidity. It increases
(decreases) with increasing (decreasing) amounts of water vapour in the air. It
is also affected by temperature because warmer air can contain greater
amounts of water vapour without saturation than colder air. The mixing ratio
is also influenced by air pressure. However, if the air is unsaturated, then the
mixing ratio remains constant as height increases because of its definition.
Figure 3.1. Saturation vapour pressure a) over an ice surface and b) over a
water surface
Dew point is the temperature of the air parcel that must be cooled to be
saturated at a constant air pressure and a constant amount of water vapour in
the air. It is given in the SI unit of °C.
The dew point is always less than or equal to the air temperature that can be
measured at a given time. The humid air becomes saturated when the air
temperature decreases to the value of the dew point or when the dew point
increases to the level of the actual air temperature. Note that air temperature
that is measured at a given time is often referred as the actual temperature in
aviation.
By using such diagrams, one can draw conclusions about the thermodynamic
processes of the atmosphere. For example, the vertical movement of an air
parcel can be seen in a p-T diagram. If we denote the actual values of
temperature and pressure of an ascending or descending air parcel in the p-T
diagram, then we can see the thermodynamic route of the air parcel, which
can be represented by continuous lines. Atmospheric stability can also be
examined in these diagrams. It is worth mentioning that there are special
types of thermodynamic diagrams that are used for meteorological purposes
and allow us to analyse relationships between the above-mentioned physical
quantities and atmospheric energetics. This type of analysis is based on data
measured by radiosondes attached to weather balloons, which can be plotted
on thermodynamic diagrams.
Figure 3.2. Simplified thermodynamic diagram (p-T diagram)
Note: Only the primary x-axis is divided into equal intervals. The lines of equal
mixing ratio or saturation mixing ratio are marked with nearly straight dashed lines.
Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapour and the possible
maximum amount of water vapour for a given temperature in humid air. It is a
dimensionless quantity that varies between 0 and 1. It also can be expressed
in a percentage if we multiply it by 100. Relative humidity expresses how close
the air is to being saturated. For example, 99 % (or 0.99) means that water
vapour of the air is "almost" saturated.
Relative humidity is also connected to the dew point. On the basis of the
above-mentioned, the relationship between dew point, actual temperature
and relative humidity can be summarised as follows:
Relative humidity can be estimated from the difference between the actual
temperature and the dew point. It is worth mentioning that devices called
hygrometers allow us to measure relative humidity and dew point directly.
A proper estimation for the relative humidity can be given by the following
empirical formula, if the relative humidity is above 50 %.
(3.6)
relative humidity ~ 100 — 5(T — Tj)
where T is the actual temperature and Tj is the dew point. Both are given in
units of °C. For example, if T = 25 °C and Tj = 17 °C, then relative humidity is
about 60 %.
Lines that connect points with the same relative humidity are coloured.
Relative humidity is estimated by using a modified version of the Magnus
formula, which can be found in Equation 3.14.
Relative humidity can also be approximated as the quotient of the mixing ratio
and the saturation mixing ratio at a given temperature. More complex
formulas and description of the measuring devices are available in the
following subchapter.
As we mentioned above, dry air can be considered an ideal gas. The state of
an ideal gas is determined by its volume, pressure and temperature.
Unsaturated humid air is the mixture of gases namely, the mixture of water
vapour and dry air. The amount of water vapour also must be characterised.
Forthat purpose, different measures were constructed (i.e. mixing ratio,
relative humidity, dew point).
Please keep in mind that the above-listed measures depend on each other,
consequently the following complex formulas from Equation 3.7 to
Equation 3.14 are introduced to make proper estimations. Those formulas will
also be used to determine the route of an air parcel in thermodynamic
diagrams, shown in Section 3.3. Quantities such as dew point and relative
humidity can also be measured directly.
Over flat water or ice surfaces saturation vapour pressure (denoted by es) only
depends on the type of the substance and its temperature; in other words, it is
a function of the temperature of the given substance: es(T).
(3.7)
aT
es(T) « 6.11 x 10^7
(3.8)
__ mv Qv av
md Qd ad
According to the equation above, the mixing ratio of humid air increases with
an increasing amount of water in it.
(3.9)
i = RvT
(3.10)
where Rv, Rd are the specific gas constants of water vapour and dry air,
respectively. We assume that the temperature of water vapour and dry air are
equal to each other (denoted by T). According to Dalton’s law, first described
by English physicist and chemist John Dalton in the beginning of the 19th
century, the pressure of a mixture of various gases is the sum of the pressure
of each compound. Therefore the pressure of dry air is p — e in the equation
above.
After the rearrangement of Equation 3.9 and Equation 3.10, and their
replacement into Equation 3.8, the following can be said:
(3.11)
Qv __ RVT _ Rj e
*?d — ~ R? P~e
RdT
287—
kgK x _e_
462—^— P“e
kg K
0 -62 « 0 .62 |
The saturation mixing ratio (rs) can be described similarly to the equation
below, using es instead of e. So:
(3.12)
Rd x
rs = — ..
rtv P s-
« 0 .62 —
P-es
« 0 .62 -
p
Relative humidity (denoted by f) is the quotient of the mixing ratio and the
saturation mixing ratio and therefore:
(3.13)
Rv X p-ee
—
e P e
X
— X es P es es
Rv p—es
If e reaches the value of es, then humid air becomes saturated and water
vapour starts to condensate.
As was written above, dew point (denoted by Tj) is the temperature of the air
parcel to which it must be cooled to be saturated at a constant air pressure. In
practice, dew point can be estimated by using the Magnus formula and its
modified versions, such as:
(3.14)
where b, c and d are empirical constants. The values of b and c are 17.368
and 238.88 °C between 0 °C and 50 °C while 17.966 and 247.15 °C between
-40 °C and 0 °C, respectively, and in addition, d = 227.3 °C. The formula can
also be resolved for the relative humidity if the actual temperature (denoted
by T) and dew point are known.
As a side note, lines that connect points with equal humidity (i.e. relative
humidity, mixing ratio etc.) in thermodynamic diagrams or weather maps are
called isohumes, and lines that connect points with the same dew point are
called isodrosotherms.
Measurement of humidity
The device that allows us to measure the absolute and relative humidity of the
air is called a hygrometer (from hugros, Greek for 'moist, wet1). Similar to the
tools used to measure surface wind, the first hygrometer was also used in
ancient times. There are various methods to measure atmospheric humidity. In
the following section, some methods and devices will be described. To
measure absolute and relative humidity absorption, a hygrometer can be used.
In this type of hygrometer, hygroscopic material (e.g. sulfuric acid) is used,
which means that water is taken up by the volume of those liquid or solid
substances. That process is called absorption. In that device, hygroscopic
material with a given mass is put into a known volume filled with air. Changes
in the mass of the material indicates relative humidity.
Hygroscopic material that has some property (e.g. extension) that changes
with varying relative humidity are used to take these measurements, as shown
in the figure below. The hair tension hygrometer was invented by Swiss
physicist Horace-Benedict de Saussure in the 1780s. The device is based on
the fact that the length of a human hair increases with increasing relative
humidity. Therefore, it contains a human hair under tension. Prior to its use,
contaminates and oils must be removed from the hair. Forthat purpose,
organic compounds such as diethyl ether may be used. After that, the hair will
be insensitive to changes of air temperature over a wide range, between about
-35 °C and 65 °C.
(3.15)
e = es — Ap(T - Tw)
The value of es is equal to the value of e that belongs to Tw. Values of es can
be found in tables.
The term sling implies that the device is equipped with a handle.
Fan
Wet-bulb thermometer
Note: The wet-bulb thermometer measures lower temperatures than the dry-bulb
thermometer. To avoid the impacts of wind gusts and radiation, thermometers are
often covered by a metal box.
It is worth mentioning that the dew point also can be measured, for example
by using a chilled mirror dew point hygrometer. The device contains a mirror
that is cooled down at a constant air pressure and a constant amount of water
vapour in the air until it is saturated. At that point liquid water droplets appear
on the surface of the mirror. The water droplets change the optical properties
of the mirror that are detected by an electronic device. The temperature that
can be measured at the time of saturation is considered the dew point.
STUDY TEST
3.2. Change of state of
aggregation
The need for latent heat can be explained as follows. On one hand, in a solid
substance particles cannot move freely; in other words, they are bounded. In
liquid and gaseous states the particles can move more freely. This means that
gaseous particles may fill a given volume entirely. To reach that degree of
freedom of the particles, energy is required. In other words, energy is
absorbed by the substance to be evaporated, melted or sublimated. On the
other hand, particles become more bounded while they turn from gas to
liquid, from liquid to solid or from gas to solid. The substance loses the
amount of heat energy that is not required for the phase change, so energy is
released into its surroundings. Phase transitions are summarised in the figure
below. However, it is important to emphasise that phase transitions of a given
mass of substance (henceforth, referred to as the "substance") occur at a
constant temperature. This means that absorbed or released heat only serves
the purpose of phase change; it has no effect on the temperature of the
substance, which makes the heat latent. It is worth mentioning that heat that
causes variations in temperature is called sensible heat.
Figure 3.5. Phase changes between gaseous, liquid and solid substances
Blue-coloured arrows and texts indicate that the substance requires energy
from its surroundings to change its phase, while red-coloured arrows and texts
indicate that energy is released by the substance during the processes.
Melting is observable in all cases if the substance turns from solid to liquid, for
example an ice cube melts after it is taken out of the freezer and put down on
the kitchen table.
Absorbtion of heat
from the object
(decreasing T of the object)
In nature, sublimation may occur over the surface of ice. For example, if the
ice is cooled properly at an ice rink while the hall is heated to make the
audience feel more comfortable without wearing winter clothing, the ice can
sublimate and fog can develop above the ice.
Figure 3.7. Condensation of water vapour in the air on the outer wall of a
glass
At the time of the experiment, air temperature and relative humidity in the
room were about 25 °C and 42 %, respectively. The corresponding dew point
is ca. 11 °C:
1. A glass was filled with fresh water. To cool it down ice cubes were put in
it.
2. After ca. 10 minutes the ice cubes were melted, which cooled down the
water and the glass.
3. On the outer wall of the glass, the water vapour in the air condensed
because the air temperature decreased to the dew point.
The primary process by which water vapour is released into the air is
evaporation of liquid water. To evaporate a substance, heat energy is required
from its surroundings, and thus the temperature of its environment decreases.
The bond energy between particles decreases as their kinetic energy
increases, which means that the particles can move more freely in a gaseous
state than in a liquid state. Water droplets form in the air mainly via
condensation of water vapour while heat energy is released; therefore, the
temperature increases.
1. Assume a rising humid air parcel in which temperature and pressure start
to decrease. If its temperature reaches the dew point then the air parcel
becomes saturated and condensates, so water vapour transforms to
liquid water within it. During the process latent heat is released by the
air parcel at a constant temperature; therefore, the strength of the bond
between the particles decreases while their kinetic energy grows. As a
side note, the air parcel may ascend due to an unstable stratification of
the air or because of the forcing effect of a mountainous region.
Precipitation may form and fall as a result of condensation.
Liquid water transforms to ice via freezing, while ice turns to liquid water
through the process of melting. During freezing, heat is released, similar to
condensation, while melting requires heat from the environment like
evaporation. Therefore, latent heat is released (absorbed) through freezing
(melting).
Like in the case of evaporation, during melting the bond energy between the
particles of the substance decreases while their kinetic energy and degree of
freedom grow. On the contrary, during freezing the bond energy between the
particles of the substance increases as their kinetic energy decreases.
The latent heat of freezing and melting can be explained as follows. Assuming
a constant pressure, freezing and melting points correspond to that pressure.
In the case of freezing, the temperature of the substance decreases to the
freezing point. Then, the temperature does not change until the substance
turns from liquid to solid completely, despite the fact that heat is added to the
substance. Again, we emphasise that this means that heat is required to cover
the phase transition but not to change the temperature; therefore, it can be
considered to be latent. Similarly, in the case of melting, the temperature does
not vary until the phase change finished. After reaching the melting point, the
temperature remains constant until the substance completely turns from solid
to liquid.
Please keep in mind that the freezing point equals the melting point for any
given substance. The temperature of the substance is fixed to the freezing
(melting) point until all particles transform from liquid to solid (from solid to
liquid). However, different substances have different freezing and melting
points. For example, the freezing and melting point of water and ethanol are
0 °C and -114 °C, respectively, which makes ethanol ideal to measure
extremely low temperatures on the Earth.
Freezing occurs on freezing nuclei (in other words, ice-forming nuclei), which
should not to be confused with condensation nuclei. Freezing nuclei are not
water-soluble. In addition, their crystal structure has to be similar to the ice
crystals, which means the most common hexagonal structure. It is worth
mentioning that the crystal structures of potassium iodide and silver iodide
show similarities to the crystal structure of ice, which makes them effective
freezing nuclei. Therefore, in some countries these chemicals are released into
the atmosphere by generators on the ground, or by planes or rockets in the air
during days with a high risk of hail. Due to the higher number of freezing
nuclei, the number of hailstones will increase in some cases, but their size will
decrease, which makes them less dangerous. The above-described process of
hail prevention is called cloud seeding.
We underscore that freezing and melting depend on air temperature and air
pressure. The intensity of melting (freezing) increases as temperature and
pressure increase (decrease). Freezing is affected by the amount of freezing
nuclei.
If liquid water is free from contamination then it can cool down below the
freezing point without a phase change, so liquid water can exist below 0 °C,
which is called supercooled water. However, supercooled water is in a
metastable state, which means that due to any disturbances, freezing of
supercooled water droplets starts immediately and particles turn rapidly from
liquid to ice. In the atmosphere, cloud and precipitation often develop from
supercooled water, which exists between about 0 °C and -20 °C. Supercooled
water droplets may turn into ice because of the external forces affecting them
(e.g. freezing nuclei are introduced into the droplets). It is worth mentioning
that ice crystals can also act as freezing nuclei. Among natural circumstances,
in the absence of freezing nuclei ice formation may require a temperature
below -40 °C and enormous saturation. As we mentioned above, supercooled
water droplets are often involved in the surface icing of aircraft. Various types
of ice must be taken into account related to icing, which may be a serious
hazard for aviation.
In general, freezing occurs in many different ways. For example, liquid water
droplets can contain freezing nuclei, which induce freezing if the temperature
and relative humidity reach the required values. Another example of freezing
occurs when freezing nuclei collide with supercooled water droplets. In this
case, the latter turns to ice because the collision can be considered an external
force that acts on the droplet.
Ice turns to water vapour directly through the process of sublimation while
water vapour transforms to ice via deposition.
The previous description raises the question: what is the difference between
evaporation and boiling? Evaporation means that particles from the surface of
the liquid turn to a gaseous state while boiling means that particles not only
from its surface but also from throughout its volume start to turn to a gaseous
state.
In the case of water, at standard atmospheric pressure (1013.25 hPa) the
temperature that corresponds to the freezing and melting point and the
boiling points is 0 °C (273.15 K or 32 °F) and 100 °C (373.15 K or 212 °F),
respectively.
Concerning water, the temperature of the freezing and melting point and the
boiling point increases (decreases) with increasing (decreasing) pressure. To
demonstrate the dependence of the freezing and melting point and the boiling
point on pressure, consider the following examples:
1. During the process of regelation ice melts due to increasing pressure and
freezes again after the pressure is reduced. For example, the pressure at
the lower part of a glacier that originates from its weight is enough to
increase the freezing and melting point of ice to the level at which ice
melts and the glacier starts to move downward along the slope of a
mountain.
The three curves are joined at the same point, which is called the triple point
(denoted by the letter B). The following conclusions can be drawn based on
the figure below: water cannot be in a solid state above 0 °C. Above the
temperature that corresponds to the critical point, the substance cannot be
liquified at any pressure. (This means that the gaseous substance cannot be
condensed at any pressure, as was mentioned previously.)
Note: The fluid below (above) the critical point can be called a subcritical
(supercritical) fluid.
temperature (°C)
Temperature and pressure values can be found on the x-axis and y-axis,
respectively.
A change in the state of aggregation affects the volume of the material.
Volume can either increase or decrease. In general, the volume of substances
increases through the process of melting. However,the case of water melting
leads to decreasing volume.
The bubble-point curve and dew-point curve join in the critical point. On the
left-hand side of the bubble-point curve the substances are in a liquid state
while on the right-hand side of the dew-point curve they are in a gaseous
state. Between the two lines, liquid and gaseous states are also present.
However, the maximum values of pressure and temperature do not belong to
the critical point, which is the case in a one-component system. Therefore,
liquid and gaseous states can exist just above the critical pressure and
temperature in a multicomponent system.
✓\y bubble-point curve
dew-point curve
The points at which pressure and temperature have their maximum value are
called the cricondenbar and cricondentherm, respectively.
In the following section, let us explain phases and phase transitions in more
detail. In the case of an ideal gas weknow know the relationships between
intensive (pressure and temperature denoted by p and T, respectively) and
extensive (volume, denoted by V) physical quantities. The p-T and V-T pairs of
points in a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system lie on a straight line
(in other words, p-T and V-T are in linear relationship) while the curve of the p-
V pairs of points is hyperbolic. As we mentioned, unsaturated water vapour
can be considered an ideal gas. However, after becoming saturated, phase
transition (i.e. condensation) occurs. After that, water vapour cannot be
approximated by the concept of ideal gas anymore, which means that the
above-described relationships between p, T and V alter as a result of phase
transition.
The figure is simplified because it does not contain the region in which water
exists in a solid form.
The axes are pressure, temperature and the logarithm of volume (the latter
provides better visualisation). The p-T (p-V) projection that is shown in
Figure 3.8 can be seen on the left-hand (right-hand) side of the figure.
STUDY TEST
3.3. Adiabatic processes
Let us consider a bottle with liquid at its bottom, which evaporates relatively
quickly (e.g. ethanol). Then, air is pumped into the bottle with a bicycle pump,
which causes adiabatic compression and an increasing pressure. After
removing the pump the bottle is opened, and therefore air will flow out of the
bottle with great speed to equalise the pressure with its surroundings. In line
with the previously concept, the air in the bottle expands adiabatically, so the
temperature drops. It may decrease to the dew point at which the air gets
saturated with ethanol, so consequently the vapour of the ethanol
condensates, leading to the formation of "clouds". Finally, air is pumped into
the bottle again. Via adiabatic compression the air temperature in the bottle
rises, which leads to an increasing temperature, and finally the ethanol starts
to evaporate again. Because of this, the "clouds" disappear in the bottle.
The lapse rates are as follows. Assume an unsaturated air parcel that starts to
ascend. It moves in a dry adiabatic fashion until it becomes saturated. Its
temperature decreases at the rate of about 3 °C/1000 ft (or ca. 1 °C/100 m),
which is called the dry adiabatic lapse rate (often abbreviated as DALR).
At this height the air parcel becomes saturated with water. Consequently,
water vapour starts to condensate and latent heat is released, which leads to a
decreasing temperature lapse rate, because it slows down the cooling of the
air parcel. The temperature of the air parcel decreases in line with the
saturated adiabatic lapse rate (often abbreviated as SALR), which is lower than
the dry adiabatic lapse rate. The temperature decreases at about
1.8 °C/1000 ft (or ca. 0.6 °C/100 m).
Please compare the dry and saturated lapse rates to the tropospheric
temperature lapse rate that is used in the International Standard Atmosphere
(ISA). In the ISA the temperature decreases at the rate of 1.98 °C/1000 ft (or
0.65 °C/100 m).
As a side note, we mention that the dry and saturated lapse rates can be
calculated. The calculation of the former is available later in this chapter.
To follow the route of an air parcel that rises or sinks adiabatically, the terms
dry adiabat and moist adiabat should be introduced, and curves that represent
them should be added to the p-T diagram. An unsaturated air parcel that
ascends or descends adiabatically in dry conditions always moves along a
specific line with the dry adiabatic lapse rate, called the dry adiabat. If the
isotherms are parallel to the y-axis in a thermodynamic diagram, then dry
adiabats usually have an inclination of 45° to the isotherms. We emphasise
that the dry adiabat along which the air parcel moves is determined by its
initial temperature.
A saturated air parcel does not ascend along the dry adiabat anymore, but
moves along a curve with a smaller inclination to the isotherms, called the
moist adiabat. Along the moist adiabat, the temperature of the air parcel
changes in line with the saturated adiabatic lapse rate. Because the moisture
content of the air decreases as the height increases, the distance between dry
and moist adiabats decreases as height increases.
The height where the air becomes saturated with water vapour is called the
condensation level (more precisely, the lifted or lifting condensation level),
which coincides with the level where the bases of clouds form. Condensation
levels can be determined in thermodynamic diagrams as follows. Find the
mixing ratio line closest to the dew point and move along it vertically. The
condensation level is at the height where the mixing ratio line crosses the dry
adiabat along which the air parcel rises. This means that the condensation
level is determined by the air temperature (denoted by T) and the dew point
(denoted by Td), which can be measured just before the lifting movement
starts. It is worth mentioning that the following empirical formula is available
to give an approximation of the height of the cloud base (denoted by h) in the
case of convective clouds, which form due to thermal reasons:
(3.16)
h « 120(T — Td)
If the air parcel is saturated then clouds and precipitation may form, which
makes it difficult to follow the route of an air parcel:
2. Assume that the moisture content of the air parcel becomes saturated
and falls immediately. At this point, we emphasise the definition of
adiabatic processes. We have discussed how no heat or mass exchange
is enabled between the air parcel and its surroundings. However, falling
precipitation indicates the decrease of mass. Therefore, it is called a
pseudoadiabatic process.
Processes in the atmosphere are the mixture of cases above. For example, the
saturated air parcel ascends and descends along different dry and moist
adiabats, but not all of its moisture content falls.
A description of foehn wind is based on the example that can be seen in the
figure below. As was mentioned in Section 2.4, foehn winds are a type of
katabatic (downslope) wind. Assume the initial temperature and pressure of
the air parcel are 20 °C and 1000 hPa. A moist, unsaturated air parcel is forced
to rise adiabatically in dry conditions due to an orographic reason. It ascends
along the slope of the upwind side of a mountain. As the air pressure
decreases with height, the air parcel expands and cools down adiabatically
with the dry adiabatic lapse rate. If the air temperature decreases to the dew
point (in our example, to -3 °C at about 750 hPa), then the air becomes
saturated with water vapour and condensation starts. Consequently, the air
rises farther along a moist adiabat. The air temperature decreases at the
saturated adiabatic lapse rate and clouds and precipitation may form. The
latter falls on the upwind side of the mountain. After this, the air parcel
becomes unsaturated and has a temperature of -25 °C. The corresponding
pressure value is about 500 hPa. At the peak of the mountain, the lifting force
ceases; therefore, unsaturated air will flow downward in a dry adiabatic
fashion, along the downwind (lee) side of the mountain. As the air pressure
increases with decreasing height, the air parcel is compressed and heated
adiabatically, so the temperature of the ascending air increases at the dry
adiabatic lapse rate. As was mentioned previously, the dry adiabat along which
the air parcel descends (denoted by II) corresponds to a higher temperature
than the dry adiabat along which it ascended (denoted by I). As the air parcel
sinks to 1000 hPa, its temperature increases to ca. 30 °C. Consequently, it will
not only be drier but also warmer than it was above the upwind side of the
mountain. This means that the final temperature of the air parcel can be up to
10 °C higher than its initial temperature.
Figure 3.12. The formation of foehn winds
The upwind and downwind sides of the mountain are denoted by the letters A
and B, respectively. The dew point is denoted by Tj, while the initial and final
temperatures of the air parcel as well as its temperature at the height of the
cloud base are marked with Ti, T3 and T2, respectively.
Regarding the weather conditions, the following can be said. On the upwind
side of the mountain, the development of clouds and precipitation is expected,
which can be associated with turbulence. On the downwind side of the
mountain, better visibility is expected because the downward flow dissolves
clouds.
Deep blue, blue, purple and red arrows indicate increasing temperature.
Please compare the right-hand side of this figure to the vertical temperature
profile of inversion in Figure 1.19 in which the inversion layer extends to the
ground surface.
Atmospheric stability can be examined by using the parcel method, which was
developed in the 1930s and 1940s to model the growth of cumulus clouds.
Consider an air parcel and its surrounding environment. The air parcel is at
rest, which means that the sum of the forces acting on it is zero. The air parcel
is displaced vertically because of an effect that originates from its
environment If the air parcel is displaced upward then it starts to ascend
vertically. For example, in the case of katabatic winds such as foehn winds, the
air parcel is forced to rise along the upwind side of the mountain. Another
example is convergence near the surface that coerces the air parcel to rise.
The lifting of the air parcel is illustrated in the figure below. The air parcel will
reach the height where the lifting force is removed. Regarding the first
example, this height is the peak of the mountain.
Figure 3.14. Air parcel rises from height level 1 to height level 2
The temperature and pressure of the air parcel and its environment before the
* *
lifting force affects the air parcel (height level 1) are To, po and To , po ,
respectively, while the temperature of the air parcel and the environment at
*
the height where the lifting force is removed (height level 2) are T, p and T ,
5|C
p , respectively.
The following can be said regarding the air parcel after the lifting force is
removed (height level 2 in the figure above):
1. The temperature of the air parcel can be lower than the temperature of
its environment (T < T ). In that case the density of the air parcel is
higher than its surroundings. This means that the air parcel is heavier
than its environment, and consequently it starts to sink with increasing
acceleration, indicating stable atmospheric conditions.
2. The temperature of the air parcel can be higher than the temperature of
its environment (T > T ). In that case the density of the air parcel is
lower than its surroundings. This means that the air parcel is lighter than
its environment, and is affected by the buoyancy force, so it continues to
rise with increasing acceleration, indicating unstable atmospheric
conditions.
3. The temperature of the air parcel can be the same as the temperature of
its environment (T = T ). In this case the air parcel has the same
density as its environment. Therefore, it will remain at the same level,
which is called indifferent stability or neutral equilibrium.
Please note that we did not assume that the vertical movement of the air
parcel is an adiabatic process before now.
Hereafter, assume that the air parcel rises adiabatically due to some lifting
force, which allows us to examine atmospheric stability of unsaturated and
saturated air parcels. Because of the adiabatic approximation, atmospheric
stability can be examined through the relationship between the environmental
lapse rate, the dry adiabatic lapse rate and the saturated adiabatic lapse rate.
The environmental lapse rate (often abbreviated as ELR) can be considered the
rate at which the air temperature changes with height in the surroundings of
the air parcel. It can be measured, for example by using weather balloons
equipped with radiosondes. If we assume a linear relationship between
temperature and height then the environmental lapse rate is constant.
If the rising air parcel is unsaturated then the temperature of the air parcel
changes in accordance with the dry adiabatic lapse rate. Therefore, the
following three cases can be examined:
1. If the environmental lapse rate is lower than the dry adiabatic lapse rate,
then the atmosphere is stable.
2. If the environmental lapse rate is higher than the dry adiabatic lapse
rate, then the atmosphere is unstable.
3. If the environmental lapse rate equals the dry adiabatic lapse rate, then
the equilibrium is called indifferent (neutral).
In summary:
If the rising air parcel is saturated then the temperature of the air parcel
changes in accordance with the saturated adiabatic lapse rate:
3. If the environmental lapse rate equals the saturated adiabatic lapse rate,
then the equilibrium is called indifferent (neutral)
In summary:
We know that dry adiabatic lapse rate is always greater than saturated
adiabatic lapse rate. Consequently, the following terms can be introduced in
connection with atmospheric stability, regardless of whether the air is
saturated or not:
2. If the environmental lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic lapse
rate then it is also greater than the saturated adiabatic lapse rate;
therefore the air is called absolutely unstable.
3. If the environmental lapse rate is between the dry adiabatic and the
saturated adiabatic lapse rate then the air is called conditionally
unstable.
a. Stable atmosphere (the ELR is negative but lower than the DALR and the
SALR).
c. Conditional unstable atmosphere (the ELR is lower than the DALR but
higher than the SALR).
d. Unstable atmosphere (the ELR is higher than the DALR and the SALR).
isotherm atmosphere
Let us examine the atmosphere between the pressure levels of 1000 hPa and
500 hPa. At 1000 hPa, the air parcel and its environment have the
*
temperature of 20 °C (denoted by To and To , respectively). Let the dew
point be 12 °C (denoted by Tj). Assume that the air parcel rises adiabatically,
so it starts to ascend along the dry adiabat (red curves in the diagrams). To find
the condensation level, we move along the mixing ratio line closest to the dew
point (pink curves in the diagrams) until it crosses the dry adiabat. (The
condensation level is marked with a yellow circle.) After the air parcel
becomes saturated, it continues to ascend along the moist adiabat (blue
curves in the diagrams). At 500 hPa, the temperature of the air parcel is
-17 °C. As in the examples of Figure 3.15, we assume that the environmental
lapse rate is constant (green curves in the diagrams):
1. Assume that the environmental lapse rate is lower than the saturated
adiabatic lapse rate (about 1.8 °C/1000 ft or ca. 0.6 °C/100 m), but not
positive. According to the figure below, the temperature of the
*
environment at 500 hPa (denoted by T ) is greater than the temperature
of the air parcel (denoted by T), which indicates absolute stability.
Absolute stability is indicated by a positive environmental lapse rate (i.e.
an inversion). In this case T * is greater than TO* and of course T;
therefore, the air is absolutely stable, as seen in Figure 3.18.
2. In the second case, assume stability below the pressure (and height) level
marked with the light blue-coloured point in the figure below. Then, the
saturated air becomes unstable while the environmental lapse rate is
higher than the saturated adiabatic lapse rate but lower than the dry
adiabatic lapse rate. At 500 hPa T equals -20 °C, which is lower than T
. In this case the atmosphere is called conditionally unstable.
lompe/akire CC)
3. In the third case, the environmental lapse rate is higher than the dry
adiabatic lapse rate (about 3 °C/1000 ft or ca. 1 °C/100 m). T is greater
than T indicating absolute instability, which is shown in the figure
below.
Figure 3.21. Absolute instability illustrated in an emagram
It was mentioned the parcel method was originally developed to model the
growth of cumulus clouds. The assumption of adiabatic processes allowed us
to examine atmospheric stability whether the air parcel is saturated or not.
Consequently, on the basis of what we have previously learnt about adiabatic
processes and atmospheric stability, now we are able to explain and illustrate
the development of cumuliform clouds. Denotations are similar to those in
Figure 3.17 - Figure 3.23. The temperature of the air parcel and its
* *
environment are denoted by To and To at 1000 hPa as well as T and T at
higher altitudes.
1000 hPa 900 hPa 800 hPa 700 hPa 600 hPa 500 hPa 400 hPa 300 hPa
Assume an air parcel (in the thermodynamic system) and its surroundings (the
environment). Adiabatic processes occur in isolated thermodynamic systems,
which means that there is no heat and mass transfer between the air parcel
and its surroundings. Adiabatic approximation of certain atmospheric
processes (e.g. vertical motion of the air parcel) provides us a relatively simple
mathematical and physical explanation.
where p, T are the pressure and temperature of an air parcel at a given height
level, respectively, and po is the reference pressure (it is usually chosen to
1000 hPa). The exponent is ca. 0.286, the quotient of the specific gas constant
of dry air is Rj = 287 and the specific heat of dry air is at the constant
pressure cp = 1005
Note: Pressure and temperature are given in units of hPa and K, respectively.
The adiabatic process can be depicted in the p-V diagram shown in the figure
below. Note that the temperature increases (decreases) during adiabatic
compression (expansion).
Figure 3.25. The p-V diagram of an adiabatic process
Please keep in mind that potential temperature does not vary in time during
adiabatic processes. This is why we can follow the route of an air parcel along
adiabats in a thermodynamic diagrams.
Atmospheric stability
In the following section, the air parcel method will be explained in more detail.
We assume that an air parcel rises to a given height due to a thermal reason or
some external forces. The air parcel at that height has density q and pressure
p. The pressure and density of the environment are q and p . Furthermore,
we assume hydrostatic equilibrium; therefore, the hydrostatic equation can be
used as follows:
(3.18)
The buoyancy force per unit mass of the air parcel can be described in
accordance with Newton’s second law as:
(3.19)
d2z _ _ — X dP
dt2 dz
Note that the buoyancy force is parallel with the direction of the movement.
-i' *
(3.20)
d2z 1 *
Q g - g
dt2
(3.21)
— = gf—-1
dt2 e
general gas law as follows. First, substitute q = ----- - and q = —— into the
Rd T* RaT
*
equation above where T and T are the temperature of the air parcel and its
environment, respectively, at the height where the lifting force acting on the
air parcel was removed. Furthermore Rj is the specific gas constant of dry air.
With the assumption that p = po, the following can be described:
(3.22)
Atmospheric stability can be explained according to the equations above as
follows:
j|c *
b. If£> — q and T — T are negative, then the air parcel is denser (heavier)
and colder than its environment, so it stops rising and then starts to
descend with acceleration. The displaced air parcel returns to its original
position. In this case the atmosphere is unstable.
j|c *
The acceleration and thus the speed of the vertical current increases as the
density and temperature differences between the air parcel and the
environment increase.
Hence, assume that the ascending motion of the air parcel can be modelled by
adiabatic processes. In this case, atmospheric stability can be expressed in the
terms of the dry adiabatic and the saturated adiabatic lapse rates, which
allows us to examine the stability of unsaturated and saturated air in more
detail.
Equation 3.21 is suitable for the substitution of the lapse rates as follows. As
we mentioned, we assume a linear relationship between temperature and
height. Henceforth, the environmental lapse rate, the dry adiabatic lapse rate
and the saturated adiabatic lapse rate are denoted by 7, Td and rs,
respectively.
Let the rising air parcel be unsaturated. In this case, the temperature of the
environment at the height level where the air parcel is displaced by some
*
external force (denoted by To ) and the height level where the force is
*
(3.23)
* *
T = To - 7h
where h is the difference between the height levels that correspond to T and
, _, *
To •
The temperature of the air parcel at the height level where it was displaced by
some external force (denoted by To) and the height level where the force was
removed (denoted by T) can be described as follows:
(3.24)
T = To - Tdh
Substitute Equation 3.23 and Equation 3.24 into Equation 3.22 and assuming
5|C
that To = To so,
(3.25)
[Math Processing Error]
a. If 7 < Td, then the air parcel accelerates downward to the original
height from where it was displaced by some external force. In that case
the unsaturated air is stable.
b. If 7 > Td, then the air parcel travels upward to its original height with
accelerating movement. The unsaturated air is absolutely unstable.
c. If 7 = Td, then the air parcel has zero acceleration. If it stays at the
same height where the lifting force was removed, the unsaturated air is
indifferent (neutral).
Let the rising air parcel be saturated. In that case we have to substitute rs into
the equation above. Atmospheric stability of an air parcel in saturated air can
be examined at the height where the lifting force is removed as follows:
e. If 7 < rs, then the air parcel accelerates downward until it reaches the
original height where it was displaced by some external force. In that
case the saturated air is absolutely stable.
f. If 7 > I\, then the air parcel travels upward its original height with
accelerating movement. The saturated air is unstable.
g. If 7 = then the air parcel has zero acceleration. If it stays at the same
height where the lifting force was removed, the saturated air is
indifferent (neutral).
According to case (b), 7 > Tj. Because rs is smaller than Tj, then 7 is always
larger than Ts. Therefore, the air is said to be absolutely unstable regardless of
whether the air is saturated or not.
According to case (e), 7 < Ts. The 7 is also always smaller than Tj, so the air
is absolutely stable, for example in the case of inversion or in the isothermal
atmosphere.
Please note that the following scenario can also occur in which Ts < 7 < Tj.
In that case the atmosphere is called conditionally unstable.
It is worth mentioning that Equation 3.21 and Equation 3.22 are also suitable
to explain the formation of anabatic and katabatic winds, which were
introduced in Section 2.4. Let us examine the height where the lifting force is
removed above the slope. Assume that the temperature of the air parcel
above the slope and the temperature of its environment are T and T ,
respectively.
*
If T > T then the air parcel continues its movement along the slope upward,
which indicates anabatic wind.
*
If T < T then the air parcel starts to sink along the slope downward, which
means katabatic wind may form.
Please keep in mind that the lapse rate according to the ISA is -1.98 °C I
1000 ft (-0.65 °C 1100 m). As was mentioned, the lapse rates in unsaturated
and saturated are different. The dry adiabatic lapse rate can be calculated by
taking the logarithm of the potential temperature, which was given in
Equation 3.17, and deriving it with the height z. For the sake of simplicity,
assume that T and p only vary with height.
R
ln0= In I T( - CP
I \ p
Multiply the equation above with T and substitute the hydrostatic equation
given by Equation 3.18 so:
(3.27)
T dfl dT T
e dz dz -p
RT 1
After the replacement of — with — according to the general gas law, the
following formula can be described.
(3.28)
T d^ _ dT . g
3 dz dz cp
In the equation above the lapse rates of temperature and potential
temperature are and respectively. During adiabatic processes =0
and therefore the dry adiabatic lapse rate is:
(3.29)
dT _ g
dz cp
(3.30)
9.86 -22- 9.86
g ______ s2 _ ______s2
cp ~ 1005— kgx^
kgs K s2
1005 ----- —
kg K
= 0 .0098 -
111
« 0 .01 —
Ill
Based on the equation above, the dry adiabatic lapse rate in the atmosphere is
approximately 1 °C per 100 m.
As a side note, we mention that the saturated adiabatic lapse rate can be
deduced on the basis of the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, because in that
case the role of latent heat must be taken into account. Due to its complexity,
that calculation will not be explained here.
Thermodynamic diagrams
For meteorological purposes, not only emagrams are used. For example, in the
figure below, a simplified Stueve diagram is shown as a p-T diagram, which is
one of the most commonly used types of thermodynamic diagrams. It was
introduced by German meteorologist Georg Stueve in the 1920s. It is
constructed in such a way that not only isotherms and isobars but also dry
adiabats are straight lines with an inclination of 45° to the isobars. Moist
adiabats are represented with curved lines. However, the energy of the
depicted thermodynamic process is not proportional to the area in the
diagram. Please note that the emagram fulfils this requirement.
Isotherms and isobars are marked with blue straight lines that are
perpendicular to each other. Points with an equal mixing ratio or saturation
mixing ratio are depicted with nearly straight light brown dashed lines. Dry
and moist adiabats are represented with straight green dashed lines and blue
curved dashed lines, respectively.
Emagrams and Stueve diagrams are mainly used in Europe. In North America
and the United Kingdom, thermodynamic diagrams such as skew-T log-p
diagrams and tephigrams are commonly used.
STUDY TEST
In humid air, which is composed of dry air and water, water is present in solid,
liquid and gaseous states. Humidity changes spatially and temporally. It varies
with altitude, geographic latitude and season.
In saturated humid air, water vapour starts to turn into water or ice.
Dew point is the temperature of the air parcel to which it must be cooled to get
saturated. It is always less than or equal to the actual temperature.
Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapour and the maximum
possible amount of water vapour for a given temperature in the humid air. It is
given in a percentage.
Relative humidity increases with increasing amounts of water vapour in the
humid air at a constant air temperature. It decreases with increasing air
temperatures if the amount of water vapour is constant.
As relative humidity increases the dew point comes closer to the actual
temperature. If the dew point equals the actual temperature then relative
humidity is 100 %.
Cloud droplets are suspended in the air, they are not falling out. If the flow of
the suspended particles is observable near the surface of the Earth, then we
are speaking about the formation of fog. Consequently, in the second half of
the chapter, the development of fog and its types will be explained. As fog
reduces visibility, it is explained along with other visibility-reducing
phenomena, such as haze.
4.1. Cloud formation and
description
The following two chapters cover the subject of cloud physics. In this main
chapter, the development of clouds, their types and their classification by
formation and structure will be discussed. Then, in Chapter 5, the physical
processes that lead to the development of precipitation will be described.
These processes belong to the discipline of cloud microphysics.
A cloud is a visible mixture of air and small particles, mainly water droplets and
ice crystals. Thus particles in gaseous, liquid and solid states are present at the
same time in a given volume of the atmosphere. The particles from which
clouds are comprised are called cloud droplets. Clouds form mainly via the
processes of condensation, freezing and deposition. As a reminder,
condensation is the process by which the water vapour in the air turns into
liquid water, freezing occurs when liquid water turns into a solid and
deposition takes place when water vapour turns directly into a solid. A
detailed discussion of these processes can be found in Chapter 3.
1. ice clouds (in other words, cold clouds) in which mostly ice particles are
present;
2. water clouds (in other words, warm clouds), which are composed of
liquid water droplets (even supercooled water droplets); and
Clouds may also be classified into the following three categories based on
their heights:
2. middle level clouds (on average at between about 2 km and 8 km); and
Typically, high level clouds are ice clouds while middle level clouds are mixed
clouds. Low level clouds can be considered water clouds. Water droplets
above the 0 °C isotherm are present in a supercooled state. The state of
matter of the particles at a given level also depends on their season and
geographic latitude.
Three main groups can be distinguished by the shape and structure of the
clouds, which are related to the forming conditions: stratiform, cumuliform
and cirriform clouds. The main characteristics of the three types are as
follows:
1. Stratiform clouds:
• layered clouds
• horizontal extension is much greater than vertical
• typically form in a stable atmosphere
2. Cumuliform clouds:
• convective clouds
• vertical and horizontal extensions are of the same order of magnitude
• typically form in an unstable atmosphere with strong convective
movements inside
3. Cirriform clouds:
The amount of liquid water in a unit of air can be characterised by the liquid
water content (abbreviated as LWC), often expressed in SI units of g/m3 or
g/kg. For example, 1 g/m3 (or 1 g/kg) indicates 1 gram of water in 1 m3 of air
(or 1 gram of water in 1 kg of air). LWC is a crucial factor in cloud and
precipitation formation, as well as in the intensity of icing on the aircraft, as
icing increases with increasing LWC.
For the formation of cloud droplets, the air should not only be saturated but
supersaturated with liquid water or ice. We explain the following two cases:
1. If the air is supersaturated with liquid water, then cloud droplets in liquid
form develop.
2. If the air is supersaturated with ice, then cloud droplets in solid form
develop.
The air may become supersaturated with liquid water in different ways.
After solar radiation heats up the ground surface, it transfers heat to the layer
of air just above via conduction. Heat energy can be transferred to higher
levels in the atmosphere by convection. During convection the warm air parcel
expands, lifts upward and cools down adiabatically, which means that there is
no heat or mass exchange between the air parcel and the surrounding air.
Other mechanical effects may force the air to rise and cool down, such as
orographic or frontal effects, which will be discussed later in this chapter.
As the air parcel lifts, it expands due to the decreasing pressure. Adiabatic
expansion leads to decreasing temperature. If the temperature reaches the
dew point of the air, then the air becomes saturated and condensation starts.
We learnt in Section 3.1 that saturation of the air with liquid water indicates
an equilibria! state in which the number of particles that turn from gas to
liquid equals the number of particles which turn from liquid to gas. It means
that the actual vapour pressure (e) equals the saturation vapour pressure (es).
In a supersaturated state e must be higher than es (e > es). Consequently, the
number of condensing particles will be larger than the number of evaporating
particles. If the air is supersaturated, then the growing of droplets becomes
possible (e > es). The formation and growing of cloud droplets from pure water
require a high supersaturation, which cannot be reached normally in the
atmosphere.
The process by which CCN are formed is called nucleation. It may happen in
different ways resulting in a liquid or solid particle on which the cloud droplets
may form through condensation. Condensation nuclei with a smaller size can
be formed due to the coagulation of gas particles as a result of their collision
with each other. The origin of condensation nuclei with larger sizes is mainly
the sea surface. Particles such as salt crystals or silicates are released into the
air during wave breaking and surface erosion, for example. Aerosol particles
with a size of around 100 nm (0.1 micrometres) are smaller aerosol particles
that may play a key role in cloud formation.
Cloud droplets that are formed through nucleation are still relatively small, a
few tens of micrometres. By definition, cloud droplets are smaller than 100
micrometres (0.1 mm). Larger particles are able to fall from clouds. Therefore,
these are called precipitation particles, which are the subject of Section 5.1.
The air can be supersaturated with respect to ice surface also (e > es).
If the cloud droplets form via deposition, then the number of particles that
turn from gas to a solid exceeds the number of particles that turn from solid to
gas. In other words, the number of depositing particles is larger than the
number of sublimating particles.
Another option is when cloud droplets develop through freezing. In this case
the number of particles that turn from liquid to solid exceeds the number of
particles that turn from solid to liquid. Consequently, the number of freezing
particles is larger than the number of melting particles. The process of freezing
requires freezing nuclei.
3. Mixed lifting: Effects of mechanical forcing help the air parcel to rise
until a certain height where conditions are appropriate for thermal
convection.
Note: Assume an air parcel (i.e. thermodynamic system) that is forced to rise.
Updraft caused by thermal convection happens if the single force that leads to
the upward motion of the air parcel originates from the instability caused by
density differences from the uneven heating of the Earth's surface. The
intensity of the updraft may be measured by CAPE®. During this process
cumuliform clouds develop.
Mixed lifting is when the above-mentioned two types occur at the same time,
which may increase the intensity of lifting, thus forming clouds and
precipitation. In certain cases, conditions close to the surface are not
appropriate for thermal convection (i.e. when the atmosphere is stable), but
cloud formation may be triggered if any of the above-mentioned effects of
mechanical forcing are present, and the updraft may reach the unstable layer
where thermal lifting can happen.
lompe/akire CC)
In this case, near the surface the dew point and the temperature of the
environment are 5 °C and 18 °C, respectively. The environmental lapse rate is
denoted by a green line. Therefore, the convective temperature is 24 °C.
The cloud base is the level where the cloud droplets reach the size and
quantity that makes them visible. This level can be found where the dew point
equals the air temperature; in other words, where condensation starts
(condensation level). This can be illustrated in a thermodynamic diagram, and
it is the same point where the relative humidity reaches 100 %. Cloud base
height is a crucial factor in aviation. It is measured by a ceilometer. The device
works with a light (e.g. a laser) to measure the height of the cloud base. When
the light reaches the cloud droplets, it scatters off them and partly returns to
the sensor of the instrument. The distance between the observer and the
cloud base can be calculated from the elapsed time. A ceilometer also can be
used to determine the aerosol and dust content of the air.
Cloud cover is measured in oktas (Greek for "eight") and can be determined
based on the division of the sky into eight equal parts. The amount of cloud
cover is determined by how many of the eight parts are covered by clouds. For
example, four oktas means that 50 % of the sky is covered by clouds.
A cloud ceiling is a similar concept to a cloud base, and it refers to the level
where the amount of cloud cover exceeds at least four oktas.
Note: Cloud base of certain cloud types (especially stratiform clouds) are irregular
and may change suddenly, which is mostly important to aviation in the case of low
level clouds.
The top of the cloud (cloud top) can be found slightly above the equilibrium
level where the temperature of the rising air parcel decreases to the
temperature of the environment. The air rises slightly above this level because
of its inertia. Determination of the height of the cloud top and the cloud base
on a thermodynamic diagram concerning cumuliform clouds can be seen in
Section 3.3. Knowing the height of the cloud top may be important when
flying above clouds becomes necessary because of icing and turbulence.
Dissipation of clouds
After the air parcel starts to rise, if the effect that supports its ascending
movement weakens so the formation of clouds decreases, and thus clouds
may dissipate. For example, the moisture content of the air is not sufficient
any more (the air dries leading to thinning and dissipating clouds), the
temperature difference (density difference) is not enough to support
convection or the temperature of the air in the clouds increases above the
dew point. Thus, updraft ceases or turns into downdraft, which leads to the
dissipation of the cloud due to adiabatic warming of the air parcel. These
processes can be observed in high pressure systems where sinking motions of
the air can generally be found. Presence of precipitation may accelerate the
dissipation of clouds as it cools the air via evaporative heat loss, thus
strengthening the downdraft.
4.1.2. Cloud types and cloud
classification
The World Meteorological Organization (abbreviated as WMO) classified
clouds into three base categories by their height and into ten main cloud types
(in other words, genera) based on cloud shape as shown in the figure below.
Furthermore, there is a more detailed classification with many species and
varieties, but they are beyond the scope of this book, and thus we will only
mention the most common ones.
In the following section we describe the three base categories (listed as l-lll)
and ten main types of clouds (listed as 1-10) as distinguished by the WMO.
Their abbreviations are given in parenthesis after their names:
I. Low level clouds
1. Stratus (St)
2. Stratocumulus (Sc)
3. Cumulus (Cu)
4. Cumulonimbus (Cb)
5. Altocumulus (Ac)
6. Altostratus (As)
7. Nimbostratus (Ns)
8. Cirrus (Ci)
9. Cirrocumulus (Cc)
Specific height values that belong to different cloud types may change with
latitude because the height of the tropopause increases with decreasing
latitude.
Height category Type Over the poles Over middle latitudes Over the Equator
Stratus (St)
Stratocumulus (Sc)
Cumulus (Cu)
Cumulonimbus (Cb)
• Particles: mixed, water droplets, supercooled water droplets and ice crystals
• General features: it is like a great cumulus with a high vertical extent and in
its mature stage a fibrous anvil shape at the top, strong updraft and
downdraft, sometimes the updraft is extremely strong and may break
through the tropopause into the stratosphere (called an "overshooting top"),
Cb is accompanied by lightning most of the time
• Precipitation: heavy rain, rain showers with large droplets, snow, snow
showers, ice pellets, or hail
• Icing: severe
• Turbulence: severe, extreme
Figure 4.6. Cumulus clouds
Cumulonimbus (Cb)
• Particles: mixed, water droplets, supercooled water droplets and ice crystals
• General features: it is like a great cumulus with a high vertical extent and in
its mature stage a fibrous anvil shape at the top, strong updraft and
downdraft, sometimes the updraft is extremely strong and may break
through the tropopause into the stratosphere (called an "overshooting top"),
Cb is accompanied by lightning most of the time
• Precipitation: heavy rain, rain showers with large droplets, snow, snow
showers, ice pellets, or hail
• Icing: severe
• Turbulence: severe, extreme
Visibility: poor in the cloud and in showers
Altocumulus (Ac)
Altostratus (As)
Nimbostratus (Ns)
Cirrus (Ci)
Cirrocumulus (Cc)
Cirrostratus (Cs)
Cirrostratus (Cs)
In the following section, the above listed cloud species will be exemplified.
The term lenticularis refers to lens-shaped clouds. These forms are generally
in middle level clouds (most typically in Ac) near mountainous regions and
related to mountain waves.
Fractus Irregular cloud fragments change shape quickly and are typically at
low levels under or close to larger Cb or Cu clouds. Occasionally, individual
clouds can also appear in environments high in moisture close to the Earth's
surface.
Incus Also called the anvil of Cb, consist of ice crystals that are spread radially
at the top of the Cb. It refers to a Cb in the mature stage of life. Presence of
mamma (or mammatus) clouds may belong to an intense Cb cloud, but they
may also form on several other types of clouds (Ci, Ac, As, Sc). They look like
humps on the cloud base hanging toward the ground and are formed by cold,
sinking air. Murus, arcus and cauda are typical features related to supercells
and will be discussed in Section 4.1.3. Arcus may also accompany squall lines.
Tuba A rotating cloud vortex that does not reach the ground or the water
surface. When the vortex touches the ground it is called a tornado, and when
it touches a water surface it is called a water spout.
When precipitation starts to fall toward the ground but has not yet reached it,
virga can be seen under the cloud base (see the figure below). Virga can
accompany any type of cloud that has precipitation.
Figure 4.15. Virga
Development of cumulonimbus
The following can be said about the life cycle of cumulus clouds based on
knowledge of the cloud species humilis, mediocris, congestus, calvus and
capillatus.
Cumulus clouds have different names in the stages of their life cycle. In the
first stage they are called humilis (Cu hum). They can be identified by their
horizontal extensions being greater than their vertical extensions They are
also called fair weather cumulus. Mediocris (Cu med) is the next stage when
horizontal and vertical extension are roughly the same. The third stage of
cumulus development is the congestus (Cu con) stage, also called towering
cumulus (abbreviated as TCu). From Cu med and Cu con rain may fall in the
form of showers. After the stage of Cu con thunderstorms (i.e. cumulonimbus)
Figure 4.15. Virga
Development of cumulonimbus
The following can be said about the life cycle of cumulus clouds based on
knowledge of the cloud species humilis, mediocris, congestus, calvus and
capillatus.
Cumulus clouds have different names in the stages of their life cycle. In the
first stage they are called humilis (Cu hum). They can be identified by their
horizontal extensions being greater than their vertical extensions They are
also called fair weather cumulus. Mediocris (Cu med) is the next stage when
horizontal and vertical extension are roughly the same. The third stage of
cumulus development is the congestus (Cu con) stage, also called towering
cumulus (abbreviated as TCu). From Cu med and Cu con rain may fall in the
form of showers. After the stage of Cu con thunderstorms (i.e. cumulonimbus)
may form under the appropriate conditions, which will be discussed in
Section 4.1.3. Depending on the forming conditions, Cu development may
stop at the humilis or mediocris stage.
When flying close to or inside a cloud, the main hazards are icing, turbulence
and decreased visibility. The strength of icing, turbulence and visibility
conditions depends on the cloud type as was listed regarding the main
characteristics of cloud types in this chapter. Details about the hazards of
turbulence will be found in Section 9.2 and of icing in Section 9.1.
4.1.3. Thunderstorms
Clouds may be accompanied by phenomena hazardous to aviation. Weather
phenomena accompanied by electrical discharges are called thunderstorms
(abbreviated as TS, also the METAR/TAF code). In this section, the main
characteristics, types and life cycle of thunderstorms will be described. Their
hazardous effects will be discussed in detail in Section 9.4.
Thunderstorms are made of cells that may develop from locally convergent
and ascending air, called an updraft. A single-cell thunderstorm may form from
one cell. The first stage of its development is called the developing stage
(initial stage, cumulus stage of a thunderstorm). Because of the uneven
heating of the surface, warm air starts to ascend because the warmer air is
less dense then the colder air. This phenomenon is called a thermal column (or
thermal). The air inside cools down with the upward motion, and if its
moisture content is appropriate, the water vapour condenses from it creating
cloud droplets that form Cu clouds. Then it reaches the mature stage, and the
updraft comes to the equilibrium level where the lifting air particle cools down
to the temperature of the environment and spreads radially. This creates the
typical anvil shape of the top of the Cb cloud, which is shown in the figure
below. When an updraft appears, eventually a downdraft also appears to
compensate for it creating the cell. A downdraft forms as follows. As the cloud
droplets grow, they turn into precipitation particles and they start to fall.
Precipitation particles evaporate during their fall. Due to the absorption of
latent heat that is required for the change in state of matter (from liquid to
gaseous), the air cools down. Consequently, it becomes denser than its
environment, leading to the formation of a downdraft. The last part of the life
cycle of the thunderstorm is the dissipating stage in which the downdraft flow
dominates. As the downdraft reaches the ground it spreads around radially.
Gust front of a thunderstorm originate from the strong downdraft and results
in an outflow of colder air. It may force the warm air ahead of it to rise, leading
to cloud formation and even to the development of a second Cb with
thunderstorms ahead of the initial one. In this sense, the gust front behaves as
a pseudo cold front. The wind direction and speed can change as well and may
obstruct the warm inflow into the Cb, resulting in the dissipation of the cloud
as shown in Figure 4.18.
Figure 4.18. Life cycle of a single-cell thunderstorm, (a) developing stage, (b)
mature stage and (c) dissipating stage
The most (less) intense regions are indicated with red (blue). The term kft
means kilofeet, which is equal to a thousand feet. Areas where a gust front
may occur are indicated with blue triangles.
When the updraft is strong enough it can "rise up" the axis of the vortex. It
turns the axis 90°, so the vortex rotates around a vertical axis called a vertical
vortex.
Supercells have a typical cloud structure (see the figure below) that makes
them easy to identify, like murus (frequently called wall clouds), arcus
(frequently called shelf clouds), tail-shaped caudas (frequently called tail
clouds) and mammatus clouds on the bottom of the anvil. Murus form before
the upward motion reaches the cloud base, when the air has a greater
moisture content. Arcus form on the edge of gust fronts. Caudas form on the
edge of wall clouds. Furthermore, an "overshooting top" may appear at the top
of the Cb, which means that the strong updraft may overshoot the tropopause
and create a bulge, along which the anvil can normally spread. Heavy
thunderstorms are often accompanied by towering cumulus clouds, which
indicates the strong updraft zones around it called flanking lines.
In summary the following can be said about the main characteristics of multi
cell thunderstorms:
Cell 2
Cell 1
Cell 4
Cell 5
Cell 6
Gust front
Frontal thunderstorms
Figure 4.25. Lifting effect of a cold front surface on a pre-frontal warm air
mass
Generally (in fair weather zones), the Earth’s surface is negatively charged
while the air above it is positively charged. Therefore, positive charges move
downward and negative charges move upward in fair weather zones, while in
thunderstorms the charges and the direction of their movement are the
opposite. Therefore, the Earth’s surface has a positive charge and the lower
part of the clouds has a negative charge, so generally negative charges are
carried by discharges toward the ground. Electric discharges are created by
the flow of electric current in gases (in this case in the air) after the ionisation
of the gas.
A lightning strike has different stages. The first step is the so-called step
leader, a discontinuous process that creates an electrically-conductive
channel. This channel gathers the charges from the particles, starting from the
cloud to the ground, from the ground to the cloud (less frequently) or both.
The next stage is the return stroke or strokes, which are continuous discharges
in the channel transporting the charges. This type of discharge may be
repeated several times with approximately fifty microsecond breaks between
them.
Electrical discharges may happen not just from high altitudes downwards to
the surface of the Earth but also upwards, from the bottom of a thunderstorm
to its top or even horizontally. However, these phenomena generally are not
visible to the human eye.
If the inversion layer is at a higher level and the air is close to the ground, a
warmer cumulus may form but will stay under the inversion as it inhibits
further growth. Therefore, cloud tops are often flat in this case. Sometimes a
severe updraft can break through this level, which may lead to the formation
of severe thunderstorms. If the condensation level can be found below the
inversion layer, then St clouds may form.
The tropopause can also be considered an inversion layer that restricts the
vertical growth of the clouds. In this case the air spreads horizontally below
the tropopause forming a cloud with an anvil-shaped top called Cb capillatus,
as was mentioned previously.
When the inversion develops close to the ground fog may form, for example
because of the radiational cooling of the ground surface during clear nights. If
wind starts to blow close to the surface or the Sun heats up the surface, fog
may become elevated and turn into stratus clouds. In the following section,
other formations and types of fog will be explained.
STU DY TEST
4.2. Fog, mist, haze
By definition, fog (FG) occurs when the horizontal visibility is reduced to less
than 1000 m and is caused by small water droplets with a diameter less than
0.5 mm floating in the air. Mist (BR) is the same phenomenon as fog, but in
this case, visibility is over 1000 m but less than 5 000 m. It is also called light
fog.
Fog may fully cover a large area, or it may exist partially or in patches (these
are indicated as PRFG and BCFG in METAR/TAF, respectively). When the
height of fog does not exceed 2 m, shallow fog (MIFG) will be reported in
weather briefings.
The formation of fog and mist shows a similarity to cloud formation, except
that it takes place close to the surface. Thus, fog may be considered a cloud
close to the ground. Condensation happens in the presence of condensation
nuclei in real atmospheric circumstances. Particles that serve as condensation
nuclei are present in large numbers close to the ground, for example due to
industrial pollution sources. As with clouds, the air needs to be supersaturated
with water vapour. This condition can be fulfilled in different ways:
1. The first possibility is the evaporation of more water vapour into the air.
2. Another possibility is the cooling of the air to its dew point where its
moisture content starts to condensate.
3. Fog may also form when air masses with different temperatures and
appropriate moisture content mix.
In the case of cloud formation through the adiabatic process, the uplifting
effect forces the air to rise and the air reaches its dew point as a result of
adiabatic cooling. However, in the case of fog the air generally does not rise,
and thus it must be cooled down by other processes. Fog typically forms by
the processes of terrestrial radiation or advection of air masses, which will be
discussed later in this chapter.
We emphasise that with strong winds and high amounts of insolation, the
mixing of air acts against the formation of fog and mist. Therefore, these
phenomena are generally associated with calm weather and inversions, which
obstruct vertical mixing of air. Because of this, fog may lead to increase air
pollution.
It is worth mentioning that the types of fog and mist and the types of
precipitation that will be described in Chapter 5 belong to the atmospheric
phenomena called hydrometeors. These liquid water droplets or solid ice
particles are either suspended by air currents or fall out of the atmosphere.
The above-mentioned particles as well as those particles that are condensed
or deposited on the surface of any object from the air can also be considered
hydrometeors.
Solid particles in the atmosphere like the kind that cause haze are called
lithometeors. They are suspended in the air or carried by the wind. Dust, sand,
volcanic dust, smoke or other solid air pollutants, dust devils and dust storms
are lithometeors.
In the following section the main types of fog will be discussed. They are
radiation fog, advection fog, steam fog, frontal fog and orographic fog.
It is worth mentioning that radiation fog does not develop over large water
bodies. Because of the higher heat capacity of water compared to air,
inversions doe not form over sea surfaces after sunset.
Advection fog
Advection fog may form when warm and moist air masses advect above a cold
and relatively smooth land or water surface (see the figure below). If a cold
surface cools the moist air mass until its dew point, then the condensation of
water vapour may start. In this case wind is needed for the advection of
airmass (ideal wind speed is between 5 m/s and 10 m/s). The development of
advection fog does not depend on the time of the day; it may form during the
day or night Generally, advection fog covers a much larger area than radiation
fog.
Note: While radiation fog only forms above land surfaces, advection fog may form
above both land and sea surfaces.
The dissipation of advection fog occurs when the wind speed increases above
the above-mentioned speed, or the ground surface is rough because of
vegetation or other obstacles. This mixes the air vertically; therefore,
advection fog may rise and turn into St or Sc clouds.
Steam fog
Steam fog develops when a cold air mass moves above a relatively warm
water surface. As water evaporates, water vapour is introduced to the air.
Meanwhile, the air cools down via conduction. The warmer water surface also
heats the air above it and makes it unstable. Thus, the air starts to rise. If the
air cools down to the dew point, fog may form, and it will look like it flows
upward like smoke. (This type of fog is also called "sea smoke".) Steam fog
usually develops in the winter or in polar regions.
Frontal fog
Frontal fog (mixing fog) may form ahead of a warm front or an occlusion front
where precipitation continuously falls through a colder and drier air mass.
Precipitation increases the relative humidity of the air mass. In a warm front
the temperature of the precipitation is frequently higher than the temperature
of the air mass ahead of it, which enhances the evaporation of water droplets
and leads to the saturation of the air mass. Thus, fog or a low stratus may
develop.
Frontal fog moves with the weather front, so it dissipates at a given location if
the front passes by.
STUDY TEST
Clouds are the mixture of air and cloud droplets, called water droplets and ice
crystals.
For cloud development, air needs to be supersaturated state with water vapour,
and needs the presence of condensation nuclei or freezing nuclei. Condensation
nuclei are generally water soluble aerosol particles.
For cloud formation, air updraft is needed, which can be the result of thermal
and mechanical effects.
Cloud types are generally classified by their shape, structure and vertical
location.
WMO distinguishes threes main types of cloud by vertical location (low, middle,
high), and ten subtypes by shape and structure. They are stratus, stratocumulus,
cumulus, cumulonimbus, altostratus, altocumulus, nimbostratus, cirrus,
cirrostratus and cirrocumulus.
Clouds can be hazardous for aviation as they may be accompanied by icing,
turbulence and other dangerous phenomena.
Clouds can be accompanied by thunderstorms, which are storms accompanied
by lightning strikes and thunder. Thunderstorms are also associated with heavy
showers, hail, severe turbulence, icing, wind storms and tornadoes.
Thunderstorms have three main stages of their life cycle: developing stage,
mature stage and dissipating stage.
Thunderstorms can be distinguished by their formation into the following types:
thermal, frontal, orographic and high level convection thunderstorms.
Lightning is a transport of electrical discharges. In a cloud, charge separation
happens on water droplets and ice particles during updraft and downdraft. This
process creates differently charged zones in the cloud. An electrically
conductive channel develops between the differently charged zones through
which the charges are transported during the strike.
Lightning is generally not hazardous for aviation during flight. However, it can
be dangerous to passengers during boarding and disembarking.
Fog forms when visibility decreases below 1000 m and it is caused by small
water droplets suspended in the air. Mist forms when visibility is between
1000 m and 5 000 m.
by lightning strikes and thunder. Thunderstorms are also associated with heavy
showers, hail, severe turbulence, icing, wind storms and tornadoes.
Thunderstorms have three main stages of their life cycle: developing stage,
mature stage and dissipating stage.
Thunderstorms can be distinguished by their formation into the following types:
thermal, frontal, orographic and high level convection thunderstorms.
Lightning is a transport of electrical discharges. In a cloud, charge separation
happens on water droplets and ice particles during updraft and downdraft. This
process creates differently charged zones in the cloud. An electrically
conductive channel develops between the differently charged zones through
which the charges are transported during the strike.
Lightning is generally not hazardous for aviation during flight. However, it can
be dangerous to passengers during boarding and disembarking.
Fog forms when visibility decreases below 1000 m and it is caused by small
water droplets suspended in the air. Mist forms when visibility is between
1000 m and 5 000 m.
Haze forms when visibility decreases under 5000 m due to solid particles
suspended in the air (e.g. dust).
The main types of fog distinguished by formation are radiation fog, advection
fog, steam fog, frontal fog and orographic fog.
Radiation fog generally forms during the night under clear skies when the wind
is calm. After sunrise it often dissipates and thus it has a typical diurnal
variation.
Advection fog develops when a warm and moist air mass flows above a cold
land or water surface.
Steam fog develops mostly in winter and in arctic regions when a cold dry air
mass moves above a warmer water surface.
Frontal fog is associated with warm fronts, occlusions and forming ahead of the
front line where continuous precipitation falls.
Orographic fog is formed because of the mechanical lifting effect of a hill or
mountain on a moist air mass along its slope.
Precipitation
We mentioned that clouds and fog contain droplets which are suspended in
the air. We also discussed that fog belongs to hydrometeors. Droplets of
clouds and fog can fall out from the atmosphere when they reach a critical
size. After reaching this size, we are speaking about falling hydrometeors, thus
precipitation.
In general, water droplets and ice crystals that are suspended by vertical air
currents and are smaller than ca. 0.1 mm can be considered cloud droplets.
The growth of these particles is relatively slow; therefore, they do not
immediately fall down from the clouds. Cloud droplets should reach a
diameter of about 0.1 mm to be considered precipitation particles, which can
fall from clouds without evaporating within a few metres.
The growth rate of the precipitation particles depends mainly on the speed of
the updraft and the LWC00 of the clouds, which varies from cloud to cloud.
Stronger updrafts with higher speeds can suspend larger particles than weaker
updrafts. In general, the most intense updrafts are observable in Cb clouds, in
which the largest precipitation particles can be formed (i.e. hailstones). It is
worth mentioning that the velocity of the falling precipitation particle depends
on its diameter (henceforth the terms diameter and size are used
interchangeably). Calculations concerning the highest speed that can be
reached by the particle are available later.
Assume that the cloud droplet A has a diameter of 0.1 mm. Then, precipitation
particles B, C and D have a diameter of 0.4 mm, 5 mm and 1 cm, respectively.
For example, B is a drizzle drop (its diameter is less than 0.5 mm), C is a
raindrop (its diameter is larger than 0.5 mm) while D is a hailstone (its diameter
is larger than 5 mm).
If the developing liquid water droplet has a size smaller than 0.5 mm then it is
called a drizzle drop. If it has a size larger than 0.5 mm then it is called a
raindrop.
Liquid precipitation may form in clouds when the air temperature is above the
freezing point. It is worth mentioning that liquid precipitation may also
develop through the melting of frozen precipitation.
We have learnt in Section 3.1 that the saturation vapour pressure with respect
to (supercooled) water surfaces is higher than the saturation vapour pressure
with respect to ice surfaces, as shown in the figure below. Because of this,
water vapour cannot be in equilibrium with both of them. If the actual vapour
pressure is between the saturation vapour pressure of water and ice, then the
number of particles that evaporate from the surface of the supercooled water
is greater than the number of particles that condense. However, the air is
supersaturated with ice, and consequently the evaporated particles are
deposited on the surface of the ice crystals. If the number of ice crystals is
relatively small compared to the number of supercooled water droplets, then
ice crystals can grow large enough to become precipitation particles. It is
worth mentioning that the number of freezing nuclei is relatively small
compared to the number of condensation nuclei, but the former increases
with decreasing temperature. Therefore, the chance of the formation of ice
crystals increases with decreasing temperatures.
Figure 5.2. Saturation vapour pressure over supercooled water surface (red
line) and ice surface (blue line)
Ice has a significant role in atmospheric processes, and so the outlines of the
processes in which it may form are crucial to understand. Besides the
development of hail, which can cause serious damage, lightning always occurs
in the presence ice.
The time period that is available for the development of snowflakes and
hailstones is shorter than the time period that is required for the growth of ice
crystals by the Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen process. Because of this, the
aggregation of supercooled water droplets and ice crystals has a significant
role in the formation of snow and hail.
Figure 5.3. Possible path of hailstones in Cb
In general, the stronger the updraft is, the larger the hailstones that may
develop. Consequently, the largest hailstones are associated with severe
thunderstorms, mostly in summer over middle latitudes, due to the large
temperature difference between the cloud base and the cloud top. Along the
Equator, the occurrence of hail is very rare. After hailstones fall down from
clouds, their size starts to decrease because of evaporation and melting.
If there are layers where the actual vapour pressure is below the saturation
vapour pressure, evaporation or sublimation decrease the size and number of
the precipitation particles.
As we mentioned before, particles must reach a certain size before they will
fall from clouds. Particles below that size are sustained and carried by the air
flow. The speed of the falling particles is a function of their size. However,
there is a maximum speed that can be obtained by the particle during its
falling, which is called its terminal velocity. If the acceleration of the falling
particle is zero then the particle has reached its terminal velocity.
Consequently, terminal velocity can be calculated from the equilibrium of the
forces that act on the particle. Though the particle is small, fluid friction
cannot be neglected. Therefore, the forces affecting the particle are the
weight of the particle (denoted by Fg), the drag force (denoted by Fj) and the
The weight of the droplet, the drag force and the buoyancy force are denoted
The weight of the particle was introduced in Equation 1.10 in Section 1.3. It is
defined as:
Fg = mg
Where:
(5.1)
Fg = eVg = £>|7rr3-g
The Fj is called Stokes’ drag, named after Irish physicist and mathematician
George Stokes, who in the middle of the 19th century described the friction
force acting on a droplet falling through a fluid as follows:
(5.2)
Fa = 67rr/r v
where rj is the dynamic viscosity that is given in the SI units of kg/ms and v is
the velocity of the falling droplet.
(5.3)
4 3—
Fb = ftV g g
(5.4)
4?rr3g(^ - £f) = Gtvtfv
o
(5.5)
r2 ( g ~ gf) g
v
If we consider q, g and 77 constant, based on the equation above we can say
that the terminal velocity is the function of the droplet size. It increases as the
size of the droplet increases. Please note that the terminal velocity does not
depend linearly on the droplet's size.
However, as the diameter of the falling particle increases, the terminal velocity
calculated from equation above becomes much larger than the actual velocity
observed. This is because the shape of a small particle can be considered
spherical. As its size increases, its shape becomes flat or irregular, and
therefore the buoyancy force acting on it increases and Equation 5.2 does not
remain valid.
STU DY TEST
5.2. Types of precipitation
Regarding the state of matter, liquid precipitation and frozen precipitation can
be distinguished. Liquid precipitation may exist in the form of supercooled
water, which is called freezing precipitation.
The size of the precipitation particles varies widely. In general, they have a
diameter larger than 0.1 mm. Hailstones are the largest precipitation particles
with diameters of a few centimetres.
Because precipitation falls from clouds, it can be classified on the basis of its
origin; that is, whether it falls from convective clouds (e.g. cumuliform clouds)
or stratiform clouds.
Please note that in weather reports and weather forecasts such as the
Meteorological Actual Report (abbreviated as METAR) and the Terminal
Aerodrome Forecast (abbreviated as TAF), the above-mentioned types of
precipitation are denoted. METAR/TAF codes are given in parenthesis after
the name of each type of precipitation. The main characteristics of the
different types of precipitation are summarised in Figure 5.12.
In the tables below, the values are given in the SI units of mm/h, which are
based on a measurement period of three minutes.
Condition Intensity
intensity < 2.5 mm/h light
2.5 mm/h < intensity < 10 mm/h moderate
10 mm/h < intensity < 50 mm/h heavy
50 mm/h < intensity violent
Condition Intensity
intensity < 0.1 mm/h light
0.1 mm/h < intensity < 0.5 mm/h moderate
0.5 mm/h < intensity heavy
Figure 5.5. Raindrops and drizzle drops
Snow (SN) is the fall of ice crystals that may be aggregated after colliding with
supercooled water droplets (called snowflakes) at a higher temperature than
ca. -5 °C. In snowflakes, the hexagonal structure of ice crystals remains
recognisable, which can be seen in the figure below. The amount of snow can
be given in cm or it can be expressed in the amount of rain, called its water
equivalent. In general, 1 cm of snow is equivalent to 1 mm of rain. The
intensity of a snowfall can be determined on the basis of its water-equivalent.
Categories are summarised in the table below. As in the case of rain, snow
falls with a lower intensity from St, Sc and As and a greater intensity is
observable in convective clouds and Ns. Snow falls continuously from Ns,
while heavy snowfall such as a snow shower may be associated with
convective clouds.
Figure 5.6. Snow accumulates on leaves
Condition Intensity
intensity < 1 mm/h light
1 mm/h < intensity < 5 mm/h moderate
5 mm/h < intensity heavy
Snow grains (SG) are white, opaque particles that usually have an elongated
or plain shape. Their average size is less than 1 mm. They typically form
between ca. -10 °C and ca. 0 °C. Snow grains are generated by St or fog,
similar to drizzle.
Figure 5.7. Snow grains
Ice pellets (PL) consist of ice as seen in the figure below. They are relatively
hard and transparent particles and usually have an irregular or spherical shape.
Ice pellets bounce after colliding with a surface without breaking up. The
collision is accompanied by a characteristic sound that helps us to distinguish
them aurally from snow grains and snow pellets. Their average diameter is
smaller than 5 mm, which makes them smaller than hailstones. Ice pellets are
mainly generated in Cb.
Figure 5.8. Ice pellets
Snow pellets Like snow grains, GS are also white and opaque ice particles. In
snow pellets, the hexagonal structure of the ice crystals becomes
unrecognisable because of riming. Snow pellets have a spherical or conical
shape and their diameter is about 5 mm. They bounce after hitting the surface
and often split up into two or more pieces. These particles often form in Cb;
however, they are observable in Sc and Cu con as well. Because of their origin,
snow pellets usually fall in the form of a shower and are often associated with
thunderstorms. As a side note, snow pellets are also referred as graupels.
Figure 5.9. Snow pellets
In hail (GR), hailstones fall with a diameter larger than 5 mm. See Figure 5.10.
As we have learnt before, hail is generated in Cb where updrafts are strong
enough to suspend those particles in the air so they may reach the above-
mentioned size. Hailstones may have irregular, conical or spheroidal shapes
and a layered structure. Both opaque and transparent hailstones may be
formed.
The average diameter and mass of a single hailstone can be 1 cm and a few
tens of grams, respectively. However, its size and mass are largely affected by
the topography. For example, over areas surrounded by mountains (i.e. over a
basin) or far from the sea, the speed of the updraft and LWC in clouds is
lower. Consequently, less intense thunderstorms are formed and therefore,
smaller but not necessarily harmless hailstones are generated. Even hailstones
with a relatively small size are still dangerous to agriculture, so its avoidance is
one of the main topics of weather modification. Larger hailstones may be life
threatening to all living beings. Hail may seriously damage buildings and
vehicles. Therefore, it may also be hazardous to aviation.
Different scales are available that classify hailstones on the basis of their size.
A common point is that the size of hailstones is compared to objects that have
spherical shapes. Examples of hail classification are shown in the table below.
Note: Data are based on the classification of the Tornado and Storm Research
Organisation.
It is worth mentioning that hailstones with a mass larger than 0.5 kg and a
diameter exceeding 10 cm also may form. The largest diameter ever measured
was ca. 20 cm, in South Dakota I USA in 2010, while the heaviest hailstone
had a mass of 1.02 kg, measured in Bangladesh / India in 1986.
Figure 5.10. Hailstones
Over middle latitudes and higher geographic latitudes near the poles, in
temperatures below -10 °C, ice crystals (IC), or diamond dust, may be
observed. Diamond dust can be considered a special type of precipitation
because it does not fall from clouds. It forms under cloudless skies. Because
single ice crystals are falling, the diameter of each is about 0.1 mm, smaller
than other precipitation particles.
Figure 5.11. Diamond dust
★Note: Snow pellets and small hail are denoted with the same letters (GS).
As we discussed before, below the freezing point liquid precipitation may exist
in the form of supercooled water, which is called freezing precipitation. If
raindrops and drizzle drops remain supercooled until they contact a surface on
which they freeze, they are called freezing rain (FZRA) or freezing drizzle
(FZDZ). If supercooled water droplets have a diameter larger than 0.5 mm,
freezing rain develops. If they have a diameter smaller than 0.5 mm, freezing
drizzle forms.
2. In occluded fronts over middle latitudes, the colder air forces the
warmer air to rise aloft, which may lead to the above-described
stratification.
The circumstances that are advantageous for the formation of rain (and
drizzle), freezing rain (and freezing drizzle), ice pellets, snow and the
corresponding vertical temperature profiles are illustrated in the figures below.
In summary, rain is a liquid precipitation and therefore its temperature remains
above the freezing point when it hits the ground. In the case of freezing rain,
the temperature must decrease slightly below 0 °C to become supercooled
water. Please keep in mind that this state is not stable, so small disturbances
may lead to rapid freezing. Therefore, the chance of the formation of freezing
rain is higher close to 0 °C. At lower temperatures, ice pellets may form. In the
case of snow, the temperature remains below 0 °C.
Rain Freezing rain Ice pellets Snow
Frozen precipitation Frozen precipitation melts Frozen precipitation melts Snow falls through
melts and reaches in warm air. in shallow warm air. cold air and reaches
the ground as rain. Rain falls and freezes Then refreezes into sleet the surface.
on cold surfaces. before reaching the surface.
The 0 °C isotherm is depicted with dashed lines. Please note that the air
temperature is lower than the freezing point at higher altitudes in all cases.
When freezing precipitation reaches a surface, rime ice or glaze ice (in other
words, clear ice) often develop. In general, rime ice forms a white, opaque and
rough ice layer with a relatively low density. Clear ice (in other words, glaze
ice) forms a smooth, transparent, hard and dense ice layer on the surface,
which shows similarity to glass, making it hard to detect visually. Glaze ice is
harder to remove than rime ice, so consequently the former is more hazardous
to aviation than the latter.
We emphasise the importance of sleet (in the United States of America ice
pellets are also called sleet), which is the mixture of snow and rain. It develops
close to 0 °C and also can be deposited on surfaces below the freezing point,
forming a layer of clear ice.
In general, over middle and higher latitudes, freezing rain, ice pellets, snow and
sleet fall mainly in winter while rain and drizzle are observable in every season.
Snow pellets and hail may form in Cb in summer. Along the Equator, mostly
rain and drizzle fall. Hail, ice pellets, snow and sleet rarely occur.
The occurrence of ice crystals and the number and size of water droplets
depend on whether they are generated in convective or stratiform clouds.
Therefore, different types of precipitation are associated with different clouds.
In general, precipitation may fall from the following stratiform clouds: St, Sc,
As, Ns as well as the following convective clouds: Cu con, Cb. Please note that
precipitation never falls from Ci, Cs or Cc.
To summarise, rain and snow fall from both stratiform and convective clouds,
while drizzle and snow grains fall only from stratiform clouds. Ice pellets and
hail are associated with Cb and therefore with convective clouds. Snow pellets
and small hail fall mainly from convective clouds, but they may also fall from
Sc and therefore from stratiform clouds.
Precipitation may also effect the visibility, which is also hazardous to aviation.
In general, visibility decreases as the number of precipitation particles in a
given volume and their size increase. For example, heavy rainfall or heavy
snowfall may significantly reduce visibility even below 400 m, but other types
of precipitation such as drizzle or snow pellets can also reduce it. It is worth
mentioning that snow has the greatest effect on visibility among all the types
of precipitation.
If water droplets and ice particles are present in clouds, then different types of
electric charges form. Ice particles (water droplets) can be considered as
positively (negatively) charged particles. Collisions between them may lead to
the separation of positive and negative charges, causing phenomena that are
the subject of atmospheric electricity, such as lighting. These phenomena may
be dangerous to aviation.
Further details about flight hazards associated with precipitation are available
in Section 9.4 and Section 9.9 in Chapter 9.
The hexagonal structure of ice crystals varies with air temperature and the
supersaturation of water vapour with ice. We are focusing on the most
prominent shapes of these crystals such as plates, columns, needles and
dendrites. If the supersaturation is relatively low, then snow crystals may grow
with the shape of plates near 0 °C and below -10 °C, while ice columns may
form between -5 °C and -10 °C. More complex crystal structures called ice
dendrites develop as the supersaturation increases. However, at about -5 °C
and below -25 °C needle-like ice crystals and columns may also exist,
respectively.
The effect of the surface on the formation of precipitation in convective
clouds
In Section 3.2 and Section 4.1, we mentioned that the number and type of
condensation nuclei differ based on whether they are present above a land or
a sea surface. Consequently, the number and size of the precipitation particles
depend on the type of the surface above which precipitation forms.
The number of precipitation particles is higher and their size is smaller over
land surfaces than over sea surfaces. Over land surfaces, larger numbers of
condensation nuclei are available, which enhances cloud formation and the
development of precipitation if enough moisture is present in the air. Over sea
surfaces, the number of condensation nuclei is lower, and therefore a smaller
number of precipitation particles form, but their size is larger compared to
precipitation particles formed over land surfaces.
In a tipping-bucket rain gauge, a balance with two buckets can be found. After
one of them is filled with rain, the lever of the balance tips and the water
dumps out of the bucket while rain starts to fill the other bucket. The amount
of rain is determined by the number of tips.
The amount of snow also can be measured. Snow that has accumulated in the
precipitation gauge must be melted. During the warming process evaporation
also intensifies, which should be taken into account. The vicinity of the rain
gauge should be free from any obstacles. It should be placed at about 1 metre
high (or above the snow cover).
Precipitation particles do not always coalesce after colliding. They may also
break up, which increases the number of particles.
Ice crystals may also coalesce via the coalescence process.
Supercooled water droplets freeze on the surface of ice crystals via the process
of riming. As a result, the hexagonal structure of the ice crystals becomes
unrecognisable.
Drizzle drops (raindrops) are liquid water droplets smaller (larger) than 0.5 mm.
Snowflakes are the aggregations of ice crystals.
Hailstones are solid precipitation particles that exceeds 5 mm in size.
Rain and drizzle can be considered liquid precipitation. Snow grains, ice pellets,
small hail, snow pellets (graupels), hail and ice crystals are frozen precipitation.
Sleet is the mixture of rain and snow.
The three main categories of intensity concerning precipitation are: light,
moderate and heavy.
Rain (RA) is the fall of liquid water droplets that have a diameter larger than 0.5
mm. It falls from the clouds St, Sc, As, Ns, Cu con and Cb. The heaviest rainfall is
associated with Cb. The amount of rain is measured in the SI unit of mm.
unrecognisable.
Drizzle drops (raindrops) are liquid water droplets smaller (larger) than 0.5 mm.
Snowflakes are the aggregations of ice crystals.
Hailstones are solid precipitation particles that exceeds 5 mm in size.
Rain and drizzle can be considered liquid precipitation. Snow grains, ice pellets,
small hail, snow pellets (graupels), hail and ice crystals are frozen precipitation.
Sleet is the mixture of rain and snow.
The three main categories of intensity concerning precipitation are: light,
moderate and heavy.
Rain (RA) is the fall of liquid water droplets that have a diameter larger than 0.5
mm. It falls from the clouds St, Sc, As, Ns, Cu con and Cb. The heaviest rainfall is
associated with Cb. The amount of rain is measured in the SI unit of mm.
Drizzle (DZ) is the fall of liquid water droplets that have a diameter smaller than
0.5 mm. It falls from the clouds St, Sc, As, and from fog.
Snow (SN) is the fall of ice crystals aggregated after colliding with supercooled
water droplets at temperatures higher than ca. -5 °C.
Snow grains (SG) are white, opaque particles with an elongated or plain shape,
below the size of 1 mm. They are associated with St or fog.
Ice pellets (PL) are relatively hard and transparent ice particles with irregular or
spherical shapes below the size of 5 mm. They rebound after hitting a surface
without breaking up.
Small hail (GS) is composed of translucent and spherical ice particles with a
diameter of about 5 mm. It falls in the form of a shower. It rebounds from a
surface after impact without breaking up.
Snow pellets (GS) are white and opaque ice particles. They bounce after hitting
a surface and often break up. The hexagonal structure of the ice crystals
becomes unrecognisable due to riming. Snow pellets are often associated with
thunderstorms but they are also generated in Sc, Cu con.
Hail (GR) is associated with Cb. Hailstones have a diameter larger than 5 mm.
They can be both opaque and transparent and have irregular, conical or
spheroidal shapes.
Air Masses and
Fronts
In the previous chapters - with the exception of the cloud and fog types - the
physical processes and characteristics of a single air parcel were examined. In
this chapter, groups of air parcels, thus air masses and their related
phenomena such as weather fronts, will be described.
6.1. Air masses
In this chapter, the main characteristics of the main air masses will be
explained in more detail and are determined by the following:
Tropical and equatorial air masses are much warmer than the other
types.
A warm air mass indicates that its temperature is higher than the surface
temperature. This situation may lead to inversion, and thus a stable
atmospheric condition with a lack of vertical mixing. It can cause poor
visibility as well as fog and low-level stratiform cloud formation. A cold
air mass has a lower temperature than the surface below it. It is
generally characterised by strong winds, good visibility and unstable
atmospheric conditions, resulting in the formation of cumuliform clouds.
Sometimes an additional notation is used combining their abbreviations
on weather maps.
Bergeron classification
The terms cold, warm and hot must be interpreted relatively to the
surrounding area.
Average
Moisture
Type Source region Temperature Stability visibility
content
Less frequently the effect of equatorial air masses (mE, cE) also can be
observed, especially at higher altitudes. (Please remember that it the reason is
the southerly air current in the Hadley cell, which is observable aloft.)
A brief description of the weather characteristics of the air masses influencing
Europe can be found below.
The source region of the maritime arctic air mass is the Arctic Ocean;
therefore, its temperature and humidity content are low, because cold air
contains less humidity and because the Arctic Ocean is covered with ice for
most of the year (ice surfaces evaporate less than water surfaces). Typically,
atmospheric conditions are stable in this air mass, but if it moves to a warmer
land surface then it becomes unstable, causing convection and the
development of Cu and Cb clouds producing showery precipitation,
thunderstorms and turbulence.
The polar air mass is greatly affected by the seasons, and so the maritime
polar air mass is cold in winter but mild in summer, resulting in stable
atmospheric conditions in winter but unstable conditions in summer, when it
is generally characterised by strong winds and good visibility. The continental
polar air mass shows more significant differences with seasons, as it is cold in
winter (sometimes extremely cold), but quite warm in summer, because of the
larger fluctuations in temperatures above land surfaces than above maritime
regions.
The maritime tropical air mass is warm and moist (because warm air is able to
contain more moisture than cold), so it is characterised by great instability and
poor visibility especially on summer afternoons. Frequently mist and haze can
be observed. The continental tropical air mass is originally dry and hot at its
source region, but if it flows across the Mediterranean Sea then it gains
moisture. It is also characterised by unstable atmospheric conditions and
moderate or poor visibility. The equatorial air mass reaches Europe at higher
altitudes, bringing hot and humid air with it, leading to enhanced cloud and
precipitation formation.
1. Type of the underlying surface, namely sea or land surfaces, and in the
case of land surfaces the texture of the surface (e.g. soil, vegetation).
A drier air mass may become humid as it moves above a water body, and
vice versa: a humid air mass may become drier above land. Remember
that the temperature of water bodies varies less than that of land
surfaces, because of their different specific heats. The case of land
surfaces is more complicated because different types of soils also have
different heat capacities and albedo and moisture contents. Topography
can also be a modifying factor above land surfaces. If the air mass
crosses an orographic obstacle, it is elevated, which leads to convection.
As its temperature decreases to the dew point, its moisture content may
fall on the upwind slopes of the mountain. A drier air mass on the
downwind (lee) side descends, which leads to the formation of foehn
winds, as was discussed in previous chapters.
As was mentioned above, when a cold air mass (mA, cA, mP, cP) flows
above a warm surface, the air becomes unstable and convection may
occur, creating Cu and Cb clouds, showers and sometimes
thunderstorms. In the opposite case, when a warm air mass flows above
a cold surface, stable atmospheric stratification and thus inversion can
develop. Fog and low-level clouds may form causing drizzle and poor
visibility.
STUDY TEST
6.2. Fronts
Three meanings can be associated with the term front. First, a front is
considered to be a one-dimensional object, a line along which atmospheric
variables (e.g. temperature, humidity) change abruptly. Second, a front can be
seen as a surface, and as such, a two-dimensional object. In this sense, a
front's surface separates two air masses with different characteristics.
Commonly, the line where a frontal surface intersects the ground surface is
called a front. These lines are shown in surface weather charts (e.g. in
Figure 10.36 and Figure 10.37) represented with symbols that can be seen in
Figure 6.3. Third, and closest to reality, fronts are considered three-
dimensional objects, frontal zones, where atmospheric variables change over a
short distance. These are transitional zones between two air masses.
• Stationary front
• Warm front
• Cold front
• Occluded front
Briefly, in a stationary front the air masses cannot replace each other, and the
frontal surface does not move between them. In the case of the three other
types, the movement of the frontal surface is observable. Consequently, these
can be called moving fronts. By definition, a warm front (cold front) occurs
when the warm (cold) air mass replaces the cold (warm) air mass. The front
becomes occluded when the cold front overtakes the warm front because of
its higher speed.
From the aviation point of view, the following can be said about fronts. Above
weather fronts, severe turbulence (frequently CAT) can be experienced, as jet
streams often accompanying them. If an aircraft crosses a frontal surface, then
a significant and rapid change of temperature and pressure is expected, and
therefore new altimeter settings are needed.
Stationary front
Cold front
Warm front
A A Occluded front
On weather maps, a warm (cold) front is indicated with red semicircles (blue
triangles) on a red (blue) line. An occluded front is indicated by purple
semicircles and triangles alternating on a purple line.
The most important large scale stationary fronts are the arctic/antarctic front
and the polar front. The location and intensity of these fronts change
seasonally as shown in Figure 6.4 and Figure 6.5.
Arctic/antarctic front
The arctic/antarctic fronts separate the arctic/antarctic air masses and the
somewhat milder polar air masses from each other, accompanied by the arctic
jet stream above them. They can be found over approximately 60°N and 60°S,
respectively. Some differences between the Northern and the Southern
Hemisphere are observable regarding the characteristics of these fronts.
Arctic fronts can be stationary but may turn to a cold front that moves
southward. In this case it is accompanied by convective clouds and may bring
showery precipitation. Antarctic fronts exist only in winter, while arctic fronts
are stronger in winter and weaker in summer.
Polar front
The polar front separates the polar and subtropical air masses from each other
and is present in both hemispheres. Its position varies with the season,
primarily in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 20°N and 70°N.
In January in the Northern Hemisphere, the polar front moves closer to the
Equator, especially above North America. It can be found between 20°N and
50°N. Meanwhile in the Southern Hemisphere, its position is more persistent
during the year and can be found between 50°S and 70°S. In July in the
Southern Hemisphere, the polar front comes somewhat closer to the Equator.
It is observable between 40°N and 70°N.
We emphasise that the polar front of the Northern Hemisphere above Europe
is typically located farther north in every season compared to its location
above North America and the Pacific Ocean. The average location of the polar
front is between Florida and the Southwest region of Great Britain, while in
summer it moves north and commonly extends from Northeast Canada to
Great Britain.
Please note that, along the polar frontal surface, low-pressure areas may
develop that can lead to cyclone formation. Consequently, its position is
important to know to avoid the related hazards to aircraft. Low-pressure areas
in this region are called polar lows or depressions. Therefore, weather around
the polar front is highly variable, depending on the stage of the cyclone
formation (discussed in the next chapter). Sometimes the ITCZ (intertropical
convergence zone) above the Equator is also listed as a stationary frontal
zone, where the tropical air masses of the two hemispheres meet. The ITCZ
moves with the Sun seasonally, i.e. moves southward in the Southern
Hemisphere’s summer and northward in the Northern Hemisphere’s summer.
Along the ITCZ, strong convection frequently occurs causing the thick cloud
cover and heavy precipitation characteristic for this region.
As we mentioned, there are air masses that separate with less distinct fronts.
For example, the subtropical front can be found at higher levels on the polar
side of the Hadley-cell, but it is not observable close to the surface (unlike the
above-mentioned fronts) because it is a descending air mass, creating
divergence above the ground.
January
In the figure above, the blue line indicates the average position of the arctic
front, the yellow lines indicate the polar fronts of the two hemispheres, the
red line indicates the average position of the ITCZ and the purple line
indicates the Mediterranean front.
July
In the figure above, the blue lines indicate the average position of the arctic
and antarctic fronts, the yellow lines indicate the polar fronts of the two
hemispheres and the red line indicates the average position of the ITCZ.
When a frontal surface forms, first it has a linear shape and is stationary. It
starts to move because of some disturbances on the frontal surface. When the
boundary of two different air masses starts to move we can distinguish fronts
by the temperatures of the air masses relative to each other. The formation of
moving fronts at the mid-latitudes is related to the above-mentioned
disturbances and may continue to develop into cyclones (in other words,
depressions). Cyclones are large scale horizontal vortices with vertical axes
rotating around a low-pressure area in their centre.
The life cycle of weather fronts is related to the life cycle of mid-latitude
cyclones along the polar front. The frontal zone of the polar front is
accompanied by large-scale waves in the high troposphere called Rossby
waves, with the jet stream above them as a consequence of the Earth’s
rotation. Rossby waves are associated with a chain of pressure systems, cold
troughs (low-pressure regions) called polar lows (in other words, a subpolar
low zone) and warm ridges (high-pressure regions). Troughs and ridges are
related to mid-latitude cyclones and anticyclones. Troughs contain cold polar
air masses, while ridges contain warm subtropical air masses. Cyclones form
because of troughs and gain intensity with the Rossby waves.
The cold front of the cyclone propagates more quickly than the warm front,
therefore after a while (generally on the second day of its development) the
cold front overtakes the warm front. This stage is called occlusion. Occlusion
first happens at the centre of the cyclone and spreads radially. This happens in
the mature stage of cyclone development; after that, it starts to lose its
intensity and the cyclone dissipates. The whole life cycle takes place over
three to five days.
Moving weather fronts (both cold and warm fronts) have two main types:
1. Anabatic front
2. Katabatic front
In the case of anabatic (katabatic) fronts, the air mass ahead of the front rises
(sinks) (similarly to the anabatic and katabatic winds along mountain slopes in
Section 2.4). The differences in weather phenomena caused by anabatic and
katabatic fronts are greater in relation to cold fronts, so we will only discuss
the differences between anabatic and katabatic cold fronts (see Section 6.2.6).
Figure 6.6. Illustration of the polar-front theory of cyclogenesis
Note: Black lines indicate isobars and the letter L indicates a low-pressure area.
Grey-shaded areas indicate zones of precipitation.
In general, the surface of the warm front has a relatively slight slope that is
tilted forward in the direction of its travel. Therefore, the lifting of the warm
air mass by the cold air mass ahead is relatively slow. Because the cloud
formation is less intense, the development of stratiform clouds is typically
related to warm fronts. When a warm front arrives, at first Ci clouds appear,
which then turn into Cs then As. Right ahead of the front, Ns can be found
that drop continuous precipitation. Rarely, Cu or Cb may accompany a warm
front, embedded in Ns clouds. In this case, showery precipitation and
thunderstorm may also be expected. In winter, freezing rain may fall. Fractus
clouds are typically associated with warm fronts, especially close to the
precipitation zone. Warm frontal clouds can be seen in Figure 6.7. Clouds are
present at multiple levels at the same time. The passing of a warm front above
an area lasts approximately around a day. The horizontal cross section of the
warm front varies between ca. 700 to 1000 km. Precipitation falls within a
400-600 km wide range.
Mean sea level pressure decreases significantly as the warm front approaches
the observer. Typically, the temperature increases rapidly after the front
passes. However, in special cases, if the insolation was great ahead of the
front, after the front passes, the temperature may temporarily decrease
slightly because of clouds and precipitation.
Visibility conditions
Visibility is good before the arrival of the front, but sometimes frontal fog may
form (especially in winter), because the warmer moist air contacts the colder
air mass ahead. In the frontal zone, visibility is very poor due to continuous
precipitation.
Figure 6.7. Structure of a typical warm front in the mid-latitudes. The warm
sector can be found behind it.
Seasonal variation
As we mentioned before, there are two types of cold fronts: an anabatic cold
front and a katabatic cold front. The type of front depends on the movement
of the warm air mass ahead of the front. The movement of an anabatic cold
front is much faster than a katabatic cold front, that is why the frontal surface
of an anabatic cold front is also steeper. In one particular cold front, both
anabatic and katabatic characteristics may appear at the same time. Their
differences will be highlighted below.
The clouds of an anabatic cold front are similar to the clouds of a warm front,
but in reverse order. When a cold front approaches the observer, St and Sc
clouds appear first. Depending on the stability of the conditions, a cold front
may lead with a line of thunderstorm (squall line). Close to the front, As then
Ns clouds may form, frequently accompanied by embedded Cu and Cb. As the
front moves away, As, Cs and Ci clouds are observable as can be seen in
Figure 6.8.
Clouds typically develop ahead of a katabatic cold front. Rapid movement and
strong winds characterise it. The air mass ahead of the front is characterised
by strong instability. Therefore, first Ac castellanus can be observed, followed
by Cu con and Cb ahead of the front and inside the frontal zone. After the
front passes, precipitation stops quickly and the sky clears. Generally, the
precipitation zone is less wide (50-100 km) but precipitation can be more
locally intense than in the case of an anabatic cold front. A katabatic cold front
may be associated with relatively dry air. In this case, it may pass through
without precipitation.
Visibility conditions
Visibility ahead of the front (in the warm sector) is poor because of the high
humidity content of the warmer air mass, which may associated with the
formation of mist and fog as well as convective precipitation. In the frontal
zone, visibility is also poor if precipitation falls. Behind the front, visibility
improves rapidly.
Wind direction close to the surface veers (backs) after the front in the
Northern Hemisphere (Southern Hemisphere) and turns from southwest to
northwest (from northwest to southwest).
Wind is typically gusty and wind speed increases as the front approaches the
observer and further increases can be observed behind the front, especially in
the case of a katabatic cold front.
Above the frontal zone, a strong jet stream with severe turbulence can be
found. In Ns, Cu and Cb clouds severe icing is expected. Due to precipitation,
visibility may be reduced significantly. Along the frontal surface, strong wind
shear can be observed in every case.
Seasonal variation
Behind the front, visibility improves rapidly and it is only considered poor in
showery precipitation. Wind speed increases significantly and after the front
passes, it turns right compared to the area ahead of the front.
There are two types of occluded front, depending on the temperatures of the
cold air masses related to each other. If the cold sector ahead of the original
warm front is warmer (colder) then the cold sector behind the cold front, then
it is called a cold (warm) occlusion, which is shown in Figure 6.9. Therefore,
after a cold (warm) occlusion passes, temperatures drop (rise). Cold (warm)
occlusion behaves similarly to a cold front (a warm front).
Cloud formation depends on the type of occlusion, but it does not differ
significantly. In both cases, clouds appear in an order similar to that of a warm
front. First Ci and Cs, and then As and Ns form. Above the front, Ns and
embedded Cu and Cb can be found. In the case of a warm occlusion, the
thickness of the clouds is greater. In the case of a cold occlusion, the
probability of embedded Cu and Cb is higher.
Visibility and wind patterns in the case of a cold (warm) occlusion are similar to
a cold (warm) front
Mean sea level pressure decreases as the front approaches the observer. It is
nearly steady when a front passes over and slightly increases behind the front
Change in temperature depends on the type of occlusion. In the case of a
warm (cold) occlusion, increasing (decreasing) temperatures are expected.
Hazardous phenomena like icing and turbulence are the strongest above the
front, often in Ns and Cb clouds. Precipitation and low-level clouds cause poor
visibility, especially close to the frontal surface. Wind shear is expected as the
aircraft crosses the frontal surface at any level.
Summary of the changes of pressure, temperature and wind patterns in a typical frontal wave along the polar front
cold sector ahead slightly decreasing cold/cool NH: South NH: Northwest
of warm front SH: North SH: Southwest
cold sector behind slightly increasing cold NH: West, Northwest NH: Southwest
cold front SH: East, Southeast SH: Northwest
The acronyms NH and SH mean the Northern and the Southern Hemisphere,
respectively.
1000
STUDY TEST
An air mass is a large group of air parcels with nearly homogenous conditions
horizontally.
The main characteristics of a specific air mass are determined by the
temperature and the type of the surface of the source region.
The Bergeron classification is the most frequently used classification of air
masses.
The weather of Europe is mainly affected by five main types of air masses,
which are the maritime arctic (mA), maritime polar (mP), continental polar (cP),
maritime tropical (mT), and continental tropical (cT). The weather is also
sometimes influenced by equatorial air masses (mE, cE).
Generally, maritime air masses bring humid and mild air above the land,
resulting in unstable atmospheric conditions, and leading to cloud formation
and precipitation. Continental air masses have great seasonal variability. They
are generally warm in summer and cold in winter. Maritime air masses vary less
with the season.
Properties of progressing air masses are modified by the underlying surface. The
key factors are the temperature and the type of the surface.
Air masses with different characteristics are separated by weather fronts.
A front can be considered as a one-, two- or three-dimensional object called a
front, a frontal surface and a frontal zone, respectively.
The four main types of weather fronts are the stationary front, cold front, warm
front and occluded front.
In the case of a warm (cold) front, a warmer (colder) air mass replaces a colder
(warmer) air mass.
When an aircraft crosses a frontal surface, rapid changes of atmospheric
conditions can be observed, e.g. in the pressure and temperature fields and in
wind characteristics.
Moving weather fronts in the mid-latitudes are related to mid-latitude cyclones,
which form along the polar front.
Formation of mid-latitude cyclones is described by the polar front theory.
Typically, a cold front that follows a warm front is faster than the latter;
therefore, the cold front overtakes the warm front and an occluded front forms.
resulting in unstable atmospheric conditions, and leading to cloud formation
and precipitation. Continental air masses have great seasonal variability. They
are generally warm in summer and cold in winter. Maritime air masses vary less
with the season.
Properties of progressing air masses are modified by the underlying surface. The
key factors are the temperature and the type of the surface.
Air masses with different characteristics are separated by weather fronts.
A front can be considered as a one-, two- or three-dimensional object called a
front, a frontal surface and a frontal zone, respectively.
The four main types of weather fronts are the stationary front, cold front, warm
front and occluded front.
In the case of a warm (cold) front, a warmer (colder) air mass replaces a colder
(warmer) air mass.
When an aircraft crosses a frontal surface, rapid changes of atmospheric
conditions can be observed, e.g. in the pressure and temperature fields and in
wind characteristics.
The last part of this chapter is dedicated to tropical revolving storms, their
characteristics, origins, locations, names and periods of occurrence.
7.1. The principal pressure areas
High-pressure zones can be found under the Hadley-cell sinking region in the
area around 30° latitude in both hemispheres (Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of
Capricorn), resulting in the subtropical high-pressure zone (also called the
subtropical ridge). The subtropical high zone moves closer to the Equator
during winter and in the opposite direction during summer. Above the poles
where sinking air motions of cold dense air can be found, there are also high-
pressure systems developing especially above land surfaces.
Low-pressure zones are typically found in the region of the polar fronts in
both hemispheres (polar lows), which also have seasonal movements
especially in the Northern Hemisphere. The polar low moves southward
during the winter. Low pressure areas related to polar fronts intensify in
winter. Above the Equator close to the ground, low-pressure zones develop
because of the strong updraft (ITCZ) of warm air. In January (July) they move
Southward (Northward). The location of ITCZ and the associated low-pressure
zones are highly related to the monsoon phenomena (in summer in the
Northern Hemisphere).
These low- or high-pressure zones may deepen locally, where circular air flows
may develop around pressure centres. Therefore, cyclones and anticyclones
form. Around the globe there are some typical locations of high- and low-
pressure centres if we examine mean sea level pressure over longer time
periods. On the polar front, waves typically form that consist of warmer
subtropical air masses (southward) and the colder polar air masses
(northward), resulting in alternating ridges and troughs along the front.
Siberian high The largest cold quasi-persistent anticyclone around the globe,
strengthening in winter (from September to April). In summer months it is
replaced by the northern edge of the Asiatic low. It has a centre generally
located above North and Central Asia but at times may extend over Eastern
and Central Europe. Inside, cold and relatively dry polar air mass can be found
with an often extremely low daily mean temperature (around -40 °C) and
mean sea level pressure of around 1040 hPa at its centre. Inside the Siberian
high-pressure system, the lowest temperature in the Northern Hemisphere
(-67.8 °C) was measured at Oymyakon’s weather station on 6 February 1933.
Also, the global highest mean sea level pressure (1083.3 hPa) was recorded in
Agata, Siberia on 31 December 1968, according to the World Meteorological
Organization.
Azores high The centre of the Azores high can be found over 30°N in the
North Atlantic region but may extend above Southwestern Europe and
Northern Africa. It is a warm anticyclone and is part of the subtropical high
zone. It strengthens in summer and extends polewards, but also exists in
winter. The weather inside is cloudless and warm because of the sinking air
motions. Along its southern edge, easterly perturbations forms associated
with the African easterly jet stream, called tropical easterly waves. These
waves are similar to the waves along the polar front but with less intensity.
This is highly related to tropical cyclone formation in the summer in this
region.
Canadian high (North American High) This is a less intense cold anticyclone
compared to the Siberian high, which also exists only in winter. In summer it
dissipates and is often replaced by a less intense low-pressure air mass.
Aleutian low Located above the North Pacific Ocean at the western coastal
region of Alaska and North Canada, it strengthens in winter and dissipates in
summer when it is sometimes replaced by high pressure. It is the main centre
of mid-latitude cyclone formation over the Northern Pacific region. Cyclones
that are formed in this region move toward Northern Canada.
Icelandic low The centre of this low is generally located above the Atlantic
Ocean between Iceland and Southern Greenland. It strengthens in winter and
weakens in summer. Great parts of mid-latitude cyclones that affect the
weather of Europe originate from this region.
Asiatic low (Monsoon low) Located above South and Southeast Asia, with its
centre generally above Northern India. Its formation is associated with the
monsoon phenomenon. It only exists during summer, as in winter it is replaced
by the Siberian high. Less intense low-pressure zones related to monsoon
phenomena can be found in the Southern Hemisphere as well.
In the Southern Hemisphere, pressure centres are less variable with the
season. Subtropical high-pressure systems are situated primarily above the
maritime regions above the southern Indian Ocean and above the southern
Pacific Ocean and they weaken in winter. Polar high pressure is located above
the Antarctica. Low-pressure zones can be found around 60°S latitude quite
persistently regardless of the season.
Hectopascal of Pressure
Over 1.024 1.016 to 1.024 1.008 to 1.016 1.000 to 1.008 under 1.000 High-Pressure Low-Pressure
Cell Cell
STUDY TEST
7.2. Anticyclone
As was described in Section 1.3, high- and low-pressure centres can also
develop at higher levels, called upper-level highs and upper-level lows when
they are not recognisable on surface pressure maps, but only at higher levels.
In the case of upper-level highs the primary driving factor of formation is the
cold and dense air close to the ground extending upward, resulting in sinking
air motions.
Ridges
Warm high-pressure systems with thicker layers vertically between isobars
(because of their relatively high temperature in relation to their environment)
lead to a ridge-shaped (also could be characterised as "U"-shaped)
phenomena; therefore, it is called a ridge or wedge. Ridges do not necessarily
have closed isobars or at least they may in a smaller area; therefore, anti
cyclones in certain cases can be considered a component of a ridge. Ridges do
not necessarily contain anticyclones with closed isobars. Large-scale regions
of high pressure frequently form along the polar front as a part of the Rossby
waves, alternating with low-pressure areas.
Types of anticyclones
Anticyclones generally form as part of a ridge. Two main types can be
distinguished beyond the classification by their temperature relative to the
environment as we saw in Chapter 7:
In Section 1.3 and Section 6.2.3, we discussed how along the polar front
a chain of low- and high-pressure zones (troughs and ridges) alternate
with each other. They propagate with the Rossby waves. The second
group contain these types of anticyclones that are located between low-
pressure areas along the polar front.
In cold anticyclones, the air is colder than its environment. Typically, they form
over the arctic and polar regions. Temperatures decrease from the edges to
the centre. Inside, sometimes light precipitation (drizzle) may occur.
Blocking situation
As we mentioned before, sometimes cyclones and anticyclones that
propagate with Rossby waves slow down if an obstacle crosses their tracks.
For example, if an intense anticyclone builds up then it can obstruct the
propagation of the pressure systems behind it. In a blocking situation,
characteristic flow patterns can be recognised on the upper levels of the
tropopause, with more or less stationary air flows. The term blocking comes
from the obstruction of the main flow, which is directed west to east (called
zonal flow).
Note: It is worth mentioning that sometimes blocking can be so intense that it may
lead to the formation of east-to-west flow. In this case pressure systems make
retrograde movements. As an example, the Rex blocking is mentioned.
In this case the flow turns to be meridional (directed north to south or south
to north). Based on the above, pressure systems in a blocking situation are
stationary; in other words, they stay in the same place for several days or even
for weeks. In low-pressure systems, this may cause an extreme amount of
precipitation while in high-pressure systems it may cause drought or the
formation of cold air pools in winter at mid-latitudes.
Cut-off cyclone (cut-off low) In this case a low-pressure system cut away
from the polar front with closed isobars and their movement is not connected
to the main westerly air flow any more. Because of this they slow down and
they may get stuck in one place for several days until their dissipation. This
can be considered to be cold-air drops, which are the subject of Section 8.3.
Rex blocking Consists of an intense low-pressure area and a strong high-
pressure area. They are located more or less at the same longitude. The high-
pressure area is located northward and the low is southward in the Northern
Hemisphere. Between them a westerly flow is reversed and becomes easterly;
in other words, a retrograde motion is observable.
STUDY TEST
7.3. Non-frontal depressions
Troughs
The most prominent areas in mid-latitudes where low pressure systems
develop are along the polar front in the troughs of the Rossby waves. Troughs
are "V"-shaped low-pressure areas, which do not necessarily contain closed
isobars. However, they may contain cyclones on their eastern sides. Troughs
may form along the polar front. They alternate with ridges as they propagate
with the Rossby waves. Sometimes they can be found separately from the
polar front as well.
Cyclones
If a counter-clockwise (also called cyclonic) rotation forms around a low-
pressure centre in the Northern Hemisphere and at mid-latitude cyclones (in
other words, extratropical cyclones) form, one of the most important weather
phenomena. Their formation and associated weather fronts were already
discussed in detail in Section 6.2.3 related to weather fronts.
Low-pressure systems can also form in the subtropical and tropical regions.
Depressions in tropical regions are a type of thermal low and will be discussed
in Section 7.4.
1. Thermal lows
2. Secondary lows
3. Orographic lows
4. Upper-level lows
Thermal lows
Secondary lows
When a mid-latitude cyclone weakens in the vicinity of the occluded front
with a low-pressure area forming, a new (secondary) low-pressure area may
form. Generally, these secondary lows circulate counter-clockwise (clockwise)
around the primary pressure centre in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
Orographic lows
Upper-level lows
Upperlevel lows are only observable at higher levels in the troposphere. In this
case a low-pressure area does not extend to the surface and closed isobars
can only be detected at high levels. This situation may happen in relation to
the troughs of the polar front, when a high level low-pressure centre is cut off
(also called cut-off lows or cold-air drops). Typically, it causes persistent
weather for several days above a region as it is detached from the main zonal
(westerly) flow.
Polar vortex is also a low-pressure area over the poles in the upper
troposphere, which makes it an upper-level low with cyclonic rotation. It can
extend into the lower stratosphere. Inside the vortex cold and dense air mass
can be found. It is more intense in winter than in summer when it often breaks
down into several smaller vortices. When it is weaker it may move to mid
latitudes causing strong cold outbreaks.
STUDY TEST
7 A. Tropical revolving storms
Note: In a rotating reference frame, it can be explained with the lack of the Coriolis
force, which does not act on horizontal movement along the Equator. Therefore,
cyclonic rotation cannot develop.
Strong and permanent air flow does not help its formation. After reaching the
land surface, due to the reduced amount of available humidity, they are
quickly weakened and so they dissipate. Along the southern edge of the
subtropical high region, wave-like disturbances with easterly flows (tropical
easterly waves) can be found over the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. These
show a similarity to the Rossby waves along the polar front, with their
alternating ridges and troughs, but on smaller scale. The low-pressure areas of
these waves are highly related to the formation of tropical cyclones.
Generally, tropical cyclones reach their strongest stage at the west coastal
region of the oceans. Over the eastern regions colder sea currents reduce the
sea surface temperatures. Another effect is related to the subsidence
inversion of the Hadley cell, which is also stronger above the eastern regions,
restricting convection. Furthermore, as tropical cyclones move to the west
they accumulate more warm and moist air and therefore they strengthening.
Stages of development
Stages of tropical cyclone development are determined by the maximum wind
speeds they contain. The thresholds were assigned by the National Hurricane
Centre (abbreviated as NHC) of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (abbreviated as NOAA) of the United States of America. The
four main stages of development, distinguished by wind speed threshold
values, are tropical disturbance, tropical depression, tropical storm and the
strongest, severe tropical cyclone:
1. In the first stage, convective cells develop above the warm sea surface
with a strong updraft resulting in thunderstorms. This irregular group of
heavy thunderstorms is called a tropical disturbance. As the updraft
reaches the tropopause the air spreads radially, creating a divergence.
This process results in the convergence of the air near the surface,
causing low pressure. Convergence helps the warm and moist air inflow
toward the low-pressure area. Release of latent heat during
condensation is generally mentioned as the main reinforcing factor
during tropical cyclone formation, which gives additional heat for
convection.
2. In the next stage, a tropical depression develops. Thunderstorms are
formed in bands around a deepening low-pressure centre (with closed
isobars). These are bands of alternating upward and downward flows,
with increasing strength and increasing wind speeds inward. A weak
irregular but circular rotation can be observed around the low-pressure
area. Surface winds inside the cyclone may reach approximately 61 km/h
(34 kt).
3. In the next stage, a tropical storm develops. The low pressure becomes
concentrated, a horizontal cyclonic rotation develops around it, and
therefore a symmetric circular system forms. In the centre the air rises
and the tropopause spreads radially. In this stage the maximum surface
winds may reach approximately 61-119 km/h (34-63 kt) (This stage is
sometimes further divided into the tropical storm and severe tropical
storm categories.)
The size of a tropical cyclone in its mature stage is generally smaller than a
mid-latitude cyclone. Its diameter varies between 400 to 800 km and rarely
reaching 1000 km. The diameter of the eye varies between 20 to 40 km.
Figure 7.6. Typical regions of the occurrence of tropical cyclones and their
names in different regions
Tropical cyclones with great intensity get custom names for easier
identification. Names are given according to their place of origin in slightly
different ways depending on their geographic location. For example, in the
USA they get their names in alphabetical order from a predefined list with
alternating female and male names, created by the World Meteorological
Organization. It starts over again every year from the letter A.
To understand the climatic conditions of the Earth, first the general circulation
of the Earth’s atmosphere should be explained, which can be seen in
Section 2.3. We described the atmosphere in an idealised state, called the
three-cell conceptual model of general global circulation. Please have a look at
Figure 2.30 where three circulation cells can be found symmetrical to the
geographical Equator in both hemispheres. It is also shown in section a) in
Figure 8.1. Assume that:
1. the surface of the Earth is built from the same substance; and
In this case, the surface is heated unevenly, so the largest amount of insolation
can be measured along the Equator where the warmer and lighter air starts to
ascend and a low-pressure zone is formed. The air diverges just below the
tropopause and flows in the direction of the poles. The air becomes colder and
starts to sink along the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, which
results in subtropical high zones. After reaching the Earth's surface, the air
diverges. Firstly, some air flows in the direction of the Equator in both
hemispheres, leading to convergence and the development of the Intertropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) as well as of Hadley cells, whose rotation is
clockwise. Secondly, some divergent air flows in the direction of the higher
latitudes. The smallest amount of insolation can be measured over the poles.
The mass of the air increases as its temperature decreases; therefore, the air
starts to sink over the poles, creating the polar high-pressure zone. It diverges
above the surface and flows in the direction of the Equator. The warmer air
mass that flows in the direction of the poles collides with the colder air mass
and begins to rise up over it. The resulting rising air diverges above the
tropopause and flows in the direction of the poles and the Equator, causing
the formation of polar circulation cells with clockwise rotation as well as Ferrel
cells with anticlockwise rotation.
Winds that blow most frequently over certain latitudes, called prevailing
winds, and the associated atmospheric pressure distribution were described in
Section 2.3.1. It is worth mentioning that each wind system has a name used
mainly by Spanish, Portuguese, English and French sailors in the Age of
Exploration between the 15th and 18th centuries. A summary can be seen in
section b) in Figure 8.1. The tropical easterlies (in other words, trade winds)
are observable between the geographic latitudes ca. 10° and ca. 20°. Along
the Equator the northeasterly and southeasterly trade winds meet in a
confluence, leading to calm conditions or light wind near the surface, which is
dangerous for sailing. This zone between ca. 5°N and 5°S is known as the
doldrums. Above the subtropical high zones, along ca. 30°, sinking movements
of the air lead to wind calm. This zone is known as the horse latitudes because
sailors once had to throw horses off their ships due to shortages of fresh
water and food (assumption, not proven). Westerly winds and low-pressure
systems (e.g. cyclones) at middle latitudes (henceforth, mid-latitudes) may
form between ca. 40° and ca. 60°. This is the zone of the prevailing westerlies.
Due to their strong and steady nature, these winds are called the roaring
forties, indicating the latitude of their occurrence. Polar easterlies are found at
latitudes higher than ca. 60°. To understand the flow directions of the above-
mentioned wind systems, forces acting on atmospheric motions shall be
examined. For this purpose, see Chapter 2.
Please keep in mind that close to the troposphere and in the lower
stratosphere, increasing wind speeds can be measured in association with jet
streams. Seasonal variability is observable regarding wind directions. In
general, easterly (westerly) winds blow in the summer (winter).
On the basis of what was previously described, we can easily list the main
characteristics of the solar climate zones.
Regions with tropical rain climate may be hot and rainy because of the strong
convergence of the ITCZ there.
Subtropical climate may be associated with the zone of the tropical easterlies
as well as the subtropical high zone where a strong downdraft is present,
acting against the formation of precipitation. Hot and dry weather as well as
large diurnal variations in the air temperature may be expected.
The coldest weather may occur in the polar (or subpolar) climate zone. In
these regions the air pressure is relatively high, which acts against the
development of precipitation. Dry weather may be observable within
prevailing easterly winds.
b)
90’N
Polar (or subpolar)
climate zone J Polar easterlies
Temperate climate zone
Note: Numbers 1, 2 and 3 indicate the Hadley cells, the Ferrel cells and the polar
circulation cells, respectively. Letters L and H denote low-pressure zones and high-
pressure zones, respectively. Arrows indicate the typical wind directions.
However, among realistic conditions, the solar climate zones are modified by
the following external influences:
3. The axis of the Earth is not perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic,
causing seasonal changes in insolation.
One of the prominent effects above is that the ITCZ does not coincide with
the geographical Equator. Another consequence is the seasonal movement of
the ITCZ. The formation of climate zones and the influences of the above-
mentioned factors on them are the subject of climatology.
D. Snow-forest climates
E. Polar climates
The above-mentioned main climate zones are distinguished on the basis of the
monthly mean temperature of the coldest or warmest month over the year
(except the dry climate).
The main climate zones can be divided into groups (henceforth, subclasses)
based on the amount and distribution of precipitation, with the exception of
the polar climate. These subclasses are denoted by f, m, w, s, W, S, T, F, which
means:
In the following section,the main climate zones and their subclasses according
to Koeppen’s climatic classification are characterised and the typical locations
of these climatic zones are described.
The distribution of the main climate zones on the Earth can be seen in the
figure below.
World map of Koppen climate classification for 1901-2010
Regions with tropical rain climates can mostly be found along the Equator.
Due to the previously-listed factors that influence the Earth’s climate, these
zones are between ca. 10°N and 30°S. For example, areas in Central America,
Central Africa, Southeast Asia and the northern part of Australia belong to this
climate zone. The mean temperature of the coldest month is above 18 °C. The
following four subclasses can be distinguished.
B: Dry climates
Regions with dry climates are located mainly along the subtropical high zones
between ca. 10°N and ca. 40°N as well as between ca. 30°S and ca. 40°S. The
proportion of these areas in the Southern Hemisphere (e.g. Australia’s interior)
is much smaller than in the Northern Hemisphere (e.g. the western part of
North America, the Sahara, the Arabian Peninsula and Inner Asia). However,
they also can form over higher geographic latitudes, for example in Patagonia
and Argentina due to orographic reasons. Dry climates can be classified into
two subclasses, which are as follows.
BS - Steppe climates
Over regions with steppe climates precipitation falls regularly one or two
months of the year. Two seasons are distinguishable in which the air
temperature differs significantly.
BW - Desert climates
These climate zones are associated with wet winters and dry summers. Similar
to the tropical savanna climate, Mediterranean climates can be considered
transitional climates. In summer, the subtropical high zone is closer to these
regions; therefore, the chance of clouds and precipitation formation
decreases. Hot or warm summers are expected. In winter, mid-latitude cyclone
tracks can be found over lower latitudes, consequently increasing the amount
of precipitation and mild weather, which can be expected in winter as the
effect of the ocean increases. The Northern Hemisphere, the coastal areas of
the Mediterranean Sea, the Southern Hemisphere and the southwest part of
Australia all belong to this type of climate zone.
Over regions with subtropical highland climates, warm temperate rain climates
with wet summers and dry winters are characteristic.
In humid subtropical and oceanic climate zones, warm temperate rain climates
with uniformly distributed precipitation are observable. Territories that belong
to these subclasses are under the influence of the ocean; therefore, rain
occurs frequently there throughout the year. For example, these climate zones
can be found in the Northern Hemisphere, the eastern part of the United
States of America, Western and Central Europe, the eastern part of China,
Japan (except its northern territories) and in the Southern Hemisphere in the
eastern parts of Australia and New Zealand.
Over regions with snow-forest climates, the mean temperature of the coldest
month is below 3 °C and the warmest month is above 10 °C. A temporary
snow cover is formed in winter. Temperatures vary most widely in snow-forest
climates. Areas between ca. 45°N and ca. 70°N belong to this class. Due to
the small amount of land surfaces, snow climates are absent in the Southern
Hemisphere. Snow-forest climates are grouped into two subclasses as follows.
In climate zones denoted with "Df", cold and wet winters as well as uniformly
distributed precipitation are expected. Areas such as Canada and Russia as
well as parts of East-Central Europe that belong to these subclasses are humid
throughout the year. In climate zones marked with "Dw", cold and dry winters
as well as wet summers are observable. Territories such as parts of East Asia,
the Korean Peninsula (with the exception of its southern areas) belong to
these climate zones.
E: Polar climates
At latitudes higher than the Arctic Circle and the Antarctic Circle (66.5°) the
Sun remains visible at night and remains below the horizon at least one day of
the year, respectively. Over the poles these time periods extend to six months.
Because of this, the lowest monthly mean temperatures can be measured over
these areas. Regarding polar climates, the following two subclasses can be
distinguished.
ET - Tundra climate
Over regions with tundra climates the mean temperature of the warmest
month is between 0 °C and 10 °C. A permanent snow cover is formed over a
part of the region.
EF - Ice cap climate
Over regions with ice cap climates the mean temperature of every month is
blow 0 °C. Territories with polar climates are found over the inner parts of the
Arctic and Antarctic. The top of high mountains (e.g. the Andes or the Mount
Everest) can also be considered regions with polar climates.
For the sake of simplicity, we only used the first two letters to characterise
climates.
In Section 2.3, seasonal shifts of the ITCZ were explained. These lead to the
seasonal movements of the circulation cells. Because of this, the distribution of air
pressure as well as pressure systems changes with the seasons.
Regarding the formation of the tropical savanna climate (or tropical transitional
climate) as well as Mediterranean climates (or temperate transitional climates) the
following can be said on the basis of what was previously learnt in Section 2.3.
Because of the Earth’s non-zero axial tilt, the largest insolation reaches the Earth’s
surface at higher latitudes than the geographical Equator.
In the Section 8.2 and Section 8.3, typical weather patterns in the tropics and the
mid-latitudes will be described. They have a significant influence on aviation.
system of the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the biosphere and
the atmosphere. From a climatological point of view, interactions between the
above-mentioned spheres also should be taken into account
As a side note, we mention that other climatic classifications are also available,
for example one introduced by American geographer Glenn Thomas Trewartha
in the second half of the 20th century. Trewartha’s climatic classification
divides Koeppen’s mid-latitude climates into the following three regions:
subtropical climates, temperate and continental climates, and boreal climates.
STU DY TEST
8.2. Tropical climatology
3. Sandstorms
In the tropical regions convective clouds develop along the ITCZ where
convergence of the air is observable near the surface. Because the ITCZ
surrounds the Earth, groups of clouds known as cloud clusters may form. If
clusters of Cb clouds are circularly or linearly organised and reach the
horizontal extent of 100 km in at least one direction, then these cloud clusters
are called a mesoscale convective system (abbreviated as MCS).
Various types of MCS can be distinguished. We will highlight the following
two types. If the MCS has a large circular cloud top with a temperature less or
equal to -32 °C (-52 °C), which covers an area of at least 100000 km2
(50000 km2) and lasts for at least six hours, then it is known as a mesoscale
convective complex (abbreviated as MCC). It is worth mentioning that by
definition MCC does not have a circular shape, as its eccentricity should be at
least 0.7. If a row (or chain) of Cb clouds is formed and their movement is
perpendicularly to the line along which the Cb clouds are organised, then the
MCS is called a squall line.
MCS such as MCC and squall lines may form when atmospheric variables are
uniformly distributed over an area with large horizontal scale, if these
conditions are advantageous for the formation of convective clouds. Along the
ITCZ, advantageous conditions are granted because high air temperatures and
high moisture content, which originate in the tropical oceans,are measurable.
Also, the wind direction is constant leading to the convergence of air. Please
note that warmer air can contain more water vapour. Therefore, the
energy(which may be released through condensation by the Cb) increases with
increasing moisture content, so a greater amount of CAPE is available, which
results in more intense thunderstorms.
Multi-cell thunderstorms may form in various ways. One possible way is as
follows. If the Cb decays in its dissipating stage, then downbursts may develop
that originate from the intense sinking movement of the air. After reaching the
surface, it flows radially. The direction of the most intense flow coincides with
the direction the Cb moves. In this direction, the air carried by the downburst
is colder than its surroundings; therefore, as was mentioned in Section 4.1.3, it
may serve as a pseudo cold front, also known as a gust front. It may be forced
to rise with the warm air ahead of it, leading to cloud formation, and even to
the development of a second Cb ahead the initial Cb. However, stratiform
clouds from which precipitation may fall can also develop. If downbursts of
two Cb clouds collide then a secondary convergence zone can form. This may
force the air to rise and form a third Cb and so on. This process can lead to the
development of multi-cell thunderstorms, and so to the development of MCS.
MCS such as MCC and squall lines can be recognised on infrared satellite
images and in images from weather radars. The tops of the Cb clouds can be
detected on infrared satellite images as a continuous surface, like a "shield",
because brighter colours indicate a lower temperature. MCC is associated
with precipitation and so it can also be identified by using weather radar.
Zones with the lowest (highest) precipitation intensities are shaded with blue
(red).
It is worth mentioning that MCS may form over higher geographic latitudes as
well, usually from late spring to early autumn. However, MCS in the mid
latitudes may have different characteristics than tropical MCS. The most
prominent difference is the effect of the Earth’s rotation. Please keep in mind
if the observer is fixed to the Earth, then the rotating movement can be
considered to be the effect of the Coriolis force. Information about flight
hazards related to mid-latitudinal squall lines is available in Section 9.4.
The highest tropopause can be found above the tropical regions of the Earth.
The tropical tropopause occurs at the altitude of approx. 50000 ft and
60000 ft (ca. 15 km and 18 km) as has been stated in Section 1.1.
Consequently, Cb clouds with the largest vertical extent may develop in the
tropical regions, as shown in Figure 8.4.
The freezing level of the atmosphere (in other words, the height level of the
zero-degree isotherm), is between about 13 000 ft and 17 000 ft (ca. 4 km and
5 km). As we mentioned, the moisture content of the atmosphere is relatively
high. Humid air cools down more slowly than dry air because of the heat
released by the air parcel after its temperature decreases to the dew point and
because of the greenhouse effect of water vapour.
Figure 8.4. Heights of Cb clouds in the tropics and in mid-latitudes
3. topography.
Concerning the weather in the tropics the following can be said. Please note
that average pressure distribution and the typical location and speed of
related winds near the surface of the Earth such as the tropical easterlies, the
prevailing westerlies and the polar easterlies in January and July can be
examined on maps in Figure 2.32 and Figure 2.33.
It is also worth noting that on visible satellite images ITCZ can be identified by
the band of convective clouds near the geographical Equator.
Based on what was previously mentioned, in the tropics there are regions
where the ITCZ passes through twice a year causing two periods when the
weather is rainier compared to other months in the tropical rain climate zones.
In other words, there are two rainy seasons at lower latitude.
Intensity of the trade winds increases as the difference between the air
pressure along the ITCZ and the subtropical high zone increases. In other
words, increasing pressure gradient, which points in the direction of the ITCZ,
leads to the formation of stronger trade winds. Moreover, the intensity of the
convergence increases as the trade winds become stronger. Therefore, the
intensity of the developing convective clouds along the ITCZ also increases.
As we have learnt previously, in the zone of the doldrums, in which the trade
winds converge along the ITCZ, the wind is calm or light. The direction and
average speed of northeasterly and the southeasterly trade winds are also
illustrated in Figure 2.32 and Figure 2.33. Their direction was explained in
Chapter 2. Close to the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere (Southern
Hemisphere) southwesterly (northwesterly) winds called monsoons are
observable in July (January). Monsoons are observable especially over West
Africa in the vicinity of the ITCZ, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and
the northern part of Australia. Main regions affected by the monsoon are
shown in the figure below. Their origins are described in Section 8.2.3.
Figure 8.5. Monsoon regions on the Earth denoted with black slanted lines
Over the subtropical high zone along the horse latitudes ascending movement
of the air leads to the formation of calm wind. Because of the seasonal
movement of the ITCZ, the high-pressure zone also shifts with the seasons. It
can be found closer to (farther from) the Equator in winter (in summer) in both
hemispheres. In the subtropical high zone stable atmospheric stratification is
observed, resulting in anticyclonic weather conditions. Border regions
between the equatorial site and the subtropical high zone as well as between
the subtropical high zone and the mid-latitudes (which belong to the tropical
savanna climate and the Mediterranean climate, respectively) are
characterised by significantly different weather conditions based on the
season. The associated weather is described in Section 8.1.
Flight hazards associated with the ITCZ are the main hazards related to Cb
clouds, namely turbulence in the zones of updrafts and downdrafts, clear-air
turbulence in the vicinity of Cb clouds, reduced visibility because of
precipitation, lightning strikes, icing and hail.
It is worth mentioning that the impacts of the above-mentioned hazards are
different in the tropics and in the mid-latitudes. For example, severe hail and
tornado may form in mid-latitudes but develop rarely in the tropics. Further
details about hazards related to the ITCZ can be found in Section 9.4.
As we have learnt, as the ITCZ varies with season, it deviates from the
geographical Equator. In the Northern Hemisphere’s summer, the Southern
Hemisphere’s Hadley cell enters the Northern Hemisphere. Because of the
Earth’s rotation, wind direction changes and so the Southern Hemisphere’s
southeasterly trade winds deflect to the west, leading to the formation of the
Northern Hemisphere’s monsoon with southwesterly winds. Meanwhile, the
Northern Hemisphere’s Hadley cell with northeasterly trade winds shifts
poleward. Therefore, the ITCZ does not originate from the confluence of
northeasterly and southeasterly trade winds but rather from the confluence of
southwesterly monsoon winds and northeasterly trade winds.
▼x.
Arrows denoted with red (blue) indicate monsoon (trade winds). The ITCZ is
marked with a green line.
After the description of its formation, the definition of the monsoon is given.
Monsoons exist over an area if:
1. there is a change in the wind direction between January and July and
the angle of the change is at least 120°.
4. only one cyclone and one anticyclone form every two years.
Please note that the fourth criterion means that monsoons cannot be formed
in the mid-latitudes where cyclones and anticyclones often alternate with
each other during the year.
The main regions over which the monsoon is associated with particularly
intense winds and precipitation development are West Africa, the Indian
subcontinent, Southeast Asia and the northern part of Australia. The reasons
for this are the as follows. On one hand, large differences between the
temperature of sea and land surfaces are observable in these regions due to
thermal inertia, leading to a significant pressure gradient that points in the
direction of the land. Since the above-listed regions are located east of the
oceans, the pressure gradient enhances the intensity of the southwesterly
(northwesterly) airflow over the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere. On the
other hand, southwesterly (northwesterly) winds blow above sea surfaces in
the Northern Hemisphere (Southern Hemisphere) in summer; therefore, they
carry moist air to the land surfaces enhancing the formation of precipitation.
Depending on the distance from the Equator, delay in the formation of the
monsoon is observable within a year. The monsoon forms later and retreats
sooner as the distance from the Equator increases. In other words, the
duration of the monsoon increases with decreasing distance from the Equator.
From early summer the Southern Hemisphere’s Hadley cell approaches West
Africa and penetrates the Northern Hemisphere. Consequently, northeasterly
trade winds are replaced with southwesterly monsoon winds carrying air with
relatively high amounts of moisture from the Atlantic Ocean as seen in the
second part of the figure below. This may lead to rainier weather, causing
thunderstorms and even the formation of MCS such as squall lines.
Figure 8.7. Prevailing winds over West Africa and the amount of precipitation
between January and March and between June and September.
Monsoon over India
Because of the steady air flow with relatively high moisture content, thick
convective clouds develop that reduce the amount of insolation.
Consequently, over this region the air temperature may be lower than in mid
latitudes where northeasterly trade winds blow and cause drier weather,
which acts against cloud formation. This situation may lead to the
development of the tropical easterly jet stream as described in Section 2.7.
Figure 8.8. Prevailing winds over Australia and the amount of precipitation
Sandstorms
If the wind is strong enough, sand and particles with smaller diameters known
as dust can be introduced into the air for thermal reasons (i.e. convection) or
mechanical reasons (i.e. strong winds carry up the particles). The diameter of
the particles usually does not exceed 1 mm. If dust and sand are suspended by
the air then sandstorms (or dust storms) may form, which may last a few
hours.
Note: For the sake of simplicity terms sandstorm and dust storm will be used
interchangeably in this chapter. Please note that in meteorological literature dust
often indicates particles with smaller diameter than sand.
Note: On visible satellite images dust storms and sandstorms can be detected.
A notable example of sandstorms is the Dust Bowl in the 1930s in the United
States of America and Canada which was caused by the usage of improper
agricultural techniques - leading to enhanced erosion - and drought. Another
example is the yellow dust which originates in the deserts of Inner Asia and
causes sandstorms over China. As a consequence, dust in the atmosphere can be
detected over the Korean Peninsula and Japan also.
It is worth noting that small-scale convective activity may lead to the
formation over loose surfaces of vortices with vertical axes, called dust devils.
Cold-air outbreaks
In winter cold air accumulates around the North Pole (South Pole). If the
prevailing westerly winds become weaker in mid-latitudes, then polar air may
flow southward (northward); it even intrudes into regions close to the tropics,
which is known as a cold-air outbreak. Cold-air outbreaks may cause record
low temperatures. If polar air flows over warmer and moist air, the latter may
climb up over the former to restore stability in the atmosphere, leading to the
development of precipitation or even stormy weather such as blizzards. If the
polar air still has a temperature below the freezing point then frozen
precipitation may fall in regions where it is hardly expected, for example, over
territories between the ITCZ and the subtropical high zone. A practical
example of this would be the snow that fell in the Sahara Desert in Algeria in
January 2018 caused by cold polar air flowing over the Sahara across the
Mediterranean region where its moisture content increased.
Please keep in mind that cold-air outbreaks also have a great impact on
weather in mid-latitudes.
The formation of easterly waves over the Atlantic Ocean may be explained by
the existence of the tropical easterly jet stream and the Azores High, as can be
seen in the figure below. The Azores High is a high-pressure area, which
means that the air pressure at the surface is higher than its environment. It
can be considered an anticyclone, which indicates closed but somewhat
elongated isobars and clockwise circulation in the Northern Hemisphere, as
was described in Section 1.3.1. Because of the African easterly jet stream,
which blows from east to west,the troposphere becomes unstable, leading to
the formation of troughs in the southern part of the Azores High. We have
also learnt that troughs are elongated, V-shaped phenomena that can be
considered atmospheric pressure valleys. Troughs related to easterly waves
are not as large as troughs associated with the polar front over higher
latitudes; therefore, these belong to mesoscale phenomena. In the case of
easterly waves, reverse V-shaped troughs with cyclonic curvature are first
observable at about the height level that corresponds to 700 hPa (10000 ft or
3050 m according to the ISA).
Figure 8.9. Easterly waves over the Atlantic Ocean in the Northern
Hemisphere
Note: Dashed lines indicate the axes of troughs related to the easterly waves.
In the figure below, the axis of the trough and zones of convergence and
divergence are emphasised related to a single tropical wave. Regarding the
weather associated with easterly waves, the following can be said. The
formation of convective clouds is expected over the zone of convergence and
consequently clouds can be detected to the east of the trough axis. Over this
area we see the formation of Cb clouds, and thus thunderstorms are also
expected, leading to severe weather such as turbulence, reduced visibility due
to heavy rain and atmospheric electricity. To the west of the trough axis,
divergence acts against the formation of clouds and precipitation.
Streamlines (from east to west) and trough axes are denoted with red and
green continuous lines, respectively. A high-pressure zone is observable to the
north of the easterly wave (denoted with dashed yellow curve). The zone of
convergence (divergence) is to be found to east (west) from the trough axis.
STUDY TEST
8.3. Typical weather situations in
the mid-latitudes
As we discussed in Section 2.3 and Section 8.1, the ITCZ moves with the
season because of the changing amount of solar radiation. The seasonal
movement of the pressure systems was discussed in detail in connection with
Figure 2.32 and Figure 2.33. Consequently, the position of the polar front also
varies with the seasons: it comes closer to the poles in summer while it can be
found closer to the Equator in winter.
Upper-level air charts that contain (geopotential) height values of 500 hPa
pressure surface, such as Figure 10.42, are suitable to identify the polar front;
therefore, they are associated with troughs and ridges.
The wave-like movement of the travelling polar front leads to great variability
in the weather compared to other latitudes because cyclones and anticyclones
alternate with each other over a short time period (one or two days). This
alternation can be described as a typical westerly situation. An example is
shown in the figure below in which a polar front can be identified over Central
Europe. In the figure, cyclones are located in troughs with which weather
fronts are associated, causing changeable weather.
Figure 8.11. Westerly situation in the mid-latitudes
Because of the larger oceanic area in the Southern Hemisphere, the air warms
up and cools down more slowly due to the higher heat capacity of the ocean
than land surface, so the ITCZ has a smaller deviation from the geographical
Equator than the Northern Hemisphere. Moreover, westerly winds are
stronger over the Southern Hemisphere due to the smaller number of
mountains. Please note that mountains can be considered significant obstacles
to the flow of air in the Northern Hemisphere.
Note: On surface charts, low- and high-pressure systems are often indicated by the
letters L and H, respectively.
Regarding the latter case, if a low-pressure system forms aloft then it may lead
to the formation of a cold drop (also called a cold-air drop or cold pool). If a
high-pressure system forms aloft then it may lead to the development of a
warm drop (also called a warm-air drop or warm pool).
Cold drops form in the following ways. As we mentioned before, the polar
front travels from west to east around the poles all year. It makes a wave-like
movement forming atmospheric ridges and troughs. If the wave has a
sufficiently large amplitude then it can be cut off. A cut-off trough may form
an upper-level low (i.e. cold drop) while a cut-off ridge may form an upper
level high (i.e. warm drop).
Regarding cold drops, the following can be said. Due to their inertia, they
move in the direction of lower latitudes with decreasing speed. Therefore,
they can exist above the same area (with a diameter of a couple of hundred
km) for several days until they are dissipated.
Because they form aloft, on surface charts closed isobars cannot be identified.
These pressure systems are only observable in upper-level weather charts, for
example in charts corresponding to the isobaric surface of 500 hPa. An
example can be seen in the figure below. Between the 7th and 8th January
2018, a trough was cut off so a cold drop developed over the Iberian
Peninsula. We conclude this on the basis of a closed isohypse at 500 hPa
denoted by a solid black line while isobars on the surface,originally denoted by
white lines,are not observable.
Regarding the weather of cold drops, the following can be said. In general,
cold air advection is observable aloft, while warmer air can be found near the
surface. This leads to unstable atmospheric stratification that enhances the
formation of convective clouds and precipitation if the air contains enough
moisture. In summer, Cu clouds and even Cb clouds may form, which can
cause severe thunderstorms endangering the safety of aviation. Further
information can be found in Chapter 9. In winter, because of the reduced
amount of insolation, thunderstorms are rarely formed; however, showery
precipitation through rainfall or snowfall may occur.
Cold-air pool
Finally, the most important details about cold-air pools will be summarised.
The formation of a cold-air pool is mainly associated with inversion during
winter in high pressure areas, as was discussed in Section 3.3.
Cold-air pools form in topographic lows (in valleys or basins, e.g. in a city
surrounded by mountains). This means that areas of tens of hundreds of km2
can be affected. They are associated with absolutely stable atmospheric
conditions, mainly in winter. Stable atmosphere means that air temperature
increases with increasing altitude.
During winter, among anticyclonic conditions (no precipitation and calm wind),
the air will be colder and denser from day to day due to the decreasing
amount of solar radiation. As the surface becomes cooler than the air just
above it, stable atmospheric conditions develop and fog can also form. After
sunrise, the amount of solar radiation is insufficient to dissolve the fog, so it
ascends to a certain altitude but does not disappear. If the observer stands on
the ground surface, they can see the sky completely covered with St clouds.
After sunset the air becomes colder and denser so the clouds descend close to
the ground, which can be perceived as fog. Furthermore, the previously-
described process occurs again: stable atmospheric conditions develop in
which the formation of fog continues. Consequently, a cold-air pool may
persist for weeks.
That process can cease if a strong cold front reaches the affected area or the
advection of warmer air starts aloft, which acts against inversion. As the
winter comes to its end, the amount of insolation increases, enhancing the
formation of turbulent air flows. Turbulence enhances the mixing of air, which
acts against the development of a stable atmosphere.
STUDY TEST
For example, in Budapest, Hungary cold-air pool was experienced several times
during December and January in recent years. A remarkable cold air pool occurred
in January 2009, when the traffic was significantly restricted after smog alert was
issued. However, this was just one part of the problem, as emission from heating
was also another factor contributing to the formation of smog. To summarise,
anticyclonic conditions, record-low air temperature and pollution led to the
escalation of the situation. During cold-air pool, even ca. 300-400 m above the
ground surface we were able to experience a dense cloud/fog layer above the city
while the sky was almost cloudless.
8.4. Local winds and associated
weather
Some types of local winds occur over different latitudes, for example foehn
and fall winds, which belong to the group of downslope winds. However,
some local winds are connected to specific areas, such as sirocco winds to the
Mediterranean Sea. The characteristic life span of local winds varies from a
couple of hours to a couple of days. Local winds can be observed near the
surface but in some cases they are detectable at the height of a few km;
consequently, they mostly impact takeoff and landing.
Please keep in mind that in Section 2.4 and Section 3.3 the formation of the
main types of local winds, including downslope winds, was explained. In the
following section, the most prominent foehn, fall and desert wind will be
described that are characteristic for certain regions, for example the chinook,
bora and scirocco. As a side note, we mentioned that land and sea breezes can
also be considered local winds; however, their average wind speed (and its
effect on aviation) is much lower than foehn, fall and desert winds.
To summarise, the most prominent local winds (i.e. foehn, fall and desert
winds) are extended with the cold-air outbreaks. Please see the figure below.
Figure 8.13. Examples of cold-air outbreaks, downslope winds (foehn and fall
winds) and desert winds
Foehn winds
As was described in Section 2.4, foehn winds are warm and dry downslope
winds. Depending on the geographical region, foehn winds have different
names. The term foehn originates from the German word "Foehn". The Foehn
is observed above the Alps. In North America it is called a Chinook wind on
the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains. In South America, on the eastern
side of the Andes, a foehn wind is referred to as the Zonda.
Please keep in mind the formation of foehn wind was explained in detail in
Section 3.3, stability of the atmosphere. Its schematic can be seen in
Figure 3.12. In summary, its development can be considered a
pseudoadiabatic process. The air rises via a dry adiabatic process and cools
down on the upwind side of a mountain. After becoming saturated, the air
rises in a moist adiabatic process and clouds and precipitation may form. After
the cessation of the lifting movement, unsaturated air descends in a dry
adiabatic process and warms up on the downwind (lee) side of the mountain,
causing dry and relatively warm air flows, namely the foehn wind.
Because of the origin of the foehn winds, on the upwind side of the mountain
cloud formation, precipitation or fog is expected, which educes visibility.
Precipitation may fall continuously as drizzle, rain, snow grains or snow. On
the downwind side of the mountain, dissolution of the clouds and dry weather
can be observed associated with dry and warm wind. The visibility is good, but
clear air turbulence is expected. The air warms through the dry adiabatic
process, so the air temperature increases compared to its initial value on the
upwind side of the mountain. The temperature may rise more than 10 °C. In
winter it may lead to the intense melting of snow.
Fall winds
Previously, downslope winds were discussed as warm and dry air flows
descending along a slope. However, in some cases the sinking of the air is so
intense that there is no time for the air parcels to warm up. Consequently,
downslope wind remains cold relative to its environment, which is called a fall
wind. Similar to the foehn winds, fall winds have different names depending
on their geographical region.
For example, a strong northeasterly fall wind blows along the slopes of the
Dinarides, reaching the area of the Adriatic Sea, especially in winter and early
spring. It is called a bora wind (from boreas, Greek for "northerly wind") and it
originates from the cold air accumulated over Siberia. It may be associated
with precipitation but not necessarily. Northerly fall winds in the Rhone Valley
of Southern France are called mistral winds (magistralis, Latin for "master
(wind)") and originate from the pressure gradient between the Azores High
and the Genoa Low. Similar to the bora, it also forms primarily in winter and
early spring. This phenomenon is called the tramontana (from trans montanus,
Greek for "across the mountain") over the territories of Northwest Italy and
the Balearic Islands.
Desert winds
Winds that blow from the direction of a desert can be called desert winds.
Because of this, desert winds may carry a significant amount of dust. They
may carry hot air if they blow in the day. However, due to the large diurnal
variation of temperature over the desert they may carry cold air if they blow at
night.
A desert wind that blows from the Sahara Desert in the direction of the
Mediterranean region is called the scirocco (or sirocco). It originates from the
strong pressure gradient that leads to decreasing air pressure in the
Mediterranean region and increasing air pressure over North Africa. This
southerly wind may carry hot and dusty air. Dust particles of small diameters
may ascend to great heights. Over the Mediterranean Sea its moisture content
increases. Therefore, the formation of precipitation containing dust is
expected, such as mud rain in Europe. This type of southerly desert wind is
called the ghibli in Libya, and the khamsin in Egypt. The latter may lead to the
formation of sandstorms reaching the Middle East.
The Harmattan can considered a local wind since it is characteristic for the
region of West Africa. From early winter to early spring, the zone of
northeasterly trade winds and the subtropical high zone come closer to the
geographical Equator, and consequently trade winds carry dust from the
Sahara Desert. Since they blow from the region of the subtropical high zone,
they can be considered hot and dry. This hot, dry and dusty northeasterly air
flow is referred to the Harmattan, which is shown in the first part of
Figure 8.7.
STUDY TEST
Climate can be considered to be the average value of atmospheric variables that
characterise a certain region on the surface of the Earth over at least a 30-year
period.
The uneven heating of the Earth’s atmosphere, its seasonal variabilities and the
distribution of continents, oceans and mountainous regions lead to the
formation of various climate zones.
The following five main climate zones are distinguished according to Koeppen’s
climatic classification:
1. Tropical rain climates (A)
2. Dry climates (B)
3. Mid-latitude climates (C)
4. Snow-forest climates (C)
5. Polar climates (E)
Climate zones can be divided into subclasses on the basis of the amount and
distribution of the precipitation, which are denoted as follows:
o Humid (f)
o Monsoon (m)
o Dry winter (w)
o Dry summer (s)
o Desert (W)
o Steppe (S)
o Tundra (T)
o Frost (F)
Cloud clusters of convective clouds form along the ITCZ. If they reach the
horizontal extent of 100 km and are associated with precipitation then a
mesoscale convective system may form.
A mesoscale convective system with a large circular cloud top, a temperature
less or equal to -32 °C (-52 °C) that covers an area of at least 100000 km2
(50000 km2) and lasts for at least six hours is called a mesoscale convective
complex.
Cloud clusters of convective clouds form along the ITCZ. If they reach the
horizontal extent of 100 km and are associated with precipitation then a
mesoscale convective system may form.
A mesoscale convective system with a large circular cloud top, a temperature
less or equal to -32 °C (-52 °C) that covers an area of at least 100000 km2
(50000 km2) and lasts for at least six hours is called a mesoscale convective
complex.
A mesoscale convective system in which Cb clouds are aligned and their
movement is perpendicular to the line along which the Cb clouds are formed is
called a squall line.
In the tropical region the zero-degree isotherm is between about 13000 ft and
17 000 ft (ca. 4 km and 5 km).
Seasonal variation of the ITCZ is affected by the Earth’s non-zero axial tilt, by
the distribution of sea and land surfaces and by topography.
On average, the ITCZ is located along ca. 15°N (ca. 5°S) in July (January).
However, in extreme cases it may exceed 30°N (30°S).
The formation of a monsoon is connected with the seasonal movement of the
ITCZ. The intensity of the monsoon is the highest over West Africa, the Indian
subcontinent, Southeast Asia and over the northern part of Australia.
In monsoon regions, in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere’s summer
southwesterly (northwesterly) winds blow while during winter northeasterly
(southeasterly) trade winds blow.
Sandstorms (or dust storms) form because of a strong pressure gradient, gust
fronts or cold fronts.
In winter polar cold air may flow southward (northward) in the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere, resulting in strong cooling and even record low
temperatures. This may be associated with the formation of blizzards.
Easterly waves are east-to-west propagating wave-like disturbances in the
troposphere between the ITCZ and the subtropical high zone.
Concerning easterly waves, the formation of convective clouds is observable to
the east of the trough axis.
Easterly waves have a major contribution to the development of tropical
revolving storms.
(Southern) Hemisphere, resulting in strong cooling and even record low
temperatures. This may be associated with the formation of blizzards.
• Easterly waves are east-to-west propagating wave-like disturbances in the
troposphere between the ITCZ and the subtropical high zone.
• Concerning easterly waves, the formation of convective clouds is observable to
the east of the trough axis.
• Easterly waves have a major contribution to the development of tropical
revolving storms.
• The climate at the mid-latitudes is determined by the polar front, which travels
from west to east with a wave-like movement.
• Changes between low- and high-pressure systems as well as westerly winds
determine the weather in the mid-latitudes.
• Areas with flat-pressure patterns are characterised by widely spaced isobars
resulting in weaker pressure gradients. However, this enhances convection and
the formation of showery precipitation.
• In the mid-latitudes, in connection with the wave-like movement of the polar
front, upper-level lows (i.e. cold drops) and highs (i.e. warm drops) may also
form.
• Because of its formation, a cold drop is only observable in upper-level weather
charts. It may persist for several days.
• Cold-air pools mainly form in winter, among anticyclonic conditions in an
absolutely stable atmosphere. Inversion may lead to the development of fog
that may persist for weeks.
• Local winds such as foehn, fall and desert winds may affect aviation, especially
during takeoff and landing. Their life span may vary from a couple of hours to a
couple of days. Associated wind gusts may exceed 150 km/h.
• Desert winds may blow from the desert and may therefore carry a significant
amount of dust.
• Chinook and Zonda winds are types of foehn winds.
• Bora, mistral and tramontana winds belong to the fall wind group.
• The scirocco, ghibli, khamsin and harmattan belong to the desert wind group.
Flight Hazards
Hazardous aspects of weather phenomena that were described previously are
emphasised in this chapter. This chapter is considered as a summary of the
previously learnt phenomena that are the most important from the aviation
point of view.
9.1. Icing
Classification of icing can be made in various ways, e.g. by the location of the
aircraft. Icing can occur while the plane is at the aerodrome, and the
phenomenon is called ground icing. For example, ground icing can be caused
by freezing rain (it happens similarly on the surface of other objects on the
ground),or icing can happen during flight, called in flight icing.
Other classifications can be made depending on the origin of the icing on the
aircraft. Based on these origins, three categories can be distinguished: surface
icing, internal icing and ice inflowing.
On the outer surface of the aircraft surface icing (or structural icing) may
occur, which may form not only during flight but also on the ground. The main
concern with this type of icing is that it changes the aerodynamical behaviour
of the aircraft and leads to increasing weight. It may also obstruct the proper
operation of instruments placed outside like antennas or the pitot tube.
Icing may occur not only on the surface of the aircraft, but can also affect its
internal parts.
Internal icing (or induction system icing) occurs when ice develops inside the
engine induction system, hereinafter referred to as induction system icing.
This can lead to severe engine malfunctions. The engine is mainly operated by
using a carburettor or fuel injection. Carburetted engines are more susceptible
to icing than engines with fuel injection, so carburettor icing will be discussed
in more detail. The freezing of liquid components in the fuel can also lead to
ice crystal formation in the induction system called fuel icing. Fuel icing may
affect both types of the above mentioned engines.
Ice inflowing is related to the drifting ice crystals and supercooled water
droplets carried by the cold air flow that gets into the induction system. For
example, as a consequence of flying through the upper parts of Cb clouds, ice
may accumulate in the intake gap of the engine or in the Venturi tube of the
carburettor. Ice inflowing affects both a carburetted engine and a fuel injected
engine.
Note: Surface icing may occur both on the ground or in flight while internal icing
and ice inflowing can only happen during flight.
The above mentioned types of icing will be explained in detail in the next
sections and are summarised as follows:
Ice protector systems are used to protect the aircraft from the effects of icing
and utilise different methods to help terminate ice accumulation on the
surface or in the engine of the aircraft. The two main types of methods are the
de-icing and the anti-icing systems that eliminate or prevent ice deposition,
respectively. There are different types of operating mechanisms for these
devices such as electro-thermal, electro-mechanical and chemical techniques.
Electro-thermal mechanisms warm up the vulnerable areas of the aircraft.
Electro-mechanical techniques mechanically remove the accumulated ice,
while chemical methods (anti-icing fluid) are used before flight to prevent ice
formation on the aircraft surface.
Surface (structural) icing
Definition and types of surface (structural) icing
As was written previously, surface icing happens when ice forms and
accumulates on the surface of the aircraft (e.g. on the fuselage or on its wings).
In the following section, typical cases of surface icing will be listed.
1. The temperature of the air and the surface of the aircraft is below 0 °C.
In case 2 (air temperature is above 0 °C), icing occurs if the temperature of the
aircraft surface is below 0 °C, and it flies into a warmer air mass where water
droplets are present. The water droplets can cool below the freezing point and
accumulate on the aircraft's surface.
For the previously listed types of icing, the following factors are crucial for the
formation and accumulation of ice:
1. Air temperature
The most important factors are the air temperature and the temperature of
the aircraft's surface. The highest risk is between 0 °C and -20 °C. At lower
temperatures (below -20 °C) the amount of supercooled water droplets
decreases, and ice crystals are more commonly present. As a result, the risk of
icing decreases as temperature decreases. Furthermore, icing depends on the
liquid water content (abbreviated as LWC) of the air, the size and number of
particles that can accumulate on the surface of the aircraft such as
supercooled water droplets, and ice crystals in the air that are connected to
the cloud type. The intensity of icing increases with the increasing size of the
supercooled droplets. The bigger the droplets the stronger the icing. Surface
icing most commonly occurs in St and Cu clouds and near the surface in fog.
Another factor influencing the strength of the icing is the shape of the aircraft.
Curved surfaces enhance icing, and thus the front edge of wings, the
propellers and antennas may be highly endangered by icing. Another
important factor is the speed of the airflow and the speed of the aircraft. At
higher speeds the surface collides with more droplets per unit time, and icing
will be more significant.
As was discussed in Section 3.2.1, water can exist in a liquid state of matter
much below 0 °C, which is called supercooled water. This supercooled state
occurs because of the lack of nuclei for the freezing process. In this case if a
disturbance arises, e.g. contaminations flow into the air, then these particles
can serve as nuclei for freezing. An aircraft can serve as an ideal surface where
liquid water droplets may turn into ice.
The size and number of supercooled water droplets depend on the cloud type.
The droplet size is the largest in cumuliform clouds like Cu and Cb clouds
because of their strong updrafts, and is somewhat smaller in Ac clouds. The
size and number of droplets are generally smaller in stratiform clouds,which
may often cause moderate icing. In respect to icing, hazardous stratiform
clouds are Sc and St, but As and Ns may also be dangerous, especially if they
are accompanied by embedded Cu and Cb. Stratiform clouds can cover large
areas especially in winter, which makes them more hazardous than Cu or Cb.
The Cu or Cb clouds can easily be avoided by aircraft because of their smaller
horizontal extension. In stratiform clouds the risk of collision with large
supercooled water droplets is the highest right above the freezing level. The
smallest amount of supercooled water droplets can be found in Ci clouds and
in fog. However, Ci clouds are composed of ice crystals that may cause icing,
but it is less frequent., Icing is more common around instruments on the
surface of the aircraft, e.g. on pitot tubes (see details in Section 9.1.3).
Generally, the number of droplets increases upward in clouds while the size of
droplets decreases.
Sometimes supercooled water droplets reach the ground surface where they
start to freeze after contacting objects (e.g. on a standing aircraft at the
aerodrome). This type of precipitation is called freezing rain (see details in
Section 5.2.1) and can cause icing on airframes while flying in precipitation. As
we mentioned above ice can accumulate on the surface of the fuselage and
wings when standing on the ground, a phenomenon called ground icing. If the
fog contains small supercooled droplets it is called freezing fog (details in
Section 4.2). When the fog contacts objects that also have a temperature
below 0 °C, or during the night when dew may freeze on the surface of the
plane (hoar frost) rime ice forms. Before takeoff any accumulated ice must be
removed because it reduces aerodynamical efficiency and enhances additional
ice accumulation.
Surface icing is more difficult to handle during flight. It often happens when
flying through clouds or precipitation.
In the case of carburettor engines, ice can form internally, which is called
carburettor icing. Furthermore, both carburettor and fuel injected engine
systems are affected by fuel icing.
In general, ice develops on the surface and moving parts of the aircraft below
0 °C. However, ice may form in the internal parts of the induction system
above 0 °C in special circumstances. For example, a carburettor can
experience icing because of the Venturi effect and the absorption of latent
heat via evaporation. Thus, carburettor icing in general may happen not only if
the outside temperature is below 0 °C but also if it is between 0 °C and 15-
20 °C, or even around 30 °C.
The most prominent part of the carburettor affected by icing is the Venturi
tube. In a Venturi tube the air speeds up as the cross-section of the tube
decreases, which leads to decreasing pressure (called the Venturi effect) and
temperature. As we saw earlier, in real atmospheric conditions air always
contains water vapour. Phase changes may occur if the temperature of the
moist air decreases to the saturation level with respect to water vapour. This
leads to the formation of water droplets and ice crystals. The latter can
accumulate in the carburettor. The moisture content of the air deposits onto
the wall of the tube, and as it freezes it blocks the mixed fuel and air from
getting into the engine. See Figure 9.1. The chance of carburettor icing
increases as the moisture content of the air increases. In other words, the
higher the relative humidity the higher the risk of carburettor icing. As is
shown in Figure 9.2, the severity of icing increases as the relative humidity
increases. The most severe cases of icing are observable when the relative
humidity of the air exceeds 60 %, and light icing can occur from around 30 %.
As was discussed in Section 3.1, dew point is the temperature at which the air
parcel gets saturated at a given air pressure. If the dew point of the moist air
gets closer to the actual temperature, then the chance of cloud, fog and
precipitation formation increases. If the inside temperature falls below 0 °C,
the chance of ice accretion in the aircraft engine also increases. The following
statement seems controversial, but if the outside air temperature is below
0 °C then carburettor icing is less likely to occur because the colder air might
contain less water. Therefore, the most favourable conditions for carburettor
icing are a moist air mass with a temperature above 0 °C in which icing is
enhanced by the Venturi effect, while the temperature is below 0 °C inside the
carburettor. Consequently, carburettor icing shows a seasonal cycle. It is more
likely to happen in a relatively moist and warm air mass during the summer,
and it is less likely to occur in a colder and drier air mass during the winter.
Besides the Venturi effect, another effect plays a significant role in cooling. As
was discussed in Section 3.2, heat is absorbed by the environment during
evaporation. The air temperature decreases via evaporation, which also leads
to the formation of ice.
Engine power also plays a key factor in icing because it affects the
temperature of the engine. Carburettor icing often happens if the engine
power is low (e.g. during landing), or if the engine temperature is also low (a
warmer engine may help prevent icing).
Figure 9.1. Illustration of carburettor icing
Figure 9.2. Probability chart of carburettor icing that shows its dependence
on the moisture content of the air
The most favourable conditions for carburettor icing are denoted by the
shades of blue. Different combinations of engine power and meteorological
conditions result in icing. Intensity categories of icing can be found in
Section 9.1.3.
From the chart, one can estimate relative humidity and intensity of icing. For
example, if the actual temperature is 3 °C and the dew point is 0 °C, then
relative humidity is about 80 %, which indicates severe icing at any power.
Please compare Figure 9.2 to Figure 3.3 in which dependence of relative
humidity on the actual temperature and dew point is shown. Using the simple
empirical formula in Equation 3.6 in Section 3.1, a slightly different but
appropriate approximation can be made. Based on this, the relative humidity is
about 85 %, which also means there will be severe icing at any power at the
given actual temperature and dew point.
In summary, the most advantageous circumstances of carburettor icing are as
following. If the aircraft flies in a moist air mass, in cloud or fog, or above a
large wet surface or water body (e.g. sea), it will increase the water content of
the air.
Icing can also happen in the induction system's other processes. Fuel icing of
aircraft engines happens less frequently, but must be considered regarding
other types of engine induction systems, i.e. if the aircraft operates with a fuel
injected engine.
Fuel icing can happen in different ways, e.g. if incoming air has a temperature
below 0 °C and the water content of the fuel freezes. It can also be caused by
the heat loss during the fuel vapourisation process. It happens most of the
time while the engine power is low because the temperature of the engine is
lower in this case and it therefore does not heat up the incoming air.
Ice inflowing
Ice inflowing is a less frequent type of icing. It is caused by cold air that
contains ice crystals, snow, granular snow or supercooled water droplets that
flow through the moving parts of the aircraft, including the engine. Compared
to internal icing (induction system icing), in this case ice is not developing
inside, but is drifting in from the outside. It may happen when the aircraft flies
through clouds containing small ice crystals, and especially through the top of
Cb clouds. Ice can accumulate in the intake gap of the induction system,
blocking the air intake.
Effect of topography on icing
Mountainous areas increase the risk of icing as they help the formation of
stratiform or cumuliform clouds with a large supercooled water content.
Orography enhances the updraft of air and thus also enhances the
development of water droplets that are large in size, but mostly on the upwind
side of a mountain above the ridge. Furthermore, if the rate at which the
temperature is being lowered is relatively high, the water droplet reaches
much lower temperatures while retaining its liquid state. Thus, relatively large
supercooled water droplets can also be found at lower temperatures above
mountains. If frontal systems cross a mountainous region, icing can be
extremely strong as the uplifting effect becomes much stronger by it.
Clear ice (or glaze ice) is the most dangerous type of ice accretion. It is a
smooth, sometimes transparent (but not necessarily), hard and dense ice sheet
on the surface that is similar to glass, and thus hard to detect visually. It sticks
to the surface easily, but it is hard to remove even with de-icing equipment.
Clear ice forms from large supercooled water droplets (with a diameter greater
than 50 micrometres). It develops when freezing precipitation contacts the
surface, most commonly between 0 °C and -5 °C.
During the formation of clear ice, the water content of the droplet does not
freeze immediately because of its large size. Therefore, a part of it stays in
liquid form and flows around the surface of the aircraft. This is because latent
heat releases during the process, which slows the freezing of the droplet and
forms a continuous ice surface including on the rear sections. In this case, ice
can spread to the areas of the aircraft that are not beyond the areas protected
by the de-icing equipment.
Clear ice may accumulate after sleet hits the surface of the aircraft. As was
mentioned in Section 5.2, it develops close to 0 °C when the snow is partially
melted, and consequently it is a mixture of snow and rain. It may form a layer
of clear ice. At lower temperatures this type of icing is not likely to occur.
During icing processes rime ice forms most frequently, since the necessary
circumstances are the most common. Rime ice crystals are white, opaque and
rough, with a low density and are mostly long in shape. Similar to clear ice,
rime ice develops when freezing precipitation hits the surface. Rime ice can
change the aerodynamical behaviour of the aircraft significantly.
Rime ice forms at a lower temperature than clear ice, and generally much
further below -10 °C in the presence of smaller supercooled liquid water
droplets (with diameter smaller than 50 micrometres). These kind of droplets
can generally be found in the higher parts of the cloud or in freezing fog. It is
easily removable from the aircraft compared to clear ice.
Mixed ice can be considered the combination of clear ice and rime ice. It
forms on the surface of the aircraft if ice crystals and water droplets or
supercooled water droplets of various sizes are present in clouds or
precipitation. This is also quite a dangerous type of ice, as it can be strong,
hard and thick. It forms at a temperature between the ideal temperature of
clear ice and rime ice, most commonly from -5 °C to -15 °C.
Besides the three main ice types, hoar frost is another important product of
icing. Hoar frost is the frozen form of dew. It often develops after clear cold
nights when the air has gone below 0 °C with a relatively high moisture
content. The water content of the air directly turns from water vapour into ice
(via the process of deposition), and creates light, white ice crystals. Thus, the
air must have enough moisture content to reach the saturated condition with
respect to ice. It often forms on aircraft while parked outside during clear
winter nights or in an inversion situation when the aircraft flies from an air
mass below 0 °C (so the fuselage is also below 0 °C ) into a moist air mass
above 0 °C temperature. Hoar frost is less dangerous than clear ice and rime
ice, but it is not harmless, because it can decrease the flight performance as
well.
Severe icing means the affected areas should be avoided because ice
accretion is so intense that de-icing equipment may not be able to remove the
accumulated ice. The probability of severe icing is the highest in Cb and Cu
clouds, in Ns with embedded Cb clouds, and in St clouds, particularly above
mountains. Regarding moderate and severe icing, a warning is required in a
special air report form to inform other aircraft (see details in Section 10.3.2).
Severe icing happens most often if the meteorological conditions are
favourable for clear or mixed ice formation.
Different types of ice have different effects on aircraft. For example, clear ice
can increase the weight of the aircraft greatly, while aerodynamical conditions
are more influenced by rime ice, mixed ice and hoarfrost.
Engine malfunction can also be caused by induction system icing and ice
inflowing.
Pitot tubes can also be obstructed both by ice crystals and by supercooled
water droplets. Ice crystals may clog the gaps as supercooled water covers its
surface, preventing its proper operation. The pitot tube measures the speed of
the aircraft and may operate incorrectly if ice accumulates inside it. This may
lead to poor decision-making by the pilot.
Presumably, icing of the pitot tube along with thunderstorms are what led to
the tragic crash of Air France Flight 447 when its route crossed the ITCZ in
2009. Ice can develop in a cluster of Cb clouds over the ITCZ at FL350. Three
pitot tubes were mounted on the aircraft as part of the airspeed measuring
system. An electrical heating system was used on the aircraft to prevent icing.
According to an analysis of the crash, the malfunction of the air speed
measurement system (i.e. the pitot tube) could have caused the
underestimation of the speed of the aircraft. Consequently, the aircraft’s
autopilot was turned off. It is assumed that the aircraft flew too fast, leading it
to break up and crash.
Surface icing is more intense in clouds related to weather fronts. On one hand,
supercooled water can be found in stratiform clouds (mostly in Sc, St and Ns)
and are most likely to occur in winter due to warm fronts and inversions. The
precipitation originating from a warmer air mass, falls through a colder air
mass where the temperature of the water droplets may decrease and become
supercooled. On the other hand, Cu and Cb clouds can also contain
supercooled water droplets, mostly in the middle section of clouds (details of
required meteorological conditions for Cu and Cb formation can be found in
Section 4.1.3). The risk of icing is higher when Cb are embedded in Ns
associated with cold fronts. As was mentioned earlier, larger droplets can be
found in cumuliform clouds and smaller droplets in stratiform clouds, for the
updraft is more intense in cumuliform clouds. Consequently, in cumuliform
clouds supercooled water droplets found higher (as a result of a strong
updraft) have a lower temperature. Thus, the probability of the formation of
clear ice (which is the most hazardous ice type) is higher in Cu clouds. Weather
fronts are generally accompanied by clouds with a high risk of ice accretion,
and thus it is recommended that aircraft fly through them on the shortest
route possible..
In clouds at higher levels, i.e. middle level clouds such as Ac and As, the risk of
surface icing is lower but not negligible. Most often rime and mixed ice can
occur in them. Surface icing is not typical in high level clouds (i.e. Ci, Cs, Cc) as
they only contain ice crystals at temperatures below -40 °C, without
supercooled water content. However, ice inflowing and pitot tube icing can
occur in clouds with small ice crystals, e.g. in the tops of Cb clouds and in Ci
clouds.
The strongest surface icing is observable just above the level of the 0 °C
isotherm, as seen in the figure below. The probability of icing and its expected
strength increases with the thickness of stratiform clouds.
Internal icing (i.e. carburettor icing and fuel icing) may also occur in fair
weather (above 0 °C, without clouds) if the moisture content is appropriate.
Figure 9.5. General location of potential icing hazard in clouds
STUDY TEST
9.2. Turbulence
Hazards of turbulence largely depend on the size and mass of the affected
aircraft. Generally, smaller aircraft are more vulnerable. The following severity
categories of turbulence are distinguished by the ICAO:
• Light
• Moderate
• Severe
• Extreme
In light turbulence the change in the airflow is weak and not continuous. It is
shown on an accelerometer reading as less than ca. 0.5 g acceleration at the
aircraft’s centre of gravity.
Moderate turbulence has a constant and greater intensity, but these effects
can still be easily controlled by the pilot. In this case the accelerometer reading
changes from 0.5 to 1.0 g at the aircraft’s centre of gravity.
In severe turbulence abrupt and strong changes in airflow occur when the
aircraft becomes hard to control or uncontrollable for short time periods, and
when the changes in accelerometer reading reach or exceed 1 g at the
aircraft’s centre of gravity.
There are other aspects used as a basis for classification such as air speed.
Severity of turbulence is sometimes characterised by fluctuations of the
indicated airspeed.
Note: During flight it is hard to rank the current turbulence into the above
described categories, and thus it can be said its classification is quite subjective.
Light turbulence can be experienced during almost every flight and does not
have any hazardous effects. However, areas with strong turbulence need to be
avoided.
2. On the other hand, during flight appropriate altitude and speed should
be chosen and necessary track corrections should be made.
Remember that the main types of turbulence from the perspective of forming
factors are convective, mechanical and frontal turbulence, which were
introduced in Section 2.6. Every intensity category may be associated with the
above-listed categories of turbulence. Different types of turbulence are
expected in different situations , so knowing the potential factors leading to
turbulence is necessary. For example, the prediction of weather fronts, jet
streams and convective phenomena may be helpful to avoid highly turbulent
areas. It is worth mentioning that significant turbulence must be reported by
other aircraft, which can be useful in avoidance. Typical weather patterns
associated with the three main types of turbulence are listed below:
STUDY TEST
9.3. Wind shear
In the following section, two main types of wind shear will be distinguished:
vertical wind shear and horizontal wind shear. Furthermore, we emphasise the
significance of low level wind shear, which is hazardous for aircraft during
takeoff and landing.
In the case of vertical wind shear, wind speed or wind direction changes with
height, while in the case of horizontal wind shear, changes in the flow can be
observed at the same height. Vertical wind shear is depicted in the figure
below. Wind shear may originate from friction concerning the boundary
surface of two air masses.
A) speed shear B) directional shear
The length of the arrows indicates the changes in wind speed with height, and
the direction of arrows indicates the changes of wind direction with height.
Speed and direction may also change together. In figure (A), the barrel and the
red arrow indicates a vertical wind shear can lead to rotation on a horizontal
axis, which may enhance the possibility of the formation of a supercell. See
Section 9.4.
Wind shear may occur at any height level in the atmosphere, but from the
aviation point of view the most hazardous kind forms in lower levels and is
called low level wind shear. Low level means a few hundred metres above the
ground, which is roughly the height of the friction layer. In this case, wind
shear occurs close to the ground near the aerodrome and may have an impact
on aircraft during takeoff and landing. It is hazardous as the space is limited for
correcting manoeuvres, i.e. between the aircraft and the ground surface.
It is worth mentioning that vertical wind shear can be represented with a
hodograph. It contains concentric circles indicating the magnitude of wind
speed. The circles are divided by the points of the compass to give the wind
directions. To determine the wind shear, wind vectors are drawn from the
centre of the circles corresponding to the height levels at which wind speed
and wind direction were measured (marked with red vectors in the figure).
Then, every adjacent pair of vectors is subtracted. As a result the wind shear
vector can be given between two adjacent height levels. The length of each
vector gives the magnitude of the wind shear between two height levels in the
SI units of m/s. They are represented by green lines in the hodograph. In the
figure, every height level is numbered. For example, the magnitude of the wind
shear vector between height levels 1 and 2 can be represented by the leftmost
green line. In the example we assume an atmospheric layer in which wind
speed and wind direction were measured at seven height levels. We can
determine the direction of the wind shear between the lowest and the highest
height levels if we examine the shape of the green curve made of the green
lines between the adjacent height levels.
Figure 9.11. An example of using the hodograph
The figure shows the wind vectors on different height levels with connected
endpoints (marked with green line). Numbers represent the wind vectors
corresponding to different atmospheric levels from the ground surface (1) to
the uppermost level (7), respectively. In the depicted case, the hodograph
indicates both speed shear (wind vectors have different lengths) and
directional shear (wind vectors have different directions).
3. Local winds
4. Friction layer
5. Inversion
6. Weather fronts
7. Jet streams
In the following section, typical situations will be listed in which the main
types of wind shear occur.
Low level wind shear may be similarly caused by thunderstorms, low level jet
streams, weather fronts or by local wind systems (e.g. sea and land breezes,
mountain winds, inversion layers). These phenomena cause wind shear on the
border of air masses with different characteristics.
Wind shear can contribute to the formation of turbulent air flow on the shear
boundary surface as shown in the figure below, and thus the hazard of wind
shear is highly related to the hazard of turbulence (most of the time, CAT). To
summarise, the hazards of wind shear and turbulence often occur together.
Figure 9.12. Wind shear induced turbulence
Note: The effect of wind shear and the required correction manoeuvres during
flight are highly dependent on the type, weight and size of the aircraft.
Wind shear can force the plane to move rapidly downward or upward. Aircraft
can also be dislocated by horizontal direction changes, sometimes repeatedly
in a short distance. These effects can cause the aircraft to drift away from its
original direction and height level, as this may cause sudden changes in air
speed.
To avoid wind shear, pilots need to know the weather phenomena, which are
related to wind shear and are listed above. The usage of an appropriate
weather forecast during flight planning before the flight is also necessary, but
it is important to recognise wind shear if it happens unexpectedly during
flight. As was mentioned above, sudden heading changes and vertical speed
changes may indicate wind shear. Wind shear can be detected by devices able
to measure the vertical profile of wind speed and wind direction, for example,
weather balloons equipped with radiosondes or measuring instruments
mounted on high towers around an aerodrome. Measuring devices installed
on board aircraft can also be used to recognise wind shear.
Vertical wind shear can also be detected visually if Cu clouds have an inclined
vertical axis as can be seen in the figure below. Thunderstorms are highly
recommended to avoid because of the likeliness of strong wind shear. Please
keep in mind that there are several other aspects that make Cb clouds
dangerous for aviation, such as icing or turbulence, which were mentioned
earlier or will be discussed in more details in the next section in Section 9.4.
Figure 9.14. Photo of Cu clouds affected by vertical wind shear
STUDY TEST
9.4. Hazardous effects of
thunderstorms
• Heavy rainfall
• Hail
• Strong winds
• Gust fronts
• Wind shear
• Downbursts
• Severe icing
• Severe and extreme turbulence
• Lightning strikes
• Tornadoes (in supercells)
Note: This process takes a few minutes from formation until dissipation.
A downburst is a major threat to flight and causes strong wind shear. In good
visibility conditions and from an appropriate angle it has a typical appearance
illustrated in the figure below.
Figure 9.17. Photo of a downburst
A downburst can be wet or dry. A wet downburst occurs if the droplets reach
to the ground, and thus a wet downburst is associated with precipitation. In
the case of dry downburst, droplets evaporate before reaching the ground
surface. In the latter case strong CAT may be expected close to ground level.
Shelf clouds belonging to a squall line (on the right) and the development of a
bow echo (on the left) are indicated by typical precipitation intensity on a
radar from a to b, respectively. A and C indicate the anticyclonic and cyclonic
vortices on the two sides of the system.
Shelf clouds belonging to a squall line (on the right) and the development of a
bow echo (on the left) are indicated by typical precipitation intensity on a
radar from a to b, respectively. A and C indicate the anticyclonic and cyclonic
vortices on the two sides of the system.
Further tools for detecting and avoiding thunderstorms are weather radar
images, measurements by lightning detectors (stormscopes) and satellite
images. One of the most important meteorological instruments for detecting
already existing thunderstorms on a route is the weather radar, which detects
the precipitation intensity with radio waves emitted by the instrument and
reflected off the precipitation particles. From radar observations many
conclusions can be drawn about the location and structure of thunderstorms.
Radar images can be created by ground measurements or by airborne radar.
Devices used for lightning detection are also available both on the ground and
onboard. They also support the determination of the location of
thunderstorms.
STUDY TEST
Stormscopes are able to detect radio atmospheric signals, which are broadband
electromagnetic impulses. They are a result of natural atmospheric lightning
discharges. A stormscope does not - compared to a weather radar - emit own
signals. The measured energy develops due to intense vertical movements of the
air. It is already measurable, before visible lightning occurs.
The operating principle is similar to a radio compass. There are two different types
of antennas, measuring the direction to the cloud. The distance is calculated by
comparing the measurement with an electronic signature of a typical
thunderstorm. The display looks like a normal weather radar.
The wind speed in tornadoes varies between 100 km/h (appr. 54 kt) and
500 km/h (appr. 270 kt), while the speed of its progress is around 50 km/h
(27 kt). The horizontal extension of a tornado varies between a few metres
and a few kilometres (in general a few hundred metres). Please see the figure
below.
Figure 9.19. Diameter of tornadoes
The most commonly used categorisation for the intensity of tornadoes is the
Fujita scale (described by a Japanese meteorologist Theodore Fujita in 1971)
and the Enhanced Fujita scale (the corrected version of the former). They
categorise tornadoes by the damage caused from F0 to F5 (or from EFO to
EF5). F5/EF5 indicates the strongest (most devastating) tornadoes.
The most commonly used categorisation for the intensity of tornadoes is the
Fujita scale (described by a Japanese meteorologist Theodore Fujita in 1971)
and the Enhanced Fujita scale (the corrected version of the former). They
categorise tornadoes by the damage caused from F0 to F5 (or from EFO to
EF5). F5/EF5 indicates the strongest (most devastating) tornadoes.
2. Mature stage: The funnel reaches the ground (touchdown), and damage
is the strongest in this stage.
Typically, most of tornadoes form in the central region of the USA as the
conditions for development there are ideal (the annual number is above 1000
in this area). However, tornadoes can form almost everywhere on the Earth.
They can form in Europe, but happen less frequently there, with lower
intensity and cause less damage. Tornadoes also frequently occur in Mexico,
Australia and West Africa.
A dust devil is a vortex but on a smaller scale, similar to a tornado. While dust
devils build upward from the ground surface, tornadoes extend downward
from a cloud.
Dust devils are formed in fair weather, when the insulation is intense. Because
of the uneven heating of the surface, a pressure gradient forms over an area of
a relatively small size. Therefore, a small-scale updraft develops and rotates
around a vertical axis. It often forms above dry land surfaces without
vegetation where it can easily pick up dust, sand and smaller objects, making
the vortex visible.
The wind speed inside a dust devil is also highly variable. It may exceed
100 km/h (appr. 54 kt). However, its regular lifespan is only a few minutes.
Sometimes, the damage of a larger dust devil can be compared to a weaker
(EFl) tornado.
Tornadoes and dust devils also differ on the basis of their spatial distribution.
For the formation of tornadoes more specific conditions are required such as
the presence of heavy thunderstorms. Dust devils may form almost
everywhere on Earth where small-scale pressure differences occur over a
smooth and dusty surface.
The dangers of tornadoes to flight are unequivocal. Dust devils may also be
hazardous during takeoffs and landings. The winds inside dust devils can be
strong enough to endanger the safety of flight, especially in the case of light
aircraft. Accurately predicting the appearance of tornadoes and dust devils is
impossible.
STUDY TEST
9.6. Inversions
Inversions, especially inversions close to the ground (in other words, low level
inversions) may have other hazardous consequences for aviation. In the
following section, the main effects of an inversion on aircraft performance will
be listed:
3. Turbulence
4. Temperature difference
An inversion may produce wind shear with varying intensity, depending on the
intensity of the inversion and the large-scale weather conditions. For aviation,
a low level inversion is the most hazardous type, as the altitude level may not
allow enough space for the correction of the consequences of wind shear.
Inversions obstruct the vertical mixing of air, and wind speed and direction
may be significantly different above the inversion than below. Under the
inversion surface, friction often slows down the wind compared to the large-
scale flows.
As wind speed suddenly changes when aircraft cross the top of an inversion,
lifting may change rapidly. The two main types of the cases related to wind
speed shear are the following:
• During landing, sudden descent may occur with the rapid decreasing of
wind speed, when entering an inversion layer.
• After take-off, sometimes much stronger winds are present that lead to a
stronger ascent above the inversion.
The top of the inversion varies in a wide range, between a few hundred
metres (feet) and 2 km (appr. 7 000 ft). Above the inversion layer (besides the
above-mentioned effects) visibility often improves suddenly, as a vertical
mixing of the air is no longer restricted.
STUDY TEST
9.7. Stratospheric conditions
Above the poles the polar vortex extends from the higher troposphere into
the lower stratosphere, which is an upper level low-pressure area. It is
stronger in winter, and at the edge of the vortex, strong zonal wind speeds can
be found. More information about the polar vortex can be found in
Section 7.3.
9.8. Hazards in mountainous
areas
STUDY TEST
9.9. Visibility-reducing
phenomena
Good visibility is important during flight. The pilots perceive the ground at a
slant angle. Therefore, slant visibility also needs to be determined as much as
possible, but an exact method for it is not available. We distinguish ground
visibility, in-flight visibility and slant visibility. Ground visibility is the
horizontal visibility observed on the ground. In-flight visibility is the horizontal
visibility observed during flight. Slant visibility is observed at a slanted angle
(not horizontally) as the aircraft approaches the runway.
Good values for all visibility types are needed for a safe flight. These values
may be significantly different. For example, in the case of shallow fog in-flight
visibility may be good, but ground visibility can be poor at the same time.
Visibility may change in different directions, and in this case it is also
important to give the minimum and maximum values, and the prevailing
visibility value. Prevailing visibility is the value observed at more the 50 % of
the horizon.
There are three main factors on which visibility primarily depends. They are:
For aviation, good visibility is the most important along the runway, as it is
important to see the objects on and around it during landing and takeoff. For
this reason, the concept of Runway Visual Range (RVR) is defined, and
designates the distance from where the lights of the runway can be seen.
The most common meteorological phenomena that lead to poor visibility are
precipitation, fog, mist, haze, smoke, volcanic ash, sand and dust or flight
inside a cloud. The formation and characterisation of fog, mist and haze were
discussed in Section 4.2. Remember that in fog, visibility is reduced below
1000 m by small water droplets suspended in the air, while mist is the same
phenomena but with somewhat better visibility (1000 to 5 000 m).
In haze the visibility is reduced below 5 000 m, but it is caused by small solid
particles floating in the air that can consists of dust, sand, volcanic ash or any
type of solid air pollutant.
As was mentioned earlier, flying in precipitation like drizzle, rain and snow may
cause a significant reduction of visibility. The degree of visibility reduction
depends on the intensity and type of the precipitation.
Drizzle may reduce visibility between 500 m and 3000 m. In moderate rain,
visibility is somewhat better between 3000 m and 5 000 m, while in heavy
rain, visibility may decrease below 1000 m, similar to fog. In snow,depending
on its intensity, visibility may decrease below 1000 m or in more intense cases
below 200 m.
Dust storms (DS) and sand storms (SS) also belong to visibility-reducing
phenomena. The Harmattan is a wind that occurs in winter in northwest
Africa, resulting in dust or sand storms.
The position of the Sun (angle) related to the sight of the pilot may also affect
visibility. Objects are harder to detect by pilots during sunset and sunrise.
Furthermore, sunlight may be reflected by clouds or other particles suspended
in the air, which can also ruin the sight of the pilot.
• Valley inversions form during the night. Wind speed is higher and leads to
strong wind shear above it.
• Various types of visibility shall be determined in aviation. Horizontal, vertical
and slant visibility have to be given. In-flight and ground visibility are also
required to be distinguished for a safe flight.
• Good visibility is essential for a safe flight, especially when approaching the
runway. Therefore, the concept of Runway Visual Range is determined for safe
flight performance.
• Poor visibility can be caused by water droplets (fog, mist) or solid particles (haze)
suspended in the air as well as by precipitation.
• Precipitation may also reduce visibility by the deposition of water or the
accumulation of ice on the windscreen of the cockpit.
• During sunset or sunrise, the angle of the Sun may cause the reduction of the
observability of objects in the air. Sunlight can also be reflected by clouds or by
any type of particle floating in the air.
Meteorological
Information
In the last chapter, we explain meteorological observations related to the
previously discussed weather phenomena. The measurement of atmospheric
variables (e.g. air temperature, air pressure) and transmission of the measured
data are conducted in a standardised way. Results and information about
these phenomena are provided to the aircrew and civil aviation services. This
information is provided to the aircrew before the flight as a part of the flight
documentation in written and graphical format. The former are coded textual
weather messages while the latter are weather charts. We describe the basics
of the measurements as well as code form and content of the weather
messages. Note that there are several types of weather messages available
that contain actual or forecast meteorological information regarding the take
off, landing and alternate aerodromes as well as the flight route. During the
flight, the aircrew may also receive information by voice communication or
even in digital format if an air-ground data link is available.
The main objectives of the WMO are as follows. The WMO aims to issue
technical regulations that provide standards and recommendations for
member states. The WMO facilitates data collection, storage and the
processing of data concerning weather, climate and water management and
makes them available in a standardised format for the services of the member
states. The WMO enhances cooperation between those services to fulfil their
tasks. Through coordination, these services are able to make better weather
forecasts, climate predictions and sustainable water management plans.
Furthermore, the WMO facilitates the avoidance or reduction of the effects of
dangerous weather phenomena.
As a side note, we mention that the WMO and the ICAO are now specialised
agencies of the United Nations (abbreviated as UN). The headquarters of the
WMO and the ICAO are located in Geneva, Switzerland and Montreal,
Canada, respectively.
Meteorological services are supplied with actual weather and forecast data in
the framework of the World Area Forecast System (abbreviated as WAFS),
which was founded by the ICAO in 1982 by the World Area Forecast Centres
(abbreviated as WAFC).
1. Air temperature
2. Humidity
These forecasts are issued at 0 UTC00, 6 UTC, 12 UTC and 18 UTC, which are
known as the main synoptic hours. Forecasts are valid for different time
intervals: for 6 hours, 9 hours, 12 hours etc. up to 36 hours. An example is a
chart that contains gridded data of upper wind directions, wind speed and air
temperature. As a side note, we mention that 3 UTC, 9 UTC, 15 UTC and
21 UTC are known as intermediate synoptic hours.
The WAFC cooperates with the WMO and the volcanic ash advisory centres
to acquire information about radioactive particles and volcanic ash introduced
to the atmosphere, which are also contained in SIGWX charts.
Meteorological offices
If a meteorological office is established at the aerodrome then it acquires and
prepares meteorological forecasts both for the flight routes and for the
aerodrome, for example the General Aviation Meteorological Information,
abbreviated as GAMET. A message is issued for a Flight Information Region
(abbreviated as FIR) or a Control Area (CTA) concerning low level flights, lower
than FL100 or concerning mountainous areas lower than FL150. It provides
and presents information about the actual weather concerning the aerodrome
and other meteorological information for operators who are concerned with
civil aviation. It also releases briefing documents about the meteorological
conditions and forecasts. Because volcanic ash is dangerous for aviation, the
meteorological office provides information about possible volcanic eruptions
and volcanic ash clouds that have originated from volcanic eruptions for
meteorological watch offices as well as for air traffic services (abbreviated as
ATS) and aeronautical information services.
The SIGMET and the AIRMET are issued by the MWO for a FIR or CTA. These
aviation weather messages are sent to meteorological offices, other MWOs
and WAFCs as well as international databanks such as the operational
meteorological databanks (abbreviated as OPMET databanks), which store
weather reports regarding aviation. If the SIGMET contains information about
volcanic ash clouds than it is disseminated to volcanic ash advisory centres.
The above-listed routine observations are made each half hour (or hour)
during the day. Aeronautical meteorological stations issue the Aerodrome
Routine Meteorological Report, abbreviated as METAR and the Aerodrome
Special Meteorological Report, abbreviated as SPECI, which are applied to
flight-planning. These aviation weather messages are also used by other
aerodromes and are stored in the OPMET databanks.
The stations are also responsible to issue local routine reports, abbreviated as
MET reports and local special reports, abbreviated as SPECIAL reports. These
are used by departing and arriving aircraft as well as local air traffic services
(abbreviated as ATS) units, operators and other users of the aerodrome.
Similarly to the VAAC, the TCAC releases information every six hours for
MWOs. This information is used by the MWOs to issue the SIGMET message.
10.1.3. Remarks on international
cooperation and types of observations
To issue proper weather forecasts, not only regular and current observations
and measurements are required. Those observations and measurements are
the basis for creating forecasts, and physical and mathematical equations are
required to make any predictions. Those equations consider the processes of
the atmosphere and have been described since the 18th century. A system of
differential equations that includes for example, the equation of motion, the
first principle of thermodynamics and the general gas law, that are also
discussed in this book, must be resolved to give a proper forecast. However,
an exact forecast is usually hard to find due to the non-linearity and
complexity of the system (i.e. atmosphere and weather). Solving these
equations requires numeric methods; therefore, an advanced capacity of
computers is required, which has only been possible since the second half of
the 20th century. Today, numerical weather prediction models are used to
make forecasts globally and regionally, which are mainly run by national
meteorological services and research institutes. These models solve the
above-mentioned equation system to provide gridded values of atmospheric
variables at different height levels, which can be displayed in charts etc.
Weather stations on land and sea surfaces are used to observe and measure
meteorologically relevant atmospheric variables near the surface. For example,
near-surface air temperatures and wind are recommended to be measured at
the height of 2 m and 10 m, respectively. Devices mounted on aircraft take
measurements during flights from takeoff until landing. Vertical profiles of
atmospheric variables can be determined by using remote-sensing devices.
These can be either passive or active instruments based on whether they emit
some kind of electromagnetic signals. Remote-sensing devices with passive
sensors are installed on satellites while active sensors are mounted on
weather radars.
As a side note, we mention that measurements in the deep sea are also
conducted but they are beyond the scope of this book.
Standards and recommendations issued by the WMO and the ICAO are
available in special documents, such as in annexes in the case of the ICAO.
Until 18 June 2018 annexes were issued by the ICAO, for example regarding
aerodromes, aeronautical charts and telecommunications, air traffic services
and environmental protection. We emphasise that information about the
meteorological service for international air navigation is available in Annex 3.
As was written in Section 10.1.1, members of the WMO and the ICAO are
states (e.g. the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary). These states are also
members of the UN. Standards and recommendations regarding aviation
issued by the WMO and the ICAO are executed by the member states. For
that purpose, a system of required services is established and maintained by
member states.
Pilot Report
Domestic Volcano
Information
Foreign Volcano
Information
STU DY TEST
10.2. Observations
Surface wind
In general, wind is characterised by its direction, speed and gustiness.
Surface wind is the average direction and average wind speed, typically
measured over 10 minutes at the height about 30 ft (ca. 10 m). Wind direction
is the direction from which the wind blows. It is expressed in degrees
referenced to the North Pole (referred as true north), or to the North
Magnetic Pole(referred as magnetic north).
1. When the wind direction changes at least 30° or more while the wind
speed changes at least 5 m/s (10 kt) or more.
2. When the wind speed changes at least 5 m/s (10 kt) and it is measured
over two minutes or more. The WMO recommends that wind gust is
determined as the average of a three-second measure.
Please note that in METAR, surface wind is given in such a way that it
concerns all runways at the aerodrome. However, in local routine air reports
(called MET reports) and local routine special reports (called SPECIAL reports)
information about surface wind differs depending on when aircraft is
departing or arriving. During takeoff, information concerning the entire
runway is used. During landing, information about the so-called touchdown
zone is provided, which is the zone where the runway and the aircraft landing
gear contact for the first time.
Note: The term appropriate size indicates an object with an angular diameter of
about 0.5°. For comparison, the full Moon and the Sun have an angular diameter
of about 0.5°. Candela (denoted by cd) is the SI base unit of luminous intensity. It is
the quotient of the radiative power of visible light (measured in watt, denoted by
W) per unit solid angle (measured in steradian, denoted by st).
Visibility can be measured not only horizontally but also vertically. This is
called vertical visibility and will be explained later.
From an aviation point of view, the term runway visual range has a great
importance. To understand this concept, first visual range will be explained.
For the sake of simplicity visual range at day and at night will not be
distinguished in the book. The human eye has a threshold contrast that
indicates the minimum contrast that is adequate to distinguish objects from
each other visually without getting blurred. Visual range can be defined as the
distance at which the contrast between an object and its background is equal
to the observer’s threshold contrast. The runway visual range (often
abbreviated as RVR) is a specific type of visual range that is the adequate
distance for a pilot along the centre line of the runway to detect marks or
lights on it. It is illustrated in the figure below. If the horizontal visibility is
relatively low, then the runway visual range can still be sufficiently large
enough to make takeoff and landing possible.
Transmissometers consist of two main units. The first unit is a light source, for
example a light-emitting diode (abbreviated as LED). Its second unit mounted
at a known distance could be either an active or a passive remote sensing
device. In the case of the former it is a photodetector that receives the
emitted light as shown in section a) of the figure below. In the case of the
latter it is a reflector (called a retroreflector), which reflects the incoming light
as can be seen in section b) of the figure below. In this case the photodetector
is a part of the first unit. From the received signal, visibility or runway visual
range is derived.
Devices that measure the scattering of emitted light beams can also serve as
visibility meters. These instruments also contain two prominent units, a
transmitter that emits light and a receiver. Different arrangements of the units
can be used. If the transmitter is above the receiver then the instrument is
called a backward scatter meter, shown in section a) in the figure below. The
emitted light by the first unit is backscattered on atmospheric particles which
are received by the second unit. However, due to its higher precision, forward
scatter meters are widely used. In this case the emitted light is forward
scattered on atmospheric particles before it reaches the receiver unit. Please
note that scattering depends on the angle between the transmitter and the
receiver units. It was pointed out that an angle between 20° and 50° is
advantageous, which can be seen in the upper side of section b) in the figure
below. However, the configuration that is shown in the lower side of section
b) in the figure below can also be used when two diaphragms are installed in
front of the transmitter and the receiver. Visibility or runway visual range is
calculated from the rate of backscattering or forward scattering.
Transmitter Sampling
volume
Sampling Receiver
volume
Transmitter Receiver
In general, measuring devices are sensitive to air pollution because they detect
reflected or scattered light. Consequently, sensors must be cleared regularly.
Instruments should be mounted in areas that are free from direct
contaminations (e.g. industrial facilities, roads with high traffic etc.).
Furthermore, measuring instruments should be protected from direct solar
radiation because such radiation can cause a disturbance to the sensors.
To determine the runway visual range at aerodromes, measuring devices are
mounted along the runway at three locations: near the touchdown zone, the
midpoint of the runway and at the end of the runway. To gain a deeper
understanding, assume that the runway is 2 km long and the touchdown zone
and the rollout area are 500 m from the ends of the runway. If the runway
visual range at the rollout area is 1200 m then, from this point, the pilot can
see the midpoint (which is 1000 m far from them) but cannot see the
touchdown zone of the runway (which is 2 000 m far from them).
Assume humid air. At the height level where the temperature of the air parcel
decreases to the dew point, the air parcel gets saturated with water vapour
and condensation starts, which determines the lowest part of the cloud
known as the cloud base. In the case of convective clouds, the temperature of
the rising air parcel decreases to the dew point. The dew point and the air
temperature do not vary rapidly in the vicinity of the developing cloud;
therefore, it has a flat base. If the cloud develops with advection, with colder
air flowing parallel to the surface, then air parcels cool down to the
temperature at which condensation starts. Furthermore, the cloud base
cannot be seen as distinctively as in the case of convective clouds. A cloud
base, which is referenced to the level of the airport, and the amount of clouds
are measured at least 4 000 ft (1200 m) from the first part of the runway that
can be used for landing, known as the landing threshold.
Note: A cloud top can be found above the height level where the temperature of
the air parcel increases above the dew point. In the case of convective clouds this
level is slightly above the equilibrium level. In the case of clouds that form via
advection, the cloud top can be found at the height level where the cold advection
is not intense enough to cool down the air parcel to the dew point.
The amount of clouds,in other words the cloud cover,is measured in oktas.
The sky is divided into eight equal parts. One okta means that one part of the
sky is covered by clouds while eight oktas means that the sky is fully covered
with clouds. Please note that in weather messages the amount of clouds is
characterised by the terms few, scattered, broken and overcast. These
categories and the corresponding values of oktas can be found in
Figure 10.18.
A cloud ceiling is the lowest height at which the amount of clouds is at least
four oktas.
Please note that in METAR and SPECI the cloud base is given in units of ft.
The cloud ceiling is not part of the above-mentioned weather messages.
However, its height can be assumed because the base and the amount of
cloud layers at different height levels are denoted.
Vertical visibility is given in METAR and SPECI in cases when the cloud base
cannot be determined but information is available about vertical visibility.
Both the height of the cloud base and vertical visibility can be measured
(among other devices) by a ceilometer. Similarly to the visibility meter, it
consists of a transmitter and a receiver. In laser ceilometers the transmitter
emits laser beams nearly perpendicular to the ground surface. If there are
cloud droplets in the air then the laser beam scatters off of them. The
backscattered beams partly reach the receiver. The distance between the
observer and the cloud base can be calculated from the elapsed time. The
schematic of the laser ceilometer is shown in the figure below.
The receiver and the transmitter are placed in the same sealed box that is
covered by a transparent surface with low reflectivity. The solid angle that is
covered by the emitted light beam and the solid angle that is scanned by the
receiver overlap; therefore, the transmitter and the receiver should be
installed as close to each other as possible. Overlapping can be realised
through one sensor that is able to both emit and receive signals.
As was mentioned in Section 1.2.1 regarding air temperature, today the Kelvin
scale, the Celsius scale and the Fahrenheit scale are widely used. Dew point is
also given in units of K, °C or °F.
Please remember that the relative humidity of the air can be estimated based
on the actual air temperature and the dew point. The empirical formula is
given in Equation 3.6.
Atmospheric pressure
The units and measurement of atmospheric pressure are discussed in detail in
Section 1.3.1. In summary, atmospheric pressure is given in the Sl-derived unit
of Pa; however, it can also be expressed in mbar, mmHg, inHg, torr, atm or psi.
In regards to atmospheric pressure, in METAR and SPECI the QNH is given in
units of hPa.
1. In-situ measurements
Examples of application
Due to their high cost, radiosonde observations are made only a few times a
day (e.g. once or twice a day) at stations that are a few hundred kilometres
apart from each other. However, the usefulness of the measurement is
indisputable. We provide an overview about the possibilities of its application.
As we learnt in Section 3.3, on the basis of the measured air temperatures at
different height levels, the environmental lapse rate can be determined, which
is depicted in p-T diagrams. During an adiabatic processes, the route of a
rising air parcel as well as atmospheric instability, and the formation of Cu
clouds due to thermal reason can also be examined. In connection with this,
please see Figure 3.15 to Figure 3.27.
If wind direction and wind speed are measured then they are often indicated
by wind barbs on the secondary y-axis of a p-T diagram. An example can be
seen in the figure below. At the height level which corresponds to 200 hPa an
abrupt change in the wind direction is observed. Above that level, stronger,
easterly winds are replaced by weaker, westerly winds. On the basis of this
and other factors the height level of wind shear can be determined. Wind
shear can be expected at the altitude of ca. 39 000 ft (ca. 12 km).
1. Geosynchronous satellites
Examples of application
The previously described meteorological satellites measure different
wavelength ranges. In other words, satellites have different channels that
correspond to visible light and infrared. For example, satellites that belong to
the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites
(abbreviated as EUMETSAT, established in 1986 as an intergovernmental
organisation to launch and maintain satellites for meteorological purposes. It
had 30 member states in 2018) have the following channels:
Please note that WV 6.2 is distinguished from other infrared channels. For
example, it provides information about the water vapour content of the upper
troposphere.
Apparently, the VIS 0.6 channel can be only used during the day, while the
usage of the other three channels does not depend on the time of day. Clouds
with higher cloud tops look brighter than clouds with lower cloud tops on
VIS 0.6 images because high level clouds contain more ice particles than low
level clouds; therefore, the former has greater albedo than the latter.
In IR channels, sensors detect heat. The amount of the emitted heat is greater
(smaller) when the cloud top is warmer (colder). This means that low level
clouds emit, scatter and reflect waves with larger intensity than clouds with
higher cloud tops. In images generated by IR 0.39 and IR 10.8 channels,
colours are inverted (similarly to the VIS 0.6 channel) and clouds with higher
cloud tops are brighter than clouds with lower cloud tops. Land and sea
surfaces can be considered warmer areas than clouds; therefore, they are the
darker areas on the images.
The received signals are significantly weaker than the emitted signals.
Therefore, the measurement of reflectivity is relatively sensitive to
disturbances. The emitted signals (i.e. radio waves) tend to attenuate and be
shadowed by obstructions. For example, even a flock of birds can cause
disturbances. The radar should be located on a site that is free from obstacles
or any devices that can have an adversary effect(i.e. buildings).
Note: The Doppler effect provides an explanation for the phenomenon, why we
hear the siren of an emergency rescue vehicle higher as it approaches us. As the
vehicle passes away, the sound of the siren becomes immediately lower.
Assume there is a transmitter that emits EM waves. From the place where the
observer stands the wavelength (frequency) of the emitted waves decrease
(increase) as the transmitter approaches the observer. On the contrary, the
wavelength (frequency) of the emitted waves increase (decrease) as the
transmitter recedes from the observer. By using Doppler radars velocity is
measured, but not reflectivity.
Note: Ground weather radars are not able to detect electrometeors, i.e.
lightning. Therefore, intense precipitation does not indicate the existence of
thunderstorms.
3. Based on the shape of the radar echo, observers can identify different
types of weather phenomena. For example, the hook echo can indicate
the formation of a tornado and the bow echo can indicate the formation
of squall lines.
Note: The front side of helicopters may also be equipped with airborne weather
radars.
Please keep in mind that if the air-ground data link is not available then special
and other non-routine aircraft observations are made via voice
communication.
STUDY TEST
10.3. Information for flight
planning
2. TAF
7. Aerodrome warnings
II. Charts:
4. Surface charts
Note: METAR, SPECI, TREND, TAF, significant weather phenomena, volcanic ash
and tropical cyclone advisory information can be issued not only in textual but also
in graphical form.
Before take-off, from the information listed above in section I and if the flight
is longer than two hours, "Forecast information of upper-air temperature and
upper wind" and "SIGWX charts" from section II are the parts of the flight
documentation that is released to the members of the flight crew in printed or
written form. If the flight is shorter than two hours, then the flight
documentation contains meteorological information listed in section I.
The types of flight information differ based on the height level of the flight:
• For flights between FL250 and FL630, high-level SIGWX charts (between
FL25O and FL630) as well as upper-air temperature and upper wind charts
at least at the height level that corresponds to the pressure surface of
250 hPa are provided.
• For flights between FL100 and FL250, medium-level SIGWX charts
(between FL100 and FL450) as well as upper-air temperature and upper
wind charts at least at the height level that corresponds to the pressure
surface of 500 hPa are provided.
• For flights below FL100 information is released in graphical or textual form.
Low-level SIGWX charts (between the surface and FL100), upper-air
temperature and upper wind forecast or GAMET can also be used.
4. Present weather
5. Cloud amount, height of the cloud base, cloud type and vertical visibility
Please note that local routine reports (known as MET report) and local special
reports (known as SPECIAL reports) have similar content to METAR and
SPECI. TREND forecasts may be associated with the MET report and the
SPECIAL report. Further information can be found later.
METAR
NIL AUTO
[ KT
dddffGM,,, i or
or COR CCCC YYGGggZ d-,d„d-,Vd,d,d.
SPECI I MPS
N,N*N»h»tuh, '
or
WhM
WW VnVnVnVnD, RDrDr/VrVrVrVrI or
or NSC
CAVOK or
NCD
WSRDrDr f(WT,T,/SS) 1
TT/T'dT’d QPhPhPhPh REww' or i or r (RDRDR/EHCReReRBRBR)
WS ALL RWY I (WT5T^HH5HsHs) J
N,N,NBh,hsh,
KT vvvv w'w' or
(TTTTT TTGGgg dddffGfX, or or or Wh,h(h,
or MPS CAVOK NSW or
NOSIG) NSC
(RMK ...................)
Source WMO No. 306
Regarding the codes, please note that in this book, bold letters indicate terms
and abbreviations that are always contained in weather messages if the code
group in question is used. Code groups in parentheses () are included in the
weather message on the basis of regional or national agreements. Codes in
square brackets [ ] are conditional parts of the messages while codes in angle
brackets < > indicate free text parts of the message (i.e. names, locations).
We mentioned that abbreviations and code forms that are used in METAR and
SPECI help us understand other weather messages as well.
METAR
or COR CCCC YYGGggZ NIL AUTO
SPECI
According to the first code group, the type of the weather message is METAR
or SPECI.
The codes COR and NIL indicate a corrected and missing report, respectively.
The group CCCC contains the identification code of the aerodrome from
where the METAR and SPECI originates. It is regulated by the ICAO.
The group YYGGggZ indicates the date(day of the month) and the time (hours
and minutes) - of the observation. UTC is used, indicated by the letter Z.
The word AUTO is used when observations were made automatically. It is not
a compulsory part of the message.
2. Surface wind
KT
dddffGfmfm or dndndnVdxdxdx
MPS
The wind direction (ddd) and the wind speed (ff) are averaged over a ten-
minute time period, measured at about 30 ft (ca. 10 m). The wind direction is
expressed in degrees referenced to true north. It is rounded to the nearest
10°, for example 225° is rounded to 230°. The wind speed is expressed in m/s
(abbreviated as MPS) or kt (abbreviated as KT).
Wind calm is denoted by OOOOOMPS or OOOOOKT and wind speed exceeding
50 m/s (100 kt) is denoted by P49MPS or P99KT.
• Variable wind with a velocity of less than 1.5 m/s (3 kt) is denoted by the
code VRB. If the wind speed exceeds this value then VRB is only used when
the change in wind direction is at least 180° or the wind direction is
impossible to determine (e.g. in cases of a thunderstorm).
• If the variation of the wind is between 60° and 180° and its velocity is at
least 1.5 m/s (3 kt) then the two extreme directions detected during the
ten-minute measuring period are denoted in a separate group that has the
form dndndnVdydydy.
II II II AAA
a. Horizontal visibility
VVW VnVnVnVnDv
The code VWV indicates the lowest visibility if the horizontal visibility
varies based on direction or in cases when the prevailing visibility cannot
be determined due to its abrupt changes.
RDRDR/VRVRVRVRi
This code group is used when the horizontal visibility or the runway
visual range for at least one runway, which is used for landing,is less
than 1500 m. It can be repeated up to a maximum of four times.
The code DRDR represents the designator of the runway. In the case of
parallel runways, the position of the runways are indicated by the letters
L, R or C depending on whether they are located on the left-hand side,
on the right-hand side or in the centre.
4. Present weather
w’w’
Please note that types of precipitation are denoted by the same abbreviations
that were used in Section 5.1.
Qualifier Weather phenomenon
FZ Freezing UP Unknown
(supercooled) precipitation*
Please note that not every qualifier can be associated with every weather
phenomena. For example, among the qualifiers, intensity categories are only
used with precipitation, thunderstorms, funnel clouds, sandstorms and dust
storms. The descriptors "shower" and "thunderstorm" can only be associated
with the following types of precipitation: RA, SN, GS, GR and UP while the
descriptor "freezing" can only be associated with FG, DZ, RAand UP. Another
example is the descriptor Ml, which can be associated with BR and FG.
5. Cloud amount, height of the cloud base, cloud type and vertical visibility
The code NSNSNS represents the amount of clouds. Only the types of clouds
that may have adversary effects on aviation are reported. Therefore, clouds
with a low cloud base, below 1500 m (5 000 ft) or below the altitude at which
it is dangerous to fly due to topographic obstacles, or convective clouds such
as cumulus congestus (in other words, towering cumulus, abbreviated as TCU
in weather messages) and cumulonimbus (abbreviated as CB) are indicated.
ISOL, OCNL, FRQ and EMBD can also be associated with TS. It can also be
obscured (abbreviated as OBSC), indicating that the TS cannot be visually
detected, e.g. due to haze or smoke.
The code NSC is contained in the weather messages when no clouds are
observed that match the above-described criteria.
Note: In some cases clear skies can be indicated with the abbreviation SKC.
In the case of automated observations the code NCD indicates that no clouds
were detected. If the automatic observing system is not able to determine the
cloud type, the code group is replaced with the following sign: III.
The code hshshs indicates the height of the cloud base, which is given in m
between 30 m (100 ft) and 3000 m (10000 ft) and it is rounded down to the
nearest 30 m. Please note that heights between 100 m and 1000 m are
reported as 001 and 010. Heights between 1000 m and 10000 m are
contained in the weather message as 010 and 100.
T'T7T’dT’d
Air temperature and dew point are given in the SI unit of °C. They are rounded
up to the nearest integer (e.g. -2.5 °C is rounded to -2 °C). The minus sign
before temperatures below 0 °C is denoted by the letter M (e. g -2 °C is
marked in the METAR and SPECI as M02).
7. Atmospheric pressure
QPhPhPhPh
WS RDrDr (WTsTs/SS)
REw'w' or - or (RDRDR/ERCReReRBRBp)
WS ALL RWY . (WTsTs/HHsHsHs)
Please note that recent weather phenomena are not reported in SPECI.
If wind shear occurs in the lower layers that may have an adversary
effect on takeoff and landing, then it is reported as WS RDrDr where
DrDr is the designator of the runway. The code WS ALL RWY is used if
all of the runway is affected.
Please note that categories regarding the state of the sea are based on
the height of well-developed wind-generated waves (categories are
contained in the code table 3700 which can be found in WMO-No.
306). They are given in the code section S’. For example, codes 0 and 1
indicate a calm state of the sea with wave heights below 0.1 m, while
code 8 represents very high waves from 9 m to 14 m.
RDRDR/ERCReReRBRBR
This section is included in the METAR and SPECI on the basis of regional
agreements. The code DRDR indicates the designator of the runway. Any
deposit on the runway, its extent and its depth are represented with the
codes Er, Cr and eReR, respectively. The code BRBR indicates surface
friction or related braking action.
For the codes concerning the type of deposit on the runway see the table
below.
For the codes concerning the extent of the deposit see the table below.
The surface friction is characterised by the friction coefficient. Its value varies
between 0.00 and 0.9 (coefficient below 0.25, between 0.26-0.39 and above
0.4 indicates poor, medium and good braking action). For example, code 00
means that the coefficient is 0.00. The code 01 indicates that the coefficient is
0.01 etc. If the coefficient cannot be given then the estimated braking action
is reported in accordance with the table below.
If the shutdown of the aerodrome is ordered due to the deposit of snow, then
the runway state group is replaced with the code R/SNOCLO. After the
deposit is removed from one or all runways then the code CLRD// is used.
The code I (or //) is used when the type and the extent of the deposit (or
braking action) is not reported or the removal of the deposit from the runway
is in progress.
Please note that the usage of the runway state group is presented concerning
the SPECIAL report later.
9. CAVOK
The term CAVOK (Ceiling And Visibility OK) is used instead of the groups of
horizontal visibility, runway visual range, cloud amount, height of the cloud
base, cloud type and vertical visibility as well as present weather when:
2. no TCU and CB clouds are observed and there are no clouds below
1500 m (5 000 ft) or below the altitude at which it is dangerous to fly
due to topographic obstacles; and
NOSIG is used when no significant changes are expected in the next two
hours.
TEMPO (from the word: temporary) indicates that a given variable has
reached or exceeded a previously determined threshold value but only
temporarily, which means that it lasts up to one hour regarding a single
weather condition or lasts up to half of the forecasting period regarding
all weather conditions.
2. After the codes BECMG or TEMPO, a time group can be found in which
hours and minutes according to UTC are preceded by the terms FM
(from), TL (until) or AT (at), which can be used as follows.
If the significant change begins and ceases in the time period for which
the TREND forecast is valid then two time groups are included, one with
the time of the beginning preceded by FM and one with the time of the
end preceded by TL.
In the case of the change indicator BCMG, when the time of the
occurrence of the significant change can be specified then the time
group preceded by AT is used.
In the case of the change indicator BCMG, when the significant change
is expected to occur within the time period of the TREND forecast but
the time of the beginning and ending cannot be forecast, then the time
group is omitted.
a. Surface wind
If the wind direction changes by at least 60° at a mean wind speed of
5 m/s (10 kt), or in cases when the wind speed changes by at least 5 m/s
(10 kt), significant changes in the surface wind are indicated. If the
changes affect the operation of the aerodrome, e.g. the usage of the
runway, it is also reported.
c. Weather phenomena
ix. Squalls
x. Funnel clouds
xi. Other weather phenomena based on the agreement of the
concerned services in the fields of meteorology and aviation
Changes in the intensity of phenomena listed from i.) to vi.) and xi.) are
also reported.
The code NSC is used when no TCU and CB clouds are expected to
develop and no clouds below 1500 m (5 000 ft) or below the altitude at
which it is dangerous to fly due to topographic obstacles are forecast.
d. Clouds
11. Remarks
(RMK........ )
(6) The cloud layer is scattered, which means 3 or 4 oktas of clouds. The height
of the cloud base is 3 900 ft (ca. 1200 m) AGL.
(7) The air temperature and the dew point are 1 °C and -5 °C, respectively
(9) Since the issuance of the last METAR or within the last hour freezing
drizzle has fallen.
© According to the TREND forecast, fog is expected between 19:00 UTC and
20:00 UTC with a horizontal visibility of 700 m.
Example of SPECI
(2) On average, a northwesterly (320°) wind blows with a velocity of 7 m/s (ca.
14 kt). However, a wind gust of 15 m/s (ca. 30 kt) is measured and the wind
varies between west (270°) and north (360°).
(6) Almost the entire sky is covered by clouds. 1 or 2 oktas of clouds can be
detected. Their cloud base is at the height of 3 900 ft (ca. 1200 m) AGL.
Cumulonimbus with an amount of 5 to 7 oktas is also observed. Its cloud
base is at the height of 5 900 ft (ca. 1800 m) AGL.
(7) The air temperature and the dew point are 26 °C.
In the following section, the main aspects in which a MET report and a
SPECIAL report differ from METAR and SPECI will be highlighted.
The message begins with the terms MET report or SPECIAL report, which
indicate the type of the weather message.
It is followed by the group CCCC that identifies the aerodrome from which the
MET report or SPECIAL report originates.
Then the day of the month and the time in hours and minutes of the
observation are indicated according to UTC.
The word AUTO is used when all observations concerning the MET report and
SPECIAL report were made automatically.
2. Surface wind
In MET reports and SPECIAL reports, surface wind direction and wind speed
are preceded by the term WIND. Wind speed is averaged over a two-minute
time period, but measured at about 30 ft (ca. 10 m) similar to the cases of
METAR and SPECI.
If two or more runways are operating at the same time then their designators
are reported after the abbreviation RWY. Similarly to METAR and SPECI, in
the case of runways that are parallel to each other, the position of the
runways is indicated by the letters L, C or R.
Wind can be measured along the runway at different sections such as at the
touchdown zone, at the middle point and at the end of the runway, which are
denoted by the abbreviations TDZ, MID and END, respectively.
Variable wind is reported as VRB BTN nnn/ AND nnn/ where nnn is the wind
direction or VRB.
In the case of a wind gust, not only its peak value but its minimum value is
reported in the code form MAX[ABV]nn[n] MNMn[n],
Please note that the code form of wind speed differs from METAR and SPECI
because in the case of the former, velocity values with one digit are not
preceded by a zero digit.
a. Horizontal visibility
Similar to the METAR and SPECI, for the runway visual range, values
below and above a certain limit are not reported. Unlike in METAR and
SPECI, values below the minimum value (above the maximum value) are
preceded by using the abbreviation BLW (ABV).
4. Present weather
5. Cloud amount, height of the cloud base, cloud type and vertical visibility
In MET reports and SPECIAL reports, amounts of clouds and the height of the
cloud base are indicated for each runway. The unit concerning the cloud base
is also given.
The same regulations are used as for METAR and SPECI. However, the values
of air temperature and dew point are preceded by the abbreviations T and DP,
respectively.
7. Atmospheric pressure
1. Cb cloud (CB)
2. Thunderstorm (TS)
4. Hail(GR)
In the following section, examples of MET and SPECIAL reports are presented.
Please note that the examples contain information similar to the examples
regarding METAR and SPECI mentioned before.
SCT 1200M T01 DPM05 QNH 1015HPA REFZDZ TREND BECMG FM1900 TL2000 VIS 700M FG=
(6) ® ® (9) ©
® The weather message is a local routine report (MET report) concerning the
aerodrome QWXY. The message was issued on the 22nd day of the month
at 18:00 UTC.
(6) The cloud layer is scattered, which means 3 or 4 oktas of clouds. The cloud
base is at 3 900 ft (ca. 1200 m).
(7) The air temperature and the dew point are 1 °C and -5 °C, respectively.
(9) Since the issuance of the last MET report or within the last hour freezing
drizzle has fallen.
© According to the TREND forecast, between 19:00 UTC and 20:00 UTC fog
is expected with a horizontal visibility of 700 m.
EXAMPLE 10.4
TAF
Introduction
3. Horizontal visibility
4. Weather phenomena
5. Cloud amount, height of the cloud base, cloud type and vertical visibility
It is recommended that stations issue TAF with a validity between six hours
and 30 hours. If the TAF is valid for six hours then it is updated every three
hours. If it is valid for 12-30 hours then it is updated every six hours.
In the following section, code groups of TAF will be described. Please note
that denotations are similar to those used in the cases of the METAR, SPECI,
MET and SPECIAL reports.
Example of SPECIAL report
SPECIAL REPORT QWXY 081200Z WIND 320/07KT MAX30 MNM20 VIS 650M
(D @ (D
HVY TSGR FEW 1200M BKN 1800M CB T26 DP26 QNH 990HPA WS R01 R02/220295 NOSIG=
® ® ® ® ® ©
(2) On average, a northwesterly (320°) wind blows with a velocity of 7 m/s (ca.
14 kt). However, a wind gust between 10 m/s (ca. 20 kt) and 15 m/s (ca.
30 kt) is measured.
(6) Almost the entire sky is covered by clouds. 1 or 2 oktas of cloud can be
found with a cloud base of 1200 m (ca. 3 900 ft) and from 5 to 7 oktas of
cumulonimbus is observed with a base of 1800 m (ca. 5 900 ft).
(7) The air temperature and the dew point are 26 °C.
(9) The runway state group contains the following information. Wind shear is
observed concerning runway 1 (WS R01). On runway 2 (R02) wet and
water patches are observed as deposits (denoted by code 2), the extent of
it is between 11 % and 25 % of the runway (denoted by code 2) and the
depth of it is less than 2 mm (denoted by code 02). However, the braking
action is good (denoted by code 95).
QL>
HVY TSGR FEW 1200M BKN 1800M CB T26 DP26 QNH 990HPA WS R01 R02/220295 NOSIG=
(D ® ® ® ® ®
(2) On average, a northwesterly (320°) wind blows with a velocity of 7 m/s (ca.
14 kt). However, a wind gust between 10 m/s (ca. 20 kt) and 15 m/s (ca.
30 kt) is measured.
(6) Almost the entire sky is covered by clouds. 1 or 2 oktas of cloud can be
found with a cloud base of 1200 m (ca. 3 900 ft) and from 5 to 7 oktas of
cumulonimbus is observed with a base of 1800 m (ca. 5 900 ft).
(7) The air temperature and the dew point are 26 °C.
(9) The runway state group contains the following information. Wind shear is
observed concerning runway 1 (WS R01). On runway 2 (R02) wet and
water patches are observed as deposits (denoted by code 2), the extent of
it is between 11 % and 25 % of the runway (denoted by code 2) and the
depth of it is less than 2 mm (denoted by code 02). However, the braking
action is good (denoted by code 95).
N.N.N.h.h.h.
VVVV w’w' or VVh.h.h,
or or NSC
CAVOK
(TXTfTf/YfYfGpGfZ TNTfTf/YfYfGfGfZ)
According to the first code group, the type of the weather message is TAF.
The codes AMD, COR, NIL and CNL mean amended, corrected, missing and
cancelled reports, respectively. A corrected and amended TAF covers the
same time period as the original TAF.
Similarly to in METAR and SPECI reports, the group CCCC identifies the
aerodrome from which the METAR and SPECI originates.
Similarly to in METAR and SPECI, the group YYGGggZ means the date (day of
the month) and the time (hours and minutes) of the observation. UTC is used,
which is indicated by the letter Z.
The beginning and end times of the validity of the forecast are indicated in the
group Y1Y1G1G1/Y2Y2G2G2. For example, if the TAF is valid on the 5th day of
the month between 18 and 24 UTC, then the code is 051824. If the TAF is
valid from 24:00 UTC on the 8th day of the month to 6:00 UTC on the 9th day
of the month then the code is 0824/0906.
Please note that the actual weather conditions are given, followed by the
forecast. Forecasts can be valid for separate time periods as we will discuss in
section 8 Change groups.
2. Surface wind
KT
dddffGfmfm or
MPS
The mean wind direction and the mean wind speed are given by the codes
ddd and ff, respectively. The code is given similarly to the previously discussed
weather messages.
In the cases of variable winds, similar to in METAR and SPECI, the code VRB is
used when the wind velocity is less than 1.5 m/s (3 kt). However, if the wind
speed exceeds this value, the code VRB can be used if the mean wind
direction is impossible to forecast.
The letter G is used in cases when the maximum wind speed is expected to
exceed the mean wind speed by 5 m/s (10 kt).
3. Horizontal visibility
wvv
Similarly to in METAR and SPECI, the groups VVW or CAVOK can be used.
If the horizontal visibility is not the same in all directions then prevailing
visibility is given. If the prevailing visibility is impossible to forecast then the
minimum visibility is given.
4. Weather phenomena
w’w’
or
NSW
The code NSW means that a significant weather phenomenon has ceased.
5. Cloud amount, height of the cloud base, cloud type and vertical visibility
NsNsNshshshs
or Whsh$h$
or NSC
Similarly to in METAR and SPECI, the code NSNSNS represents the amount of
clouds (see Figure 10.18) and the code hshshs indicates the height of the
cloud base. These are denoted in the same format as in METAR and SPECI.
Amount, height of the cloud base and type of clouds can be reported
concerning each cloud layer in accordance with the following:
• First group: The lowest layer of clouds with any amount (FEW, SCT, BKN or
OVC).
• Second group: The cloud layer above the lowest layer with at least 3 oktas
(SCT, BKN or OVC).
• Third group: The layer of clouds above the second layer with at least 5
oktas (BKN or OVC).
• A fourth group can only be added if CB or TCU clouds are expected.
Vertical visibility is indicated with code group Wh$hsh$ similar to in METAR
and SPECI.
The code NSC is contained in the weather messages when no clouds are
expected to match the above-described criteria.
6. CAVOK
The term CAVOK is used instead of the groups of horizontal visibility, cloud
amount, height of the cloud base, cloud type and vertical visibility as well as
present weather when:
2. no TCU and CB clouds are forecast and there are no clouds below
1500 m (5 000 ft) or below the altitude at which it is dangerous to fly
due to expected topographic obstacles; and
txtftf/yfyfgfgfz
tntftf/yfyfgfgfz
8. Change groups
TTTTT YYGG/YeYeGeGe
or
TTYYGGgg
If the forecast values change significantly during the validity of the TAF then
the weather message is divided into separate parts as follows.
If all forecast values are expected to change significantly then the new values
are written after the code FMYYGGgg. For example, the code FM091500
means that the forecast values that succeeded this code are valid from
15:00 UTC on the 9th day of the month. If there is no other FMYYGGgg code
in the TAF then these values are valid until the end of the validity of the TAF.
Please note that forecast values after the code FMYYGGgg completely
overwrite the forecast values before it.
If one or more, but not all,forecast values change significantly then the code
TTTT YYGG/YeYeGeGe is used in the same sense as in the TREND forecasts.
The code TTTT can be BECMG or TEMPO. For example TEMPO 1005/1007
means that the forecast values in question fluctuate temporarily between
5:00 UTC and 7:00 UTC on the 10th day of the month. The code
YYGG/YeYeGeGe denotes the beginning and the end of the significant
changes. We emphasise that in this case forecast values can be considered
constant that are denoted before the code TTTT YYGG/YeYeGeGe but not
denoted after these codes again.
9. Probability groups
PROB C2C2
PROB C2C2 TTTTT
A forecast value may show great variability. It may be associated with changes
during the forecasting period. If there is at least a 30 % chance of the
realisation of other values compared to the forecast then it is indicated in the
TAF by adding the probability group PROBC2C2. Please note that only the
values of 30 % and 40 % are allowed to be used such as PROB30 and
PROB40.
Probability groups are also used with change indicators BCMG or TEMPO. For
example PROB30 TEMPO means that there is a 30 % chance of temporary
fluctuation in the forecast values in question.
The weather message ends with an equal sign.
Please note that if more than one significant weather phenomenon occurs
then information about each phenomenon is reported in a separate SIGMET
message.
@ Visibility is 2 km.
(5) Clouds with a base of 2 000 ft (ca. 600 m) are observed with 5 to 7 oktas.
® On the 10th day of the month from 15:00 UTC until 18:00 UTC the
following weather conditions are expected.
Variable wind is expected with a mean speed of 14 kt (ca. 7 m/s). A wind gust is
also forecast with a speed of 25 kt (ca. 12.5 m/s).
Visibility is expected to be 1.5 km.
The lowest layer of clouds is expected to be 1 to 2 oktas and its cloud base is
forecast to be at 2000 ft (ca. 600 m). A second layer of clouds, more precisely
day of the month from 15:00 UTC to 21:00 UTC.
@ Visibility is 2 km.
(5) Clouds with a base of 2 000 ft (ca. 600 m) are observed with 5 to 7 oktas.
® On the 10th day of the month from 15:00 UTC until 18:00 UTC the
following weather conditions are expected.
Variable wind is expected with a mean speed of 14 kt (ca. 7 m/s). A wind gust is
also forecast with a speed of 25 kt (ca. 12.5 m/s).
Visibility is expected to be 1.5 km.
The lowest layer of clouds is expected to be 1 to 2 oktas and its cloud base is
forecast to be at 2000 ft (ca. 600 m). A second layer of clouds, more precisely
towering cumulus (cumulus congestus), is forecast with an amount of 5 to 7 oktas.
The cloud base is expected to be at 1700 ft (ca. 510 m).
® On the 10th day of the month between 18:00 UTC and 19:00 UTC the
following weather conditions are expected with a probability of 40 %.
A strong and gusty westerly wind is forecast with a mean speed of 20 kt (ca.
10 m/s). Wind gusts may have a speed of 40 kt (ca. 20 m/s).
Visibility is expected to be 650 m.
The sky will be covered with cumulonimbus of 5 to 7 oktas. The cloud base is
expected at 1700 ft (ca. 510 m).
A thunderstorm with heavy rain is expected.
The SIGMET is issued within four hours prior to the occurrence of the
dangerous phenomena and it is valid for up to four hours.
The following regulations are applicable in the cases of volcanic ash clouds
and tropical cyclones. The SIGMET is issued within 12 hours prior to the
occurrence of the phenomenon and it is valid for up to six hours.
Surface wind speed Mean wind speed over larger area SFC WSPD
which is above 15 m/s (30 kt) ♦ wind speed and units
Cloud Broken cloud over larger area with BKN CLD ♦ height of cloud base
cloud base below 300 m (1000 hPa) and cloud top
Overcast cloud over larger area with OVC CLD + height of cloud base
cloud base below 300 m (1000 hPa) and cloud top
The group CCCC identifies the ATS that serves the FIR00 or CTA™ for which
the SIGMET or the AIRMET is issued.
The time period of the validity is given in UTC in the code VALID
YYGGgg/YYGGgg. The day of the month, hours and minutes are indicated.
The group CCCC- identifies the MWO that issued the SIGMET or the
AIRMET.
The group CCCC <name> FIR[/UIR]/CTA identifies the FIR or CTA for which
the SIGMET or the AIRMET is issued as well as the UIR if it is available. In the
case of AIRMET, the identification number of the sub-area for which the
AIRMET was issued can also be denoted in code form FIR/[n]. For example
sub-area 3 of the FIR is indicated as FlR[/3].
2. Weather phenomenon
For the list of the weather phenomena please see Figure 10.23 and
Figure 10.24.
The abbreviation OBS means that the weather phenomenon is observed while
the abbreviation FCST indicates that the phenomenon is forecast. If it is
available, the time of observation or forecast can also be contained in the
code form AT GGggZ.
The altitude where weather phenomena can be located is given in flight levels
in the code form FLnnn, e.g. FL200, FL300 etc.
It can be also given between two altitudes in the code form FLnnn/nnn, e.g.
FL200/300.
In the case of cumulonimbus clouds, the height of the cloud top can be
indicated, e.g. TOP FL240 means that the cloud top is at FL240. TOP ABV
FL300 means that the cloud top is above FL300. Please note that surface is
indicated by the abbreviation SFC.
The SIGMET or the AIRMET is cancelled with the following code that begins
with the abbreviation CNL (from the word cancellation) and contains the time
period over which the message was valid:
The SIGMET and the AIRMET messages end with an equal sign.
The fourth SIGMET message since 00:01 UTC was issued for the ABCD
ABCDEF FIR by DCBA meteorological watch office. The SIGMET message is
valid from 18:30 UTC to 21:00 UTC on the 29th day of the month. Severe ice
is forecast at 18:30 UTC at northward of 45°30’N and westward of E19°10’. It
is expected between FL100 and FL140. No movement and no changes are
expected.
Example of AIRMET
The sixth AIRMET message since 00:01 UTC was issued for the ABCD
ABCDEF FIR by the DCBA meteorological watch office with a validity from
14:45 UTC to 17:00 UTC on the 8th day of the month. Moderate turbulence
was observed at 14:35 UTC at QXYZ airport at 47°40’N and 12°E. It was
detected below FL050. The zone of turbulence relocates to the west with a
speed of 10 km/h while it weakens.
GAMET
Introduction
The General Aviation Meteorological Information (abbreviated as GAMET)
message consists of a forecast about meteorological conditions that may be
dangerous for aviation during low level flights. Therefore, GAMET is an area
forecast for low level flights. As in the case of AIRMET, low-level means flights
lower than FL1OO or FL15O at mountainous area.
The GAMET area forecast is divided into two sections, preceded by the
abbreviations SECN I and SECN II, respectively. The first section contains
hazards such as strong icing, turbulence, wind shear, thunderstorms, low
visibility etc. The second section contains information about air temperature,
surface wind direction and wind speed, the height of the freezing level or
clouds, if this information is appropriate.
As with the SIGMET and AIRMET reports, GAMET is also issued for a
FIR/CTA. However, GAMET is prepared by the meteorological office. It is
issued every six hours, at least one hour from the beginning of its validity of
six hours. We emphasise that both the GAMET area forecast and SIGWX
forecast concern low level flights. Their issuances facilitate the release of
AIRMET messages.
Code form
The group CCCC indicates the location of the FIR or CTA for which the
GAMET is issued.
The time period for the validity of the GAMET is given in UTC in the code
VALID YYGGgg/YYGGgg. The day of the month and hours and minutes are
indicated.
The group CCCC- identifies the meteorological office that issued the GAMET.
The group CCCC <name> FIR/CTA [BLW FLnnn] indicates the location and
name of the sub-area of the FIR or CTA for which the GAMET is issued below
a specified flight level.
2. Section I
Please note that the following subsections a.) to i.), are included in the GAMET
message when meteorological conditions make it necessary. Therefore,
examples are given for them below.
The time interval (given in hours) of the forecast mean surface wind
direction (given in degrees) and wind speed (given in m/s or kt) if the
latter exceeds 15 m/s (30 kt) can be indicated in the message.
The time interval (given in hours) and the value of the forecast horizontal
visibility (in m) can be indicated when the latter is below 5 000 m. The
weather phenomenon that caused the reduced visibility and its location
are also included.
We emphasise that only those phenomena are indicated that are not
contained in the previously issued SIGMET.
The height of the cloud base and cloud top are given in units of m or ft.
For example, SIG CLD: 03/04 BKN ISOL TCU 1400/7000 ft AMSL
means that between 3 UTC and 4 UTC 5 to 7 oktas of isolated towering
cumulus are expected to form with a cloud base of 1400 ft AMSL and a
cloud top of 7 000 ft AMSL.
f. Icing (abbreviated as ICE)
For example, severe icing from 16 UTC to 17 UTC between FLO5O and
FL1OO is indicated as ICE: 16/17 SEV FLO5O/1OO. If moderate icing is
expected above FLO5O then it is denoted as ICE: 16/17 MOD ABV
FLO5O.
If GAMET and SIGMET are issued for the same FIR/CTA then the
sequence number of the SIGMET is contained in the GAMET. For
example, SIGMET APPLICABLE: 6 indicates that SIGMET 6 is valid for
the FIR/CTA.
Volcanic ash • VA
3. Section II
In this subsection, the amount (FEW, SCT, BKN or OVC), type (ST, SC,
CU, AS, AC or NS) and height of the cloud base and cloud top (in units of
m) are included, which are not indicated in Section I.
In the GAMET message the lowest value of the QNH is given in units of
hPa during the time period of its validity.
The sea-surface temperature and state of the sea are indicated in the
GAMET message on the basis of regional agreement. These values are
given in units of °C and m, respectively.
g. Volcanic eruptions (abbreviated as VA)
In the case of the expected formation of a volcanic ash cloud, the name
of the volcano is given, otherwise the abbreviation NIL is used.
If the weather phenomenon that was indicated by the GAMET message did
not occur, then an amended GAMET (abbreviated as GAMET AMD) is issued.
SECN I
ABCD GAMET VALID 011200/011800 DCBA-
ABCD ABCDEF FIR/3 BLW FL100
SFC WIND: 14/16 090/20 MPS
SFC VIS: 15/16 W OF N25 1000M RA
SIGWX: 15/16 ISOL TSGR
SIG CLD: 14/16 OVC 700/1500FT AMSL 15/16 ISOL CB 2000/18000FT AMSL
SECN II
PSYS: 15 N2500 W1530 L 995HPA MOV SE 20KT INTSF
WIND/T: 2000FT N2500 W1530 290/30KT PS15 5000FT N2500 W1530 280/40KT PS05
10000FT N2500 W1530 270/50KT MS01
CLD: FEW SC 800/1500FT AMSL
FZLVL: 3000FTAMSL
MNM QNH: 1000 hPa
SEA: T18 HGT 3M
VA: NIL=
First two rows: The GAMET message was issued for the ABCD ABCDEF FIR/3
sub-area below FL100 by the DCBA meteorological office. It is valid from
12:00 UTC to 18:00 UTC on the 1st day of the month.
SFC WIND: Between 14 UTC and 16 UTC easterly winds are expected with
an average speed of 20 m/s (ca. 40 kt).
SFC VIS: The surface visibility between 15 UTC and 16 UTC is expected to be
1000 m because of rain in the direction of 25° degrees west of north.
SIG CLD: Between 14 UTC and 16 UTC, an overcast cloud is expected with a
cloud base and cloud top of 700 ft and 1500 ft AMSL respectively and
between 15 UTC and 16 UTC, an isolated Cb cloud is expected to form with a
cloud base and cloud top between 2000 ft and 18000 ft AMSL, respectively.
WIND/T: At 25°N and 15.5°W, the wind direction and the wind speed is 290°
and 30 kt at 2 000 ft, 280° and 40 kt at 5 000 ft as well as 270° and 50 kt at
10 000 ft. The air temperature at 2 000 ft, 5 000 ft and 10 000 ft is 15 °C, 5 °C
and -1 °C, respectively.
SEA: The sea-surface temperature and the height of the waves are 18 °C and
3 m, respectively.
GAFOR
The dissemination of a weather forecast in simple, graphical forms in regards
to previously defined segments of flight routes are in accordance with the
European Air Navigation Plan (published in ICAO Doc 7754).
• O: Open
• D: Difficult
• M: Marginal
• X: Closed
cloud base
600 m (2000 ft)
Open
Difficult
300 m (1000 ft)
Marginal
150 m (500 ft)
Closed
1.5 km 8 km
horizontal visibility
Special air-report
Introduction
A special air report is released when one of the phenomena occurs, that as
listed in Section 10.2.5. Special aircraft observation in Section 10.2.5. Reports
can be issued via air-ground data links or voice communication to the ATS
units.
The report is divided into three data blocks that are preceded by general
information.
The report starts with the abbreviation ARS, which indicates the type of
report. After that the communication call sign of the aircraft is given.
2. Data block 1
a. Position
The coordinates are expressed in degrees and minutes. The code form is
Nnnnn or Snnnn as well as Wnnnnn or Ennnnn.
c. Time of observation
3. Data block 2
a. Wind direction
b. Wind speed
d. Air temperature
e. Turbulence
f. Relative humidity
4. Data block 3
This block contains the abbreviation of the weather phenomenon that induced
the release of the special air report.
In the case of turbulence, its intensity (i.e. MOD or SEV) can also be reported.
Its code form is MOD TURB [EDRnnn] or SEV TURB [EDRnnn].
In the case of volcanic eruption and volcanic ash cloud, the name of the
mountain and the atmospheric layer where the ash cloud is observable can be
indicated with the codes VA [MT <name>] and VA CLD [FL nnn/nnn],
respectively.
The special air report is issued by an aircraft AB123. At 55.5°N and 5°E
between FL250 and FL300 at 18:34 UTC severe icing is observed. A southerly
wind with a speed of 50 m/s (ca. 100 kt) is measured. The roll angle is less
than 5°. The air temperature is -20.5 °C and the relative humidity is 68 %.
In cases when an air-ground data link is not available, special air-reports are
transmitted via voice communication. They contain general information about
the flight (identifier of the aircraft, position, level and time of observation) as
well as information about the weather phenomena that induced the issuance
of the special air report.
Ash clouds related to volcanic activity are reported in volcanic ash advisory
information, issued by the VAAC. The report is available not only in textual but
also in graphical form.
It contains general information about the date and location of the observation
as well as details about the eruption.
1. Identification group
In the code group yyyymmYY/GGggZ, the year, month and day as well as the
hours and minutes of the issuance are given according to UTC.
The name of the VAAC that issued the report is given in a free text form.
If the name of the volcano is known, then its identification number according
to the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's
Interior (abbreviated as IAVCEI) is indicated. If the volcano is not known or it
does not have a name, then the terms UNKNOWN or UNNAMED are used,
respectively.
The state or region that is affected by the volcanic ash is reported in free text
form.
The height of the summit of a mountain is indicated in the code form nnnnM
or nnnnnFT.
It is optional whether the aviation colour code (red, orange, yellow or green) is
included in the volcanic ash advisory or not.
It is expressed in the day of the month, hours and minutes (UTC) in the code
form YY/GGggZ.
In the code group the observed or estimated extent (both horizontal and
vertical) of the ash cloud as well as the speed and direction of its movement
are given. Speed is expressed in units of km/h or kt while direction is given
using eight directions (cardinal and intercardinal directions) of the compass.
Vertical extent is expressed in terms of flight levels. If the base of the ash
cloud is not known then the top of it is indicated.
Information about wind direction (in degrees) and wind speed (in m/s or kt)
concerning an atmospheric layer are also contained in the report.
14. Forecast height and position of the ash cloud (abbreviated as FCST VA
CLD)
The report contains information about the forecast height and position of the
clouds 6, 12 and 18 hours after the time of observation.
In the section RMK a free text message can be provided up to 256 characters
(e.g. information about the beginning or cessation of volcanic eruption).
The report ends with the date of the issuance of the next advisory. If there are
no further advisories then it is indicated with the following: NO FURTHER
ADVISORIES.
VA ADVISORY
DTG: 20180811/1230Z
VAAC: LONDON
VOLCANO: UNNAMED
PSN: N6510 W01830
AREA: ICELAND
SUMMIT ELEV: 1920M
ADVISORY NR: 2018/04
INFO SOURCE: METSAT-ABCDEF123
ERUPTION DETAILS: ERUPTION AT 20180811/1215Z FL200 REPORTED
OBS VA DTG: 11/1215Z
OBS VA CLD: SFC/FL200 N6430 W1900 - N6430 W1800 - N6530 W1830 MOV SE 15KT
FCST VA CLD +6 HR: 11/1815Z SFC/FL250 N6230 W1800 - N6230 W1745 - N6330 W1745 -
N6330 W1800
FCST VA CLD +12 HR: NO VA EXP
FCST VA CLD +18 HR: NO VA EXP
RMK: ERUPTION HAS BEEN CEASED
NXT ADVISORY: 20180811/1830Z=
The volcanic ash cloud is observed between the surface and FL200, between
the coordinates 64°30’N 19°W and 64°30’N 18°W and 65°30’N 18°30’W
forming a triangular area. It moves southeasterly with a speed of 15 kt (ca.
7.5 m/s). A northwesterly (310°) wind is observable between FL250 and
FL300 with a speed of 22 kt (ca. 11 m/s).
Six hours after the observation, the volcanic ash cloud is expected to be
between SFC and FL250 vertically, between the coordinates 62°30’N
18°00’W and 62°30’N 17°45’W and 63°30’N 17°45’W and 63°30’N 18°W.
Twelve and eighteen hours after the observation, no volcanic ash cloud will be
expected.
The report anticipates the cessation of the volcanic eruption.
The next report will be issued on 11th August 2018 at 18:30 UTC.
The next report shall be released on 4th July 2018 at 12:00 UTC. The volcanic
ash cloud is expected to be observed at 14:40 UTC northeastward of the
volcano between the surface and FL080. However, between twelve and
eighteen hours later no volcanic ash cloud will be expected.
The report does not contain aviation colour code and remarks.
1. Identification group
The report starts with the term TC ADVISORY, which indicates that it is a
tropical cyclone advisory.
Similar to the volcanic ash advisory report, the year, month and day as well as
the hours and minutes of the issuance are given according to UTC in the code
form yyyymmdd/GGggZ.
The name of the TCAC that issued the report is given in a free text form.
The advisory number of the cyclone is indicated. This starts with the number
"01" in the case of each cyclone.
The maximum value of the surface wind speed near the centre over a ten-
minute time period is given in m/s or kt in the code form nn[n]MPS or nn[n]KT.
10. Forecast of the position of the centre and maximum wind (abbreviated as
FCST PSN and FCST MAX WIND)
The report contains a forecast regarding a tropical cyclone, which includes the
expected position of its centre (given in degrees and minutes) and the
expected maximum value of the surface wind speed in m/s or kt. This
information is reported 6, 12, 18 and 24 hours after the time of observation.
Similar to the volcanic ash advisory report, in the section RMK free text
messages can be provided of up to 256 characters.
12. The code group NXT MSG EXP that indicates the date of the issuance of
the next advisory.
The tropical cyclone advisory information message was issued by the TCAC in
Honolulu, Hawaii on 12th August 2018 at 12:00 UTC. The name of the
tropical cyclone is ABCDEF with the advisory number 12. Its centre is located
at 32°30’N 140°15’E.
The centre of the cyclone moves slowly. The atmospheric pressure in its
centre is 990 hPa while the maximum surface wind speed near its centre is
30 kt (ca. 15 m/s).
Six hours after the observation, the centre of the tropical cyclone and the
maximum value of the surface wind speed are expected to be at 32°N
139°55’E and 40 kt (ca. 20 m/s).
Twelve hours after the observation, the centre of the tropical cyclone and the
maximum value of the surface wind speed are expected to be at 32°35’N
139°25’E and 40 kt, respectively.
Eighteen hours after the observation, the centre of the tropical cyclone and
the maximum value of the surface wind speed are expected to be at 33°10’N
138°55’E and 40 kt, respectively.
Twenty-four hours after the observation, the centre of the tropical cyclone
and the maximum value of the surface wind speed are expected to be at
33°45’N 138°25’E and 40 kt, respectively.
According to this, the message was issued by the TCAC in Tokyo, Japan on
12th August 2018 at 18:00 UTC. The name of the tropical cyclone is LEEPI,
with the advisory number 5. Its centre is located at 24°25’N and E 140°35’E.
Six and twelve hours after the observation, the maximum values of surface
wind speed are expected to remain the same.
Eighteen hours after the observation, the maximum values of surface wind
speed are expected to decrease to 40 kt (ca. 20 m/s).
Twenty-four hours after the observation, the maximum values of surface wind
speeds are expected to decrease to 35 kt (ca. 17.5 m/s).
Areas that are covered by frequent cumulonimbus, and areas that are affected
by gale-force winds are depicted in the figure with solid and scalloped lines,
respectively.
— GALE-FORCE WIND
ATIS
During flight, meteorological information in the vicinity of the landing
aerodrome is provided by an automated voice message. These messages are
known as Automatic Terminal Information Service (abbreviated as ATIS)
broadcasts. ATIS is transmitted on very high frequencies.
2. Time of observation
8. Clouds
VOLMET
Meteorological information about multiple aerodromes in a certain region is
sent to aircraft during flight by a pre-recorded voice broadcast, called
VOLMET (from French, "vol" for "flight" and "met" derived from "meteo" for
weather). It is a continuous automated voice message about actual weather
conditions and forecasts. VOLMET is broadcast by radio stations on high
frequencies (abbreviated as HF or HF-VOLMET) internationally and on very
high frequencies (abbreviated as VHF or VHF-VOLMET) regionally according
to a previously determined schedule.
Aerodrome warnings are issued when at least one of the following weather
phenomena is observable or it is expected to occur. Their abbreviations are
given in parenthesis after the name of each phenomenon:
After that, the validity of the message is reported. The day of the month,
hours and minutes are given according to UTC.
2. Weather phenomena
The aerodrome warnings contain the abbreviation of the weather phenomena
that initiated its issuance (see the list above). However, it is also possible to
describe the phenomena in a free text message up to 32 characters.
If the intensity of FZDZ, FZRA, SN, SS, DS, TS is (expected to be) heavy then it
is indicated before the abbreviation of the phenomenon (e.g. in the case of
heavy freezing drizzle: HVY FZDZ).
Wind speed can also be reported in the code form SFC WSPD nn[n]MPS MAX
nn[n] or SFC WSPD nn[n]KT MAXnn[n]. It may include the wind direction
(cardinal and intercardinal directions) in the code form SFC WIND
nnn/nn[n]MPS MAX nn[n] or SFC WIND nnn/nn[n]KT MAX nn[n].
4. Changes in intensity
The cancellation of the aerodrome warnings are issued in the code form CNL
AD WRNG [n]n YYGGgg/YYGGgg.
Wind shear warnings are prepared by the meteorological office in cases when
wind shear is observed or expected that threatens departing or landing aircraft
between the level of the runway and 1600 ft (ca. 500 m). This height varies on
the basis of the topography that is characteristic for the region where the
aerodrome is located. Wind shear warnings should be updated every minute.
They should be cancelled when wind shear no longer poses a threat, which
means the following: the changes of the headwind and tailwind decrease
below 7.5 m/s (ca. 15 kt) or a certain time has elapsed that is determined by
services concerned with civil aviation.
Note: The LLWAS (Low Level Windshear Avoidance System) is a system which is
designed to detect low level wind shear conditions around the periphery of an
airport. It does not detect wind shear beyond that limitation. At airports equipped
with LLWAS, controllers are provided with gust front wind shear information.
Controllers will provide this information to pilots by reporting the airport wind and
the boundary wind.
Please note that low level wind shear is often observable in the vicinity of
thunderstorms, frontal zones, funnel clouds, mountain waves and above
inversion layers.
The abbreviation WS WRNG indicates that the type of the message is a wind
shear warning. It is followed by the sequence number of the message [n]n.
The issuance of the report and its validity are also reported. The day of the
month, hours and minutes are indicated according to UTC.
2. Weather phenomena
The code group OBS[AT GGggZ], FCST or REPAT GGgg <airplane type>
contains information about whether the phenomena (OBS), forecast (FCST) or
reported (REP) are observed. The hours and minutes (UTC) of the observation
or report can also be indicated.
Details about weather phenomena that induce the issuance of the wind shear
warnings are also reported. For example, if the cause is a northerly wind of
10 m/s at the height of 60 m, then it is reported as 60M-WIND: 350/10MPS.
Wind speed is also given in units of kt.
The report ends with an equal sign.
The cancellation of wind shear warnings is issued in the code form CNL WS
WRNG [n]n YYGGgg/YYGGgg.
The wind shear warning Nr. 3 was issued at the QXYZ aerodrome on the 12th
day of the month at 22:15 UTC. It is valid on the same day between
22:30 UTC and 23:30 UTC. Wind shear was reported by a Boeing 737 at
22:25 UTC, which concerns aircraft on runway 2 during climbing. The wind
shear is caused by an easterly surface wind with a speed of 15 m/s (ca. 30 kt).
STUDY TEST
10.4. Weather charts
These charts are often edited in such a way that atmospheric variables with
the same values are connected with lines. For example, lines that connect a
point with the same height, air pressure, temperature or wind speed are called
isohypses, isobars, isotherms or isotachs, respectively.
Charts that are part of the flight documentation also contain different
information about atmospheric phenomena that drive the weather. Let us take
the following examples:
3. Constant pressure charts near the surface can also be generated, for
example on the pressure level of 1000 hPa. However, these charts do
not take into account topography, which can be more disadvantageous
near the surface than at upper height levels. Near the surface, instead of
constant pressure charts, surface weather charts are applicable, which
may contain information from aeronautical meteorological stations
based on the ground surface.
In the following section, surface charts, upper-air charts and SIGWX charts
will be explained. We conclude the chapter with some remarks on weather
charts.
Please note that further symbols of present weather phenomena can also be
used on surface charts. The extended list is presented in the figure below.
g tropical cyclone J drizzle
intertropical convergence
occluded front at the surface
zone (ITCZ)
quasi-statlonary front at
state of the sea
the surface
light aircraft icing widespread blowing snow slight freezing rain (FZRA)
moderate aircraft icing severe sand or dust gaze moderate or heavy FZRA
Regarding atmospheric ridges and troughs the following can be said. A "deep"
trough may form over Northern Europe, between Iceland and Norway, which
extends over the North Sea. Northeastward of the Peloponnese Peninsula, an
atmospheric trough can be detected near the surface, which can be
considered a flat pressure pattern. Additionally, ridges can be found over
western Russia and southward of Iceland.
Based on the surface charts in Figure 10.35 and Figure 10.36, we can draw
the following conclusions regarding the flight. Because Southeast Europe is
located in a low-pressure zone, the formation of thunderstorms and
convective precipitation is expected with associated phenomena (e.g.
turbulence, icing, atmospheric electricity, reduced visibility). As the aircraft
approaches Finland, showery rain is expected in association with the cold
front, which may lead to reduced visibility.
It is valid for 19th August, 2018 at 12:00 UTC. Please note that Athens and
Helsinki are denoted by orange circles.
Figure 10.37. Example of forecast analysis chart over Europe
Regarding winds, the following can be said based on the pressure distribution
concerning Athens and Helsinki. Athens is located westward of the low-
pressure area with an anticlockwise circulation. Because of this, a northerly
wind is expected. Helsinki is located eastward of the cyclone over Northern
Europe. Consequently, a southerly wind is expected.
Please note that the projection of maps varies on the basis of latitude.
Avoiding large distortions, the application of a polar stereographic projection
is advantageous in middle and higher latitudes and around the poles, while a
Mercator projection is beneficial in lower latitudes. Consequently, data are
displayed on subareas of the Earth’s surface.
In upper-air charts the following information are provided. The pressure level
is indicated in the top-left corner of the figure at which gridded air
temperature and wind data are provided. The corresponding flight level, the
WAFC that issued the chart, and the validity of the forecast according to UTC
is denoted in the bottom-right corner of the figure. Wind direction is indicated
using wind barbs in accordance with what was previously learnt in Section 2.1.
Wind direction is given in degrees referenced to true north while wind speed
is given in knots. Air temperatures are negative and is expressed in units of °C.
Positive values are preceded with the letters "PS".
Please keep in mind that according to the ISA, the air temperature at mean sea
level is 15 °C and it decreases as the altitude decreases with a lapse rate of
about 2 °C/1000 ft. Consequently, at FL340 the air temperature is -53 °C.
1.3.3 Forecasts of significant weather phenomena shall include all the items
listed in Appendix 8, 4.3.1.1. The forecasts shall be issued for the following
flight levels:
Jetstreams
FL290
Widespread sand-
storm/duststorm
Note 1: For aircraft operating above FL250, the first six items are only required if
expected to be above that level, and in the case of thunderstorms, only those
thunderstorms which warrant the issuance of a SIGMET as given in Appendix 6
(guidance on the use of term "FRQ TS" is given in Appendix 6).
Note 2: The abbreviation "CB" should only be included where it refers to the
occurrence or expected occurrence of an area of widespread cumulonimbus clouds
or cumulonimbus along a line with little or no space between individual clouds, or
to cumulonimbus embedded in cloud layers or concealed by haze. It does not refer
to isolated or scattered cumulonimbus not embedded in cloud layers or concealed
by haze.
WORLD AREA FORECAST
CENTRE LONDON
FIXED TIME FORECAST CHART
EUR SIGNIFICANT WEATHER
FL 100 -450
VALID 00 UTC ON 04/04/1998
HEIGHT INDICATIONS IN FL
SPEEDS IN KNOTS
SYMBOLS KOR“CB”
IMPLY MOD OR SEVERE
TURBULENCE AND ICING
CAT AREAS
1 _a_ 280
390 OCNL 350
2 * 250
Each SIGWX chart has an information section, typically in one of the corners,
where you can find out by which meteorological agency the chart has been
issued, what is the vertical chart coverage (e.g. FL100-450) and the date and
time for which the chart has been issued.
Notice the middle section of the chart header; all height indications are given
in terms of Flight Levels (FLs) and speeds in kt. A very important statement
follows: if you encounter the thunderstorm symbol or a mention of a Cumulo-
Nimbus cloud (CB) anywhere on the chart, it automatically means that you can
expect moderate or severe turbulence and/or icing in that area, even if other
symbols on the chart specify lower intensity of turbulence or icing.
The last section of the chart header provides information on the areas of Clear
Air Turbulence (CAT). These are identified on the chart as areas outlined by
thick dashed lines and each of these areas have a box with a number inside it
that links to detailed information in the chart header. See the sample header:
in CAT area 1 we can expect moderate turbulence from FL280 up to FL390.
300
Significant Weather Area (e.g. #1)
ISOL EMBD
CBft
CB (? 330
1 X XXX
Listing of significant WX phenomena
BKN CU
AC AS that can be encountered in the sig.
* 200 weather area #1 = area to which the
XXX
KiU 180 box is connected by the arrow:
tT XXX
Isolated (ISOL) embedded (EMBD)
CB clouds with thunderstorms up to
Significant Weather Area (e.g. #2) FL330. Note that the conditions in
with a box listing the WX phenomena: / Cold front places with the underlying sig. wx.
Broken (BKN) cumulus (CU), alto-cumulus The short line with area (#2) can also be applicable!
(AC) and alto-stratus (AS) clouds with an arrow indicates
modereate turbulence up to FL200 and direction (SE) and the
moderate icing uptoFL180. speed (20 kt) of the
frontal movement.
"XXX" means that the lower vertical limit (floor)
of the corresponding wx phenomena (turb. and
icing here) is expected to be located below the
vertical coverage of the chart (typically FL100).
Colours indicate (geopotential) height of the 500 hPa pressure surface, so the
border between two colours can be considered an isohypse. Isobars are white
lines with the spacing of 5 hPa. Grey dashed lines and texts indicate air
temperature of the 500 hPa pressure surface, expressed in units of °C.
For example, concerning the aerodrome in Athens, the following can be said at
6 UTC on 19th August 2018. The ICAO identifier of the aerodrome is LGAV.
Northerly winds blow with a speed of 15 kt (ca. 7.5 m/s). A wind gust, which is
indicated by the red-coloured parts of the wind barb, is measured with a
speed of 30 kt (ca. 15 m/s). The altimeter setting is 1000 hPa. The dew point
is 12 °C. The visibility is 10 km. The air temperature is 30 °C.
Glossary
A
Absolute altitude Absolute altitude (or true height) is the real distance
between the aircraft and the ground.
Adiabatic process If we are speaking about the adiabatic processes of the air,
then we assume that there is no heat and mass transfer across the boundary
of the system and the change of the internal energy over time originates from
the pressure-volume work.
During lifting, the surrounding pressure of the rising air parcel does not remain
constant. It decreases as altitude increases, so the air parcel starts to expand.
This process is called adiabatic expansion. This means that the air parcel
exerts work on its environment, which leads to a decreasing temperature (i.e.
adiabatic cooling) of the air parcel even though its density decreases.
If the air parcel becomes colder than its surroundings then it will be denser
and heavier than its surroundings; therefore, it will start to sink. The
surrounding pressure of the sinking air increases as the height decreases, so
the air parcel is compressed, which decreases its volume. This process is called
adiabatic compression. In this case, the environment does work on the air
parcel, leading to an increasing temperature (i.e. adiabatic warming) of the air
parcel.
Advection fog Advection fog may form when warm and moist air masses
advect above a cold and relatively smooth land or water surface.
Altitude Altitude can be defined as the vertical distance between the point or
object and the mean sea level (abbreviated as MSL).
Anemometer The instrument that is used for measuring wind speed is called
an anemometer. The two main types of mechanic anemometer are the cup
anemometer and the propeller anemometer.
Note: In anticyclones the air flows away from the centre of the high pressure
systems. Anticyclonic circulation has a clockwise direction in the Northern
Hemisphere and a counter-clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere. The
centres of the low and high pressure systems are marked with the letters L and H,
respectively.
Aphelion The location where the Earth is farthest away from the Sun (nearest
location: perihelion).
Airborne weather radar (AWR) Airborne weather radars are installed under
the nose cone of aircraft. Their principle of operation is similar to ground
weather radars. In this case, the nose cone serves as a radar dome that is
transparent to radio waves. An airborne weather radar aims to estimate
precipitation intensity and size during flights. On the basis of this information,
pilots may draw conclusions about whether or not thunderstorms have
formed in front of the aircraft. Therefore, the pilots can indirectly conclude
there is turbulence and atmospheric electricity for example, which may be
associated with thunderstorms.
Air column Air columns are fictional “tubes” that begin above a unit surface
and reach outer space. They are filled with air parcels.
Air density Atmospheric density (air density) is the mass of air per a unit
volume (i.e. an air column).
Air parcel In atmospheric science, air parcels are the main, fictional units of
the atmosphere that are affected by physical properties in the surrounding air.
We consider the air parcel as the smallest unit of air during the examination.
Altostratus (As) Grey, connected layers of a middle level stratiform cloud with
a great horizontal extent, the sun is not completely obscured.
Atmospheric density Atmospheric density (air density) is the mass of air per a
unit volume (i.e. an air column).
Atmospheric layers The Earth’s atmosphere can be divided into different
atmospheric layers based on temperature. In order of increasing altitude, they
are the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere and
the exosphere, which are all separated by thin boundary layers with unique
characteristics. These layers are called the tropopause, the stratopause, the
mesopause and the thermopause.
Billow clouds Turbulence caused by wind shear may be associated with cloud
formation. Velocity differences between two layers cause wind shear that
leads to the formation of clouds with a “ragged” appearance. The clouds are
produced by Kelvin-Helmholtz instability and are called billow clouds. The
phenomenon was named after Lord Kelvin and German physicist Hermann
von Helmholtz.
Dinarides, reaching the area of the Adriatic Sea, especially in winter and early C
D
spring, is called a bora wind and it originates from the cold air accumulated
E
over Siberia.
F
G
c H
I
Cap cloud The four cardinal wind directions are north (N), east (E), south (S) J
and west (W) at 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, respectively. K
L
Carburettor icing In the case of carburettor engines, ice can form internally, M
which is called carburettor icing. In a Venturi tube the air speeds up as the N
Clear ice When freezing precipitation reaches a surface, rime ice or glaze ice
(in other words, clear ice) often develop. In general, rime ice forms a white,
opaque and rough ice layer with a relatively low density. Clear ice (in other
words, glaze ice) forms a smooth, transparent, hard and dense ice layer on the
surface, which shows similarity to glass, making it hard to detect visually.
Glaze ice is harder to remove than rime ice, so consequently the former is
more hazardous to aviation than the latter.
then polar air may flow southward (northward); it even intrudes into regions K
L
close to the tropics, which is known as a cold-air outbreak. Cold-air outbreaks
M
may cause record low temperatures.
N
O
Cold (air) drop If a low-pressure system forms aloft then it may lead to the
P
formation of a cold drop (also called a cold-air drop or cold pool). If a high-
Q
pressure system forms aloft then it may lead to the development of a warm
R
drop (also called a warm-air drop or warm pool). S
T
Cold front A cold front occurs when a colder air mass replaces a warmer air
V
mass by forcing the warmer air mass to rise ahead of it. The slope is tilted in W
the opposite direction than the direction of travel. Furthermore, the slope of z
the cold front is steeper because the colder air mass is larger than the warmer
air mass, causing greater surface friction.
A
Congestus The third stage of cumulus development is the congestus (Cu con)
B
stage, also called towering cumulus (abbreviated as TCu).
C
D
Convection Convection is a vertically directed process of heat transfer in gas
E
or liquid.
F
G
Convective turbulence Convective turbulence is associated with the transfer
H
of heat via convection among unstable atmospheric conditions. It can be
I
considered a type of thermal turbulence. The latter may also be related to
J
inversion layers. K
L
Convergence Convergence means that the air flows toward one point, which
M
occurs in low (high) pressure systems near the surface (aloft). Near-surface N
convergence is the result of the friction force. Divergence indicates that the O
airflows outward from one point, which occurs in high (low) pressure systems P
Cumulonimbus (Cb) It is like a great cumulus with a high vertical extent and in
its mature stage a fibrous anvil shape at the top, strong updraft and
downdraft, sometimes the updraft is extremely strong and may break through
the tropopause into the stratosphere (called an “overshooting top”), Cb is
accompanied by lightning most of the time.
Cut-off cyclone (cut-off low) In this case a low-pressure system is cut away
A
from the polar front with closed isobars. The movement of the low pressure
B
system is not connected to the main westerly air flow anymore. Because of
C
this the low-pressure systems slow down and they may get stuck in one place D
for several days until their dissipation. This can be considered to be cold-air E
drops. F
G
Cyclone (cyclonic circulation) In cyclones, the wind blows inward towards the H
centre near the surface of the ground where the air converges and starts to I
ascend, or rise. If the air contains water vapour, it forms clouds above the level J
of condensation, which can lead to precipitation and poor visibility. Otherwise, K
L
visibility is good due to the ascending air. Then, the air diverges aloft which
M
means that the air flows out from the centre of the cyclone. Cyclonic
N
circulation has a counter-clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and
O
a clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere. The centres of the low and P
high pressure systems are marked with the letters L and H, respectively. Q
R
Cyclone (tropical revolving storm) Tropical revolving storms in the Indian S
Ocean, off the coast of East Africa and in Australia (in Australia also referred T
to as "Willy-Willy"). V
W
z
D
Density altitude Density altitude is the altitude in the ISA to which the
observed density corresponds. To determine this, we have to know the value
of the air density in the actual conditions, then find the height at which the
same air density occurs in the ISA. Density altitude increases as air density
decreases.
Deposition Water vapour can turn into liquid directly via the process of
deposition (opposite: sublimation).
Depression Cyclones and depressions are low pressure areas with almost
circular, closed isobars. The lowest air pressure is to be measured in its centre.
Desert wind Winds that blow from the direction of a desert can be called
desert winds. Because of this, desert winds may carry a significant amount of
dust. They may carry hot air if they blow in the day. However, due to the large
diurnal variation of temperature over the desert, they may carry cold air if they
blow at night.
Dew point Dew point is the temperature of the air parcel that must be cooled
to be saturated at a constant air pressure and a constant amount of water
vapour in the air. It is given in the SI unit of °C.
Divergence Divergence indicates that the air flows outward from one point,
which occurs in high (low) pressure systems near the surface (aloft).
Convergence means that the air flows toward one point, which occurs in low
(high) pressure systems near the surface (aloft). Near-surface convergence is
the result of the friction force.
Doldrums Along the Equator, the northeasterly and southeasterly trade winds
meet in a confluence, leading to calm conditions or light wind near the
surface, which is dangerous for sailing. This zone between ca. 5°N and 5°S is
known as the doldrums.
Drizzle If the developing liquid water droplet has a size smaller than 0.5 mm
then it is called a drizzle drop. If it has a size larger than 0.5 mm then it is
called a raindrop.
Dry climates (or arid climates) Regions with dry climates are located mainly
along the subtropical high zones between ca. 10°N and ca. 40°N as well as
between ca. 30°S and ca. 40°S. The proportion of these areas in the Southern
Hemisphere (e.g. Australia’s interior) is much smaller than in the Northern
Hemisphere (e.g. the western part of North America, the Sahara, the Arabian
Peninsula and Inner Asia).
Dust storm If the wind is strong enough, sand and particles with smaller
diameters known as dust can be introduced into the air for thermal reasons
F
(i.e. convection) or mechanical reasons (i.e. strong winds carry up the _
particles). The diameter of the particles usually does not exceed 1 mm. If dust H
and sand are suspended by the air then sandstorms (or dust storms) may form, |
which may last a few hours. J
K
L
M
N
Easterly wave Easterly waves (tropical easterly waves or tropical waves) can
be considered wave-like disturbances in the troposphere between the ITCZ p
and the subtropical high zone in the Northern Hemisphere, i.e. in the belt of o
the trade winds. A prominent area in which easterly waves form is located r
between the ITCZ and the Azores High, in the coastal region of West Africa.
T
Ecliptic plane The Earth revolves around the Sun on the plane of the ecliptic v
and rotates on its own axis. The non-zero angle between the ecliptic plane W
and the Earth’s equatorial plane leads to seasonal variation in air temperature.
This is to say, the Earth’ axis is not perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic.
Elevation Elevation is the vertical distance from mean sea level to a stated
level, for example, for an object on the Earth’s surface. Note that height,
elevation and altitude are expressed in units of distance (feet or metres).
Equinox There are four notable turning points of the year, namely the summer
and winter solstices, and the spring and autumn equinoxes. The summer
(winter) solstice occurs when the elevation of the Sun is the highest (lowest).
During the summer (winter) solstice, days (nights) are the longest of the year.
The equinoxes occur twice a year when day and night have the same length.
After the spring (autumn) equinox, the length of days (nights) increases
(decreases).
Exosphere The topmost part of the atmosphere, starting at around 500 km.
F
Fahrenheit scale To measure temperature, various scales of temperature have
been established. Nowadays, the Kelvin scale (for scientific purposes), the
Celsius scale (mainly in Europe) and the Fahrenheit scale (mainly in the United
States of America) are widely used. The Fahrenheit scale has two reference
points, similar to the Celsius scale. The unit of measurement is a degree
Fahrenheit (symbol: °F) which is not listed as an SI unit. The reference points
are the freezing point of water and the boiling point of water at standard
atmospheric pressure defined as 32 °F and 212 °F.
Fall wind Downslope winds are warm and dry air flows descending along a
slope. However, in some cases the sinking of the air is so intense that there is
no time for the air parcels to warm up. Consequently, downslope wind
remains cold relative to its environment, which is called a fall wind. Fall winds
have different names depending on their geographical region (e.g. Bora,
Mistral, Tramontana).
Ferrel cell The indirect circulation cell between the Hadley and the polar cell
is called the Ferrel cell. It is named after American meteorologist William
Ferrel, who described the winds near the surface over the mid-latitudes.
Flight level (FL) Flight levels are based on the standard pressure of
1013.25 hPa, the mean sea level pressure in the ISA. Flight level is expressed
in units of distance (feet or metres) and its value is the vertical distance from
1013.25 hPa, considering the ISA temperature conditions throughout the
layer. The goal of using flight levels is having a convention to determine
aircrafts' levels compared to each other with the same reference pressure and
thus the same deviation. C
D
Foehn winds Foehn winds are warm and dry downslope winds. Depending on E
the geographical region, foehn winds have different names. The term “foehn” f
originates from the German word “Foehn”. The Foehn is observed above the
Alps. In North America it is called a Chinook wind on the eastern side of the
Rocky Mountains. In South America, on the eastern side of the Andes, a foehn
wind is referred to as the Zonda.
K
Note: North foehn vs. south foehn - if the air flows from south to east over the
M
Alps, then south foehn winds can be observed on the northern side of the
N
mountains over Austria and north foehn winds blow on the southern side of the
mountain over Italy. p
Q
Fog Fog is defined as a cloud formed at or close to the ground. It reduces the
visibility to BELOW 1000 m (< 1000 m) and the constituents of a fog
(obscuring agents) are microscopic water droplets (< 0.5 mm) suspended in a t
saturated air mass (relative humidity about 100 %). When the temperature V
drops below 0 °C, the fog droplets are supercooled and some ice crystals also w
gradually form in the fog. However, fog solely consisting of ice crystals does
not form until at temperatures between -30 °C and -40 °C (ice fog).
Fractus Irregular cloud fragments change shape quickly and are typically at
low levels under or close to larger Cb or Cu clouds. Occasionally, individual
clouds can also appear in environments high in moisture close to the Earth's
surface.
Freezing Liquid water transforms into ice during the process of freezing
(opposite: melting).
A
Ghibli Southerly desert wind in Libya.
B
Gradient wind Horizontal motion of air parcels along curved path, namely the C
D
gradient wind, comes from the resultant force of the PGF (pressure gradient
E
force) and the CF (Coriolis force). Remember that the term “horizontal” means
F
the wind blows parallel to the surface.
G
H
Ground icing Classification of icing can be made in various ways, e.g. by the
I
location of the aircraft. Icing can occur while the plane is at the aerodrome,
J
and the phenomenon is called ground icing. For example, ground icing can be K
caused by freezing rain (it happens similarly on the surface of other objects on L
the ground),or icing can happen during flight, called in flight icing. M
N
O
H P
Q
Haboob Sandstorms that develop due to strong winds are known as haboob
R
all over the world.
S
T
Hadley cell The equatorial circulation cell is called the Hadley cell, which is
V
the largest circulation loop in the model. The wind pattern at lower latitudes W
was first described by English physicist George Hadley in the 18th century. z
Hail Hail (GR) is frozen precipitation and the diameter of hailstones is larger
than 5 mm.
Hoar frost Hoar frost is the frozen form of dew. It often develops after clear
cold nights when the air has gone below 0 °C with a relatively high moisture
content. The water content of the air directly turns from water vapour into ice
(via the process of deposition), and creates light, white ice crystals.
Height Height is the vertical distance of the point or the object from a
specified level. This fixed level is in most cases the ground.
Heterosphere Thermosphere and exosphere form the heterosphere.
High pressure area A high pressure area or "a high" is an area where the air
pressure at the surface is higher compared to its environment. The air pressure
is the highest in the centre of the high and it decreases as we move away from
its centre horizontally.
Horse latitudes Above the subtropical high zones, along ca. 30°, sinking
movements of the air lead to wind calm. This zone is known as the horse
A
latitudes because sailors once had to throw horses off their ships due to
B
shortages of fresh water and food (assumption, not proven).
C
D
Human observer Weather observations can be conducted by automatic
E
devices, henceforth called an automatic observation system, or they can be
F
conducted by humans, known as human observers. There are several
G
aerodromes where automatic observation systems operate. However, the H
employment of trained human observers remains a common practice. They are I
able to prepare qualitative descriptions about present and past weather J
conditions. K
L
Humidity (absolute, specific, relative): M
N
• Absolute humidity is the density of water vapour in the air. It measures the O
Ice crystals Over middle latitudes and higher geographic latitudes near the
poles, in temperatures below -10 °C, ice crystals (IC), or diamond dust, may be
observed. Diamond dust can be considered a special type of precipitation
because it does not fall from clouds. It forms under cloudless skies. Because A
single ice crystals are falling, the diameter of each is about 0.1 mm, smaller B
than other precipitation particles.
D
Ice inflowing Ice inflowing is a less frequent type of icing. It is caused by cold
air that contains ice crystals, snow, granular snow or supercooled water
droplets that flow through the moving parts of the aircraft, including the
|_|
engine. Compared to internal icing (induction system icing), in this case ice is
not developing inside, but is drifting in from the outside. .
Ice pellets Ice pellets (PL) consist of ice. They are relatively hard and
transparent particles and usually have an irregular or spherical shape. Their
average diameter is smaller than 5 mm, which makes them smaller than N
hailstones. O
P
Ice protector systems Ice protector systems are used to protect the aircraft q
from the effects of icing and utilise different methods to help terminate ice r
accumulation on the surface or in the engine of the aircraft. The two main
types of methods are the de-icing and the anti-icing systems that eliminate or
prevent ice deposition, respectively.
W
Incus Also called the anvil of Cb, consist of ice crystals that are spread radially
at the top of the Cb. It refers to a Cb in the mature stage of life.
In flight icing Classification of icing can be made in various ways, e.g. by the
location of the aircraft. Icing can occur while the plane is at the aerodrome,
and the phenomenon is called ground icing. For example, ground icing can be
caused by freezing rain (it happens similarly on the surface of other objects on
the ground), or icing can happen during flight, called in flight icing.
Insolation The incoming solar radiation to the surface of Earth is called
insolation and it changes with geographical latitude. Solar radiation can be
considered heat energy, as it transfers heat from the Sun to the Earth through
outer space.
Internal icing A possible hazard for aviation is the icing of the internal parts of
the aircraft. It can be defined as the internal icing of the aircraft engine, or
more precisely icing of the induction system that operates with a carburettor
or a fuel injection system.
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) The zone where the greatest amount
of solar radiation reaches the surface of the Earth is called the Intertropical
Convergence Zone (abbreviated as ITCZ). The middle line of this zone is called
the thermal equator or less frequently, the heat equator. This does not
coincide with the Earth’s Equator (henceforth, geographical Equator).
Inversions, especially inversions close to the ground (in other words, low level
inversions) may have other hazardous consequences for aviation. In the
following section, the main effects of an inversion on aircraft performance will
be listed:
3. Turbulence
4. Temperature difference
Ionosphere A layer where charged particles mainly from the Sun (solar wind)
interact with the constituents of the atmosphere. This process is called
ionisation. The ionosphere extends from the upper part of the mesosphere to
the exosphere. A
B
Isobar The lines on weather maps that connect the points with the same C
pressure normalised to sea level are called isobars. In meteorological practice D
isobars are drawn with an average spacing of 2 or 4 hPa on surface weather E
maps. F
G
Isochor The curves that connect the points with the same volume are called H
isochors. I
J
Isohypse An isohypse (or height contour, or contour line) is a line on an upper K
level weather map that connects points with the same height on an isobaric L
M
surface above mean sea level. These lines form wave-like shape on weather
N
charts. It is often said that the isohypse indicates the true altitude, which is
O
the actual height of a pressure level above mean sea level.
P
Q
Isolated thunderstorm Isolated Cb (abbreviated as ISOL CB): Isolated refers
R
to the presence of single-cell Cb over less than 50 % of any given area.
S
T
Isotach Lines that connect points with the same wind speed on a weather
V
map are called isotachs.
W
z
Isotherm layer In an isothermal layer the temperature is constant. The
tropopause can almost be considered an isotherm layer.
Jet stream Along the regions with a steep temperature gradient(e.g. just
below the tropopause), narrow bands of westerly winds are observable at
maximum wind speeds. These are called jet streams. The two main jet streams
are the subtropical jet stream and the polar jet stream. The former is located
above the polar front (PF), while the latter can be found above the subtropical
high zone.
K
Katabatic wind If a katabatic wind blows along the slope, then the
descending movement makes the air leave the valley. This flow is called A
mountain wind (opposite: "anabatic wind"). B
C
Kelvin scale To measure temperature, various scales of temperature have D
been established. Nowadays, the Kelvin scale (for scientific purposes), the E
Celsius scale (mainly in Europe) and the Fahrenheit scale (mainly in the United
States of America) are widely used. On the Kelvin scale the null point is
absolute zero. The International System of Units (abbreviated as SI) base unit
of temperature is kelvin (symbol: K). Note that we do not use the word
“degree” concerning the Kelvin scale. It is often used for scientific purposes, K
mainly in thermodynamic calculations. L
M
Khamsin Southerly desert wind in Egypt, which may lead to the formation of N
sandstorms reaching the Middle East. O
P
Q
R
c
Land breeze Due to the uneven heating of the sea and land surfaces, sea and
land breezes arise. In general, wind blows from the colder area towards the
warmer area. During the night, the wind blows from the land towards the sea
(land breeze), and during the day, the wind blows from the sea towards the
land (sea breeze).
At this height the air parcel becomes saturated with water. Consequently,
water vapour starts to condensate and latent heat is released, which leads to a
decreasing temperature lapse rate, because it slows down the cooling of the
air parcel. The temperature of the air parcel decreases in line with the A
saturated adiabatic lapse rate (often abbreviated as SALR), which is lower B
than the dry adiabatic lapse rate. The temperature decreases at about C
1.8 °C/1000 ft (or ca. 0.6 °C/100 m). D
E
In the ISA (International Standard Atmosphere) the temperature decreases at F
the rate of 1.98 °C/1000 ft (or 0.65 °C/100 m). G
H
Because of the adiabatic approximation, atmospheric stability can be I
examined through the relationship between the environmental lapse rate, the J
dry adiabatic lapse rate and the saturated adiabatic lapse rate. The K
L
environmental lapse rate (often abbreviated as ELR) can be considered the
M
rate at which the air temperature actually changes with height in the
N
surroundings of the air parcel. If we assume a linear relationship between
O
temperature and height, then the environmental lapse rate is constant. P
Q
Latent heat (transfer) Latent heat transfer is a heat exchange without change
R
in the temperature of the substance. Latent heat is a "hidden" thermal energy S
which is commonly present when the material changes its state of matter, as T
when ice turns to water through melting. V
W
Lee wave See mountain wave. z
Low pressure area We are speaking about a low pressure area or simply "a
low" if the air pressure is lower than its surrounding environment. The air
pressure is the lowest in the centre of the low and it increases as we move
away from its centre horizontally. A
B
C
M D
E
Macroburst One of the most dangerous and hazardous phenomena related to
F
thunderstorms is a downburst. A downburst is a strong downward flow in a
G
thunderstorm resulting in a strong wind storm at ground level. Generally, it is H
related to single-cell thunderstorms in the mature stage. It often affects a I
circular area on the ground with a diameter of approximately 4 km. In this case J
it is called a microburst. However, it can occasionally cover a larger area and K
Melting Water in solid form (ice) transforms to liquid water during the process
of melting (opposite: freezing).
Mesosphere The layer starting above the stratopause, at ca. 50 km, and
extents to ca. 80 km.
MET report Local routine reports (known as MET reports) and local special
reports (known as SPECIAL reports) are issued with content similar to the
METAR and SPECI. However, MET reports and SPECIAL reports are used
mainly by departing and arriving aircraft while the METAR and SPECI are
disseminated beyond the aerodrome.
Mistral Northerly fall winds in the Rhone Valley of Southern France are called
mistral winds and originate from the pressure gradient between the Azores
High and the Genoa Low.
Mixing ratio The mass of humid air is the sum of the mass of dry air and the
mass of water vapour in it. The mixing ratio of humid air is the rate of the mass
of water vapour to the mass of dry air. Its SI unit is g/kg or kg/kg. For example,
1 g/kg (or 0.001 kg/kg) means that the rate of water vapour is 1 g (or
0.001 kg) to the dry air with a mass of 1 kg.
The saturation mixing ratio is the mixing ratio of the saturated air. More
precisely, it is the rate of the maximum mass of water vapour to the mass of
dry air that can be held by the humid air without condensation. It is also
expressed in the SI units of g/kg or kg/kg.
A
Monsoon Close to the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere (Southern
B
Hemisphere) southwesterly (northwesterly) winds, called monsoons, are
C
observable in July (January). Monsoons are observable especially over West
D
Africa in the vicinity of the ITCZ, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and E
the northern part of Australia. F
G
Monsoon regions belong to the tropical monsoon climate zone, and thus have H
two seasons, a dry and a wet season, that alternate with each other. This I
means that there are not only changes in the direction of the prevailing wind J
but also changes in precipitation. K
L
Mountain wave If the air flow collides with an obstacle with large horizontal M
and vertical ranges (e.g. a mountain range), the air is forced to rise and flow N
O
above the top of it. If the wind direction is almost constant, and wind speeds
P
exceed 15 kt (ca. 7.5 m/s) and increase slightly with increasing altitude, then
Q
mountain waves known as lee waves or standing waves will form. Turbulent
R
flows often develop behind. S
T
Mountain wind See katabatic wind.
V
W
N z
Nadir The point of zenith (nadir) is the overhead point of the sky in the
Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
Nimbostratus (Ns) It is a grey thick cloud layer covering the whole sky or part
of it and the sun is obscured. It may be at the low or middle levels.
Nocturnal radiation Radiation inversion develops during cold winter nights
with clear skies and calm or very light wind. Dry air above the surface can let
the long-wave radiation leave the atmosphere at night (called nocturnal
radiation), allowing the surface and air near the surface to cool. This situation
can lead to the formation of fog near the ground.
O
Pampero Cold-air outbreaks have traditional names around the globe. For p
example, northerly air that blows from the Arctic region is called a norther in q
the United States of America and a norte in Mexico. In South America a cold- r
air outbreak that originates in the Antarctic region is called a pampero. In this
case a polar wind blows northward. T
V
Perihelion The location where the Earth is closest to the Sun (farthest W
location: aphelion).
Polar easterlies Above the poles, cold and dense air sinks and diverges near
the surface. The sinking air starts to flow towards the Equator. It is not
perpendicular to the Equator, also because of the Coriolis force, which
deflects it to the east. In other words, the surface winds are northeasterly in
the Northern Hemisphere and southeasterly in the Southern Hemisphere.
These winds are often called polar easterlies.
Polar front The border between the two air masses, with significantly
different temperatures that originate from the polar and the tropical region, is
called the polar front (abbreviated as PF). It is located between the indirect
and the polar circulation cell.
Polar climates At latitudes higher than the Arctic Circle and the Antarctic
Circle (66.5°) the Sun remains visible at night and remains below the horizon
at least one day of the year, respectively. Over the poles these time periods
extend to six months. Because of this, the lowest monthly mean temperatures
A
can be measured over these areas. B
C
Polar vortex Polar vortex is also a low-pressure area over the poles in the
D
upper troposphere, which makes it an upper-level low with cyclonic rotation. E
It can extend into the lower stratosphere. F
G
Planetary boundary layer In the meteorological literature, the atmospheric H
layer that is influenced by the properties (i.e. heat capacity and roughness) of I
the surface is called the planetary boundary layer (or atmospheric boundary J
Prevailing westerlies The equatorial and polar circulation cells indirectly form
another circulation cell (henceforth an indirect circulation cell) over the mid
latitudes, in which the direction of the flow is counter-clockwise. In that cell
the air flows near the surface towards the poles. Because of the Earth's
rotation, its direction is deflected to the southwest in the Northern
Hemisphere and northwest in the Southern Hemisphere. The winds that pass
over the mid-latitudes are called prevailing westerlies.
Q
c
QFF QFF is the atmospheric pressure reduced to the mean sea level, D
corrected for actual weather conditions such as air temperature. E
F
QFE (Quantified field elevation or Q field elevation) is the barometric G
pressure at airfield level, which is the air pressure measured by a barometer at
the official airfield reference point. If QFE is used as an altimeter setting, then
the altimeter indicates the height between the airport reference point and the
aircraft. When the aircraft is on the runway, the altimeter should indicate 0 ft.
QFE is air pressure reduced to the datum level of the airport, applying
corrections for the outside-air temperature. N
O
QNE QNE is the standard altimeter setting when the reference pressure is p
1013 hPa. It gives the pressure altitude of the aerodrome and is used in the q
case of flight levels to determine altitude. In the case of assigning flight levels, r
a pressure level of zero is the ISA standard mean sea level pressure, which is
1013 hPa. T
V
QNH (Quantified nautical height or Q nautical height) is the barometric W
pressure at the airport (QFE) reduced to mean sea level using values of the
standard atmosphere (the ISA barometric lapse rate) and the elevation of the
airport. This setting indicates the vertical distance above mean sea level.
R
Raindrop If the developing liquid water droplet has a size smaller than 0.5 mm
then it is called a drizzle drop. If it has a size larger than 0.5 mm then it is
called a raindrop.
A
Ridge (wedge) Large-scale, U-shaped high pressure areas are called ridges
B
(sometimes referred to wedges). If the air pressure in the centre of the high
C
increases (decreases), then it is building-up (weakening or collapsing).
D
Anticyclones are often associated with ridges. E
F
Rime ice When freezing precipitation reaches a surface, rime ice or glaze ice
G
(in other words, clear ice) often develop. In general, rime ice forms a white, H
opaque and rough ice layer with a relatively low density. Clear ice (in other I
words, glaze ice) forms a smooth, transparent, hard and dense ice layer on the J
Rotor clouds (roll clouds) Rotor clouds appear on the top of the rotor
circulation. They are small cumuliform clouds, mainly altocumulus. The zone
should be avoided by aircraft because these clouds are related to intense
turbulence.
Note 1: The runway visual range can also be determined by human observations.
Because distances between the marks or lights that indicate the centre line of the
runway are fixed, the runway visual range can be determined based on counting p
them. q
R
Note 2: Automated observations are mainly based on the measurement of the
extinction of light, which depends on the absorption and scattering of light on t
atmospheric particles. Visibility and runway visual range can be derived from the V
rate of extinction. V/
Z
s
Sandstorm If the wind is strong enough, sand and particles with smaller
diameters known as dust can be introduced into the air for thermal reasons
(i.e. convection) or mechanical reasons (i.e. strong winds carry up the
particles). The diameter of the particles usually does not exceed 1 mm. If dust
and sand are suspended by the air then sandstorms (or dust storms) may form,
which may last a few hours.
Scirocco A desert wind that blows from the Sahara Desert in the direction of
the Mediterranean region is called the scirocco (or sirocco).
Sea breeze Due to the uneven heating of the sea and land surfaces, sea and
land breezes arise. In general, wind blows from the colder area towards the
warmer area. During the night, the wind blows from the land towards the sea
(land breeze), and during the day, the wind blows from the sea towards the
land (sea breeze).
Significant weather chart (SIGWX chart) As the name of the chart suggests, it
is a visual presentation of significant weather phenomena for a given
geographical region. Significant Weather charts are issued by World Area
Forecast Centres (WAFC) every six hours (00:00, 06:00, 12:00 and
18:00 UTC).
Snow grains (SG) are white, opaque particles that usually have an elongated
or plain shape. Their average size is less than 1 mm. They typically form
between ca. -10 °C and ca. 0 °C.
Snow pellets (PL) like snow grains (GS), are also white and opaque ice
particles. In snow pellets, the hexagonal structure of the ice crystals becomes
unrecognisable because of riming. Snow pellets have a spherical or conical
shape and their diameter is about 5 mm.
Solstice There are four notable turning points of the year, namely the summer
and winter solstices, and the spring and autumn equinoxes. The summer
(winter) solstice occurs when the elevation of the Sun is the highest (lowest).
During the summer (winter) solstice, days (nights) are the longest of the year.
The equinoxes occur twice a year when day and night have the same length.
After the spring (autumn) equinox, the length of days (nights) increases
(decreases).
SPECIAL report Local routine reports (known as MET reports) and local
special reports (known as SPECIAL reports) are issued with content similar to
the METAR and SPECI. However, MET reports and SPECIAL reports are used
mainly by departing and arriving aircraft while the METAR and SPECI are
disseminated beyond the aerodrome.
Squall line If a row (or chain) of Cb clouds is formed and their movement is
perpendicularly to the line along which the Cb clouds are organised, then the
mesoscale complex system (MCS) is called a squall line.
Note: Squall line thunderstorm refers to a chain of thunderstorms that can only be
avoided by flying above them.
2. If the environmental lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic lapse
rate then it is also greater than the saturated adiabatic lapse rate;
therefore the air is called absolutely unstable.
3. If the environmental lapse rate is between the dry adiabatic and the
saturated adiabatic lapse rate then the air is called conditionally
unstable.
4. If the ELR is higher than the DALR and the SALR, then the air is called
unstable.
Sublimation Ice can turn into water vapour directly via the process of z
Subpolar low zones In the zone of the confluence of the equatorward and
poleward flows, the former starts to ascend due to its lower density.
Therefore, low pressure areas form near the Arctic Circle (ca. 66.5°N) and the
Antarctic Circle (ca. 66.5°S), called the subpolar low zones.
Subtropical high zones Near the tropopause the air starts to flow towards the
poles. It cools down while becoming denser, which is the equivalent of an
increasing mass at a constant volume. Therefore, the air sinks along the Tropic
of Cancer (ca. 23.5°N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (ca. 23.5°S) develops a high
pressure area called the subtropical high zone.
Supercooled water If liquid water is free from contamination then it can cool
down below the freezing point without a phase change, so liquid water can
exist below 0 °C, which is called supercooled water. However, supercooled
water is in a metastable state, which means that any disturbance will make the
supercooled water droplets start freezing immediately and the particles turn
rapidly from liquid to ice. D
E
Surface icing Surface icing happens when ice forms and accumulates on the f
surface of the aircraft (e.g. on the fuselage or on its wings).
H
4. Weather phenomena
W
5. Cloud amount, height of the cloud base, cloud type and vertical visibility
Thermal equator The zone where the greatest amount of solar radiation
reaches the surface of the Earth is called the Intertropical Convergence Zone
(abbreviated as ITCZ). The middle line of this zone is called the thermal
equator or less frequently, the heat equator. This does not coincide with the
Earth’s Equator (henceforth, geographical Equator).
Thermal low Low-pressure areas may form locally by uplifting thermal effects,
called thermal lows, and by orography, called orographic lows. It is a common
phenomenon for low pressure to develop on the edge of a well-developed or a
dissipating mid-latitude cyclone, called secondary lows.
Thermosphere The layer starting above the mesopause, at ca. 80 km, and
extents to ca. 500 km. The international space station is floating in this layer.
E
Tramontana Northerly fall winds in the Rhone Valley of Southern France are
called mistral winds and originate from the pressure gradient between the
Azores High and the Genoa Low. This phenomenon is called the tramontana
over the territories of Northwest Italy and the Balearic Islands.
Transition level (TRL) The transition level (abbreviated as TRL) is the lowest
specified flight level above transition altitude (TA), and TRL is determined
locally by considering surrounding terrain, temperature and air pressure. In
A
certain countries, the TRL must be at least 1000 ft above the TA as its
B
thickness depends on the QNH.
C
D
Transmissometer A device for measuring visibility and runway visual range is
E
called transmissometer and it consists of two main units. The first unit is a
F
light source, for example a light-emitting diode (abbreviated as LED). Its
G
second unit mounted at a known distance could be either an active or a H
passive remote sensing device. I
J
TREND forecast Forecast information can be issued in TREND forecasts as K
an optional part of the METAR and SPECI. The time period of the TREND L
forecast is two hours from the issuance of the METAR and SPECI and it M
Tropical rain climates Regions with tropical rain climates can mostly be found
along the Equator. Due to the previously-listed factors that influence the
Earth’s climate, these zones are between ca. 10°N and 30°S. For example,
areas in Central America, Central Africa, Southeast Asia and the northern part
of Australia belong to this climate zone. The mean temperature of the coldest
month is above 18 °C.
air rises and the tropopause spreads radially. (This stage is sometimes further H
I
divided into the tropical storm and severe tropical storm categories.)
J
True altitude The true altitude is the actual altitude and it depends on the
pressure and on the mean temperature of the layer of air between the
reference pressure surface and the static pressure surface (which is the level
of the aircraft). Thus, we need to use corrections on measured altitudes for
temperature and pressure deviations from standard values.
True height True height (or absolute altitude) is the real distance between the
aircraft and the ground.
Tuba A tuba (or funnel cloud) is a rotating cloud vortex that does not reach
the ground or the water surface. When the vortex touches the ground, it is
called a tornado. When it touches a water surface, it is called a waterspout.
Typhoon Tropical revolving storms in the Western Pacific and South China
Sea.
V
Vapour pressure/saturation vapour pressure Vapour pressure is the weight of
the water vapour per unit area. It is given in the SI unit of Pa. It can be said
that warmer air or a larger volume of air can contain more water vapour.
Saturation vapour pressure is the weight of the water vapour per unit area in a
state of equilibrium. It depends on the type of the substance, its temperature
and the curvature of its surface. Saturation vapour pressure is the exponential
function of air temperature.
Vaporisation The process in which liquid water turns to gas (water vapour) is
called vaporisation (opposite: condensation).
Virga When precipitation starts to fall toward the ground but does not yet
reach the ground, it is called virga. It can be seen under the cloud base. Virga
can accompany any type of cloud that has precipitation.
Note: Prevailing visibility is the value observed at more the 50 % of the horizon.
Wind shear Wind shear is an abrupt change in the wind speed or wind
direction horizontally or vertically:
Note: Low level wind shear may be similarly caused by thunderstorms, low level jet
streams, weather fronts or by local wind systems (e.g. sea and land breezes,
mountain winds, inversion layers). These phenomena cause wind shear on the
border of air masses with different characteristics.
Windsock A windsock is a cone shaped object made of fabric that can turn
around a vertical axis. It points in the opposite direction from which the wind
blows. Stripes on the windsock can be used to estimate the wind speed.
World area forecast centre (WAFC) Two WAFCs operate simultaneously: one
in Washington, in the United States of America, and the other one in London,
in the United Kingdom. They issue data and charts in standardised and digital
forms for aircraft during flight without any interruption. Gridded forecasts are
available at upper height levels,between FLO5O and FL630. These are for the
following atmospheric variables:
1. Air temperature
2. Humidity
3. Wind direction and wind speed
z
Zenith The point of zenith (nadir) is the overhead point of the sky in the
Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
Abbreviations
A
abbr. abbreviation
ABV Above
AC Altocumulus
A
BL Blowing
BLW Below
BR Mist
BTN Between
c
ca. circa
CB Cumulonimbus A
B
CCN Cloud Condensation Nuclei C
D
CF Coriolis Force E
F
CIN Convective Inhibition G
H
CLD Cloud
K
const, constant
L
CP Centripetal force M
N
CTA Control Area O
P
CU Cumulus Q
R
S
D T
U
DALR Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
V
w
DP Dew Point
DR Drifting
DS Dust Storm
DU Widespread ash
DZ Drizzle
E
e.g. for example (exempli gratia, Latin)
etc. and the rest of the other things (et cetera, Latin)
EMBD Embedded
FBL Light
K
FC Funnel Clouds (tornado or water spout)
FCST Forecast
N
FG Fog O
P
FIR Flight Information Region Q
R
FL Flight Level S
T
FM From
V
FRQ Frequent
FU Smoke
FZ Freezing (supercooled)
GR Hail
H
HF High Frequencies
HVY Heavy
HZ Haze
I
i. e. that is (id est, Latin)
IC Diamond dust
ICAO Doc 4444 ICAO’s ATM Doc 4444, Procedures for Air Navigation
Services
ICAO Doc 7488/3 ICAO’s Doc 7488/3, Manual of the ICAO Standard
Atmosphere - extended to 80 kilometres (262 500feet)
ICE Icing
INTSF Intensify
ISOL Isolated
K c
D
kt/KT knot(s)
F
G
H
M M
N
MAX Maximum
P
MBST Microburst Q
R
MCC Mesoscale Convective Complex S
T
MCS Mesoscale Convective System
V
MEA Minimum Enroute Altitude
Ml Shallow
MNM Minimum
MOCA Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude
MOD Moderate
MOV Moving
OBS Observed
OBSC Obscured
OCNL Occasional
OPMET Operational Meteorological Databank
OVC Overcast
p
p.m. past midday (post meridiem, Latin)
PF Polar Front
A
PGF Pressure Gradient Force
B
C
PL Ice pellets
D
REP Reported
RMK Remark
RWY Runway
s
SA Sand
SC Stratocumulus
SCT Scattered
SEV Severe
SFC Surface
SG Snow Grains
SH Shower
SIG Significant
SN Snow
SQ Squalls
SS Sandstorm
ST Stratus
STNR Stationary
TAF Terminal Aerodrome Forecast
TC Tropical Cyclone
TEMPO Temporary
TL Until A
B
TCAC Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre
D
TCU Towering Cumulus (Cumulus congestus) E
F
TRL Transition Level c-
H
TS Thunderstorm
|Z
TURB Turbulence
L
M
U N
O
UP Unknown Precipitation p
Q
UTC Coordinated Universal Time R
S
V T
u
VA Volcanic Ash
W
VAAC Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre
VC In the vicinity
VIS Visibility
VRB Variable
w
WAFC World Area Forecast Centre
WKN Weaken
A
WMO World Meteorological Organization
Q
WMO-No 8 WMO’s Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of
. D
Observation
E
Literature and
Regulations
Recommended literature
Chen, D., Chen, H. W., Using the Koppen classification to quantify climate
variation and change: An example for 1901-2010, Environmental
Development, 6, 69-79, 2013.
Seinfeld, J. H., Pandis, S. N., Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air
Pollution to Climate Change, 3rd Edition, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2016.
Formulae
This section contains the main formulae which were presented in the book. As
the physical basics are explained first, formulae are contained in the first half
of the book. The letter "B" means that the formula is contained in a particular
chapter which is required for the exam. The letter "D" indicates that the
formula is a part of the detailed explanation.
Please note that if a symbol occurs (e.g. v4, p) more than once in a particular
chapter then its meaning is given only once, below the first formula which
contains it. Units are denoted in brackets.
F
rga -7^ X
Where:
• if m1»m2 then points from the center of m-]_ toward the center of m2
• r is the magnitude of 1?, the distance [m] between the centers of the two
objects
_ii pp 3
• 7 = 6.67 x 10 7—- is the gravitational constant introduced by
English physicist and chemist
The sum of absorption (a), reflection (p) and transmittance (t) regarding a
black body (D):
a + g + t = 1
E = <zT4
Where:
A
''max —
— —
rp
Where:
q = c x AT
Where:
Where:
F = ml?
Where:
• a is acceleration [m/sz]
Pressure (D):
Where:
• p is pressure [Pa]
Weight (D):
Fg = mg
Where:
Density (B):
Where:
• p is density [kg/m3]
• V is volume [m3]
/ k r 1 \ 5.246
/ 0.0065 - x h m \
p hPa = 1013.25 hPa x 1--------- L
Where:
Where:
Where:
• z and z0 are the upper and lower boundaries of the column (e.g. air column)
which is under examination [m]
• g is the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration
• Rd = 281 J/(kg-K) is the specific gas constant of dry air
—
n = const,
Where:
pV = const.
— = const.
— = const.
pV
const.
T
for ideal gases, at constant amount of chemical substance.
pV = nRT
for ideal gases, where = 8.31 J/(mol-K) is the universal gas constant.
| = R‘T
• p is density [kg/m3]
• R* the specific gas constant, e.g. Rj or Rw, specific gas constants of dry air
and water vapour, respectively
Temperature
r
correction = H x ---------- ——-----------
273 + t0 - 0.5 Lo (H + Hss)
Where:
x —
s ~ 2x kt
Where:
• v is the velocity [m/s]
• s is the displacement - in other words road - between two point [m]
• t is the period of time of the displacement [s]
A F sf = P x n x AA
Where:
----- 7” 1
F grad = “ X Vp
Where:
• p is density [kg/m3]
• Vp is the pressure gradient vector, in a three-dimensional Cartesian
coordinate system its components are [Pa/m]
\ ax ay az /
■p __ i v
r g™dx - Q x Ax
■p __ 1 v
rgrady- p X Ay
■p __ 1 v ^P
r g™dz - Q X Az
Coriolis force expressed with angular velocity (D):
F cor — — 2m Q x = 2m^ x Q
Where:
/ fv — Iw
F cor — 2mQ I — fu
\ lu
where Coriolis parameters are f=2Q sincp and l=2Q coscj) [1/s].
1 / dp
-2 Q x vg
e \ dx ’
fr f2r2 dp
vgr 2 4
X
dr
where vogr’ is the gradient wind speed [m/s].
__ fr f2r2 r Op
gr ~ 2 4 Q dr
1 Op
g = X
6 pf OT
Connection between geostrophic wind speed and gradient wind speed (D):
gr
g fr
* *
u g , vg
Where:
1 / Op Op \ 9 o —> _ *\
Q I - ,
\ Ox ’ Oy /
) I- X V O'
8
--- H I\ Upg , Vgr
’ g /
I
s|c * y *
where (ug , vg ) are the components of v g .
_ *
Deflection of v g from the geostrophic wind (D):
a = arc tg ( j)
Where:
P = mV
Where:
—> —>
L = r x P = r x mv
Where:
• L is the angular momentum of the object during its rotation [kg mz/s]
• V is the position vector of the object [m]
Ekin = |mv2
Where:
W = Fs
Where:
W = mgh1 — mgh2
Expressions mgh^ and mgh2 are the potential energies of the fluid parcel at hi
and h2, respectively.
Work on the fluid parcel originates from pressure (e.g. in a Venturi tube) (D):
W = pi As — P2 As
Where:
Where:
/ 2 (ps - pT
V Q
where ps is the stagnation (total) pressure which is the sum of the static
pressure and the dynamic pressure.
= I x + g
dt2 Q dz
Where:
Re == -
V
Where:
g ar / \
vt
x
=—
fT
x — (z — Zquy)
dx v
g ar / \
UT =----f—
T
X dy v
(z — Zuq')
Where:
• — and are the gradient of the average temperature with respect to the
coordinates x and y [K/m]
= fT^Z -z°) X (k x
^. = Q + W + L
dt
Where:
dU
• indicates the changes of the internal energy of the thermodynamic
system over time [J/s]
• Q is the transfer of energy per unit time by heat [J/s]
• W is the transfer of energy per unit time by work [J/s]
• L is the transfer of energy per unit time by matter across the boundary of
the system [J/s]
dU
dt
£
at
=w
In this case W is the pressure-volume work.
W = pdV
Where:
where T is the actual temperature [°C] and Tj is the dew point [°C].
Where:
Where:
• r is the mixing ratio (dimensionless quantity)
• mv is the mass of water vapour [kg]
Ideal gas law for water vapour using vapour pressure (D):
Where:
Ideal gas law for dry air using vapour pressure (D):
Mixing ratio estimated as the quotient of vapour pressure and total pressure
(D):
r 0 .62 -
p
rs ~ 0 .62
s p
e = es - Ap(T — Tw)
Where:
h « 120(T — Td)
Where:
Buoyancy force per unit mass of the air parcel expressed with density (D):
d 2z _ / *?*“*? \
dt2 “ gV e )
Where:
d2z
indicates the buoyancy force on a unit mass [m/s2]
dt2
Buoyancy force per unit mass of the air parcel expressed with temperature
(D):
d 2z = / T — T* \
dt2 ®\ t* /
Where:
Buoyancy force per unit mass of the air parcel expressed with lapse rates (D):
= A x h(7-rd)
Where:
dT _ g
dz cp
dT
where — is the vertical temperature gradient (gradient of the average
temperature with respect to the coordinate z) [K/m].
Fg = Pj’rrg
Where:
Fd = 6^771^
Where:
• Fj is Stoke’s drag [N]
• r] is the dynamic viscosity [kg/ms]
Fb = o g
Where:
2 r2 ( g ~ gf) g
9
Where:
Learning Objectives
Below, you can find the Learning Objectives of this subject as designed by
EASA and contained in Amendments 4, 6 and 8 to AMC/GM to Part-FCL (ED
Decision 2018/001/R, ED Decision 2018/011/R and ED Decision
2019/017/R) that came into effect in 2020.
1. Training aims
ii. Skills. After completion of the training, the pilot should be able to:
LEARNING OBJECTIVES