ATPL 03 Electrics and Electronics
ATPL 03 Electrics and Electronics
ATPL 03 Electrics and Electronics
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BOOK THREE
EASA - REVISED
FIRST EDITION
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Introduction
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Oxford Aviation Academy.
Certain copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the International Civil Aviation Organisation, the
United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority and the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA).
This text book has been written and published as a reference work to assist students enrolled on an approved
EASA Air Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL) course to prepare themselves for the EASA ATPL theoretical knowledge
examinations. Nothing in the content of this book is to be interpreted as constituting instruction or advice
relating to practical flying.
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information contained within this book, neither
CAE Oxford Aviation Academy nor the distributor gives any warranty as to its accuracy or otherwise. Students
preparing for the EASA ATPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations should not regard this book as a substitute
for the EASA ATPL (A) theoretical knowledge training syllabus published in the current edition of ‘Part-FCL 1’ (the
Syllabus). The Syllabus constitutes the sole authoritative definition of the subject matter to be studied in an EASA
ATPL (A) theoretical knowledge training programme. No student should prepare for, or is currently entitled to enter
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Introduction
Textbook Series
I
Introduction
Book Title Subject
Direct Current
Alternating Current
Piston Engines
Gas Turbines
Flight Instruments
Warning & Recording
Automatic Flight Control
Power Plant & System Monitoring Instruments
9 050 Meteorology
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Introduction
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Introduction
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Introduction
Contents
I
Introduction
ATPL Book 3 Electrics and Electronics
DC Electrics
1. DC Electrics - Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. DC Electrics - Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3. DC Electrics - Circuit Protection and Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4. DC Electrics - Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5. DC Electrics - Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6. DC Electrics - Generators and Alternators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7. DC Electrics - DC Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8. DC Electrics - Aircraft Electrical Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
9. DC Electrics - Bonding and Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
10. DC Electrics - Specimen Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
AC Electrics
11. AC Electrics - Introduction to AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
12. AC Electrics - Alternators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
13. AC Electrics - Practical Aircraft Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
14. AC Electrics - Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
15. AC Electrics - AC Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
16. AC Electrics - Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
17. AC Electrics - Logic Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
18. Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
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Introduction
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Chapter
1
DC Electrics - Basic Principles
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Electromotive Force (EMF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Factors Affecting the Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Units of Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Series and Parallel Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Kirchoff’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Questions - Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Questions - Units 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Questions - Units 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Questions - General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Annex A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Answers - Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Answers - Units 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Answers - Units 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Answers - General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
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Introduction
1
DC Electrics - Basic Principles
An electric current is created when electrons are caused to move through a conductor. Moving
electrons can explain most electrical effects.
All materials consist of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms are made up of a nucleus and
electrons. Atoms of different materials have different numbers of electrons. The electrons orbit
the nucleus like the sun with planets spinning around it.
The electrons have a negative charge and the nucleus has an equal number of positive charges
(protons) making the atom electrically neutral. The negative electron is held in its orbit by its
attraction to the positive nucleus. Electrons in outer orbits are not so strongly attracted to the
positive nucleus and may easily fly off and attach themselves to a neighbouring atom in the
material. These are called free electrons.
Electron
(negatively
charged)
Nucleus comprising
of protons (+ve
charge) and
neutrons
Figure 1.1
An atom that has lost an electron becomes more positive and is called a positive ion, an atom
that has gained an electron becomes more negative and is called a negative ion. If the free
electrons can be made to move in a particular direction through the material, an electric current
has been created.
Materials which have free electrons are called conductors, e.g. copper, silver and aluminium.
Materials which have very few free electrons are called insulators, e.g. wood, rubber, glass and
plastics.
Electrons are caused to move along a piece of wire by applying a positive charge from some
source at one end and a negative charge at the other. The positive charge attracts the free
electrons and the negative charge repels them so there is a flow of electrons in one direction
through the wire from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.
To maintain the current flow, the force which caused the electrons to flow in the first place
must be maintained otherwise the electrons will all collect at the positive terminal and the
current flow will cease. To keep the current flowing, the source of the force which caused the
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electrons to move must be capable of absorbing the electrons from the positive terminal and
1
In this way the current can be maintained as long as there is a complete circuit.
Electricity had been in use before electrons were discovered and it had been assumed that
electricity was the flow of something from positive to negative and all the laws of electricity
were based on this idea. This is known as conventional flow. Flow from negative to positive is
known as electron flow.
Figure1.2
Figure 1.2
There are six basic means to provide the force which causes electrons to flow:
Of the six basic methods, only Chemical Action (batteries) and Magnetism (generators) produce
electrical power in sufficient quantities for normal daily needs.
EMF is measured in units of Voltage. The number of volts is a measure of the EMF or Potential
Difference (pd) (the difference in electrical potential between the positive and negative
terminal). Voltage is given the symbol V or E.
By increasing the voltage the flow of electrons increases past any point in a circuit, and
decreasing the voltage decreases the flow. To maintain the correct flow it is normal to keep a
constant voltage in a circuit.
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DC Electrics - Basic Principles
Figure 1.3 Comparison between voltage and water pressure
The source of the voltage can be a battery or a generator. Batteries become discharged as their
voltage is used so are limited in their use. Generators are used to maintain a constant voltage.
For high and low voltages the following prefixes are used:
To measure voltage a voltmeter is used. It is connected across the two points between which
the voltage is to be measured without disconnecting the circuit.
Current
The current (symbol I) in a conductor is the number of electrons passing any point in the
conductor in one second and is measured in amperes or amps (symbol A).
Current can be measured by an instrument called an ammeter which is connected into the
circuit so that the current in the circuit passes through the ammeter.
• Heating Effect. When a current flows through a conductor it always causes the conductor
to become hot - electric fires, irons, light bulbs and fuses.
• Magnetic Effect. A magnetic field is always produced around the conductor when a current
flows through it - motors, generators and transformers.
• Chemical Effect. When a current flows through certain liquids (electrolytes) a chemical change
occurs in the liquid and any metals immersed in it - battery charging and electroplating.
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Resistance
1
DC Electrics - Basic Principles
For a current to flow there must be a complete path or circuit. The fewer obstructions in the
circuit the greater will be the current flow. The higher the voltage the greater will be the
current flow.
The obstruction in the circuit which opposes the current flow is called resistance. Different
materials have different numbers of free electrons those with more free electrons will have
a lower resistance than those with few free electrons, so those with more free electrons are
better conductors of electricity.
For a fixed voltage the smaller the resistance the larger will be the current flow and the larger
the resistance the smaller will be the current flow. The current in the circuit can therefore be
adjusted by altering the resistance.
• Cross sectional area. The thicker the wire the smaller the resistance
emperature. The symbol for temperature coefficient is α (alpha). If resistance increases with
• T
an increase of temperature, the resistor is said to have a Positive Temperature Coefficient
(PTC). If resistance decreases with an increase of temperature, the resistor is said to have a
Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC). Resistors having these characteristics are used in
aircraft systems for temperature measurement.
Units of Resistance
The unit of resistance is the ohm (symbol Ω). A material has a resistance of one ohm if an
applied voltage of one volt produces a current flow of one ampere.
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Resistors
1
DC Electrics - Basic Principles
Sometimes resistance is used to adjust the current flow in a circuit by fitting resistors of known
value. These can be either fixed or variable and can be drawn like this:
Figure 1.4
Ohm’s Law
In a closed circuit there is a relationship between Voltage, Current and Resistance. If the voltage
remains constant, any increase in resistance will cause a decrease in current and vice-versa
(current inversely proportional to resistance).
If the resistance remains the same, any increase in voltage will cause an increase in current and
vice- versa (current directly proportional to voltage).
V = IR
And by transposition
V V
I = or R =
R I
Power
When a Force produces a movement then Work is said to have been done, and the rate at
which work is done is called Power.
In an electric circuit work is done by the voltage causing the current to flow through a
resistance, creating heat, magnetism or chemical action.
The rate at which work is done is called Power and is measured in Watts.
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Three formulae for calculating power can be derived from the two basic formulae V=IR and
1
W=V×I
DC Electrics - Basic Principles
• Voltage unknown W = I2 R
• Resistance unknown W=V×I
V2
• Current unknown W=
R
When a current passes through a resistor it becomes hot and will eventually melt if the current
becomes excessive.
The amount of heat developed by a current (I) in a resistor (R) is I2R watts, therefore it can be
seen that the heating effect is proportional to the square of the current. So a small increase in
current can cause a significant increase in heating effect.
Each electrical component will be given a Power Rating (maximum wattage) which, if exceeded,
will cause the component to overheat, e.g. 60 watt light bulb.
Each electrical circuit in an aircraft will be protected by a fuse or circuit breaker which will
prevent the maximum power rating of a component to be exceeded by breaking the circuit if
the current increases.
• Series
Figure 1.5
Series connection reduces current flow and therefore power consumption, but can be
impractical because individual loads (resistances) cannot be individually controlled. Also the
failure of one resistance would mean failure of the rest of the circuit.
The total circuit resistance can be calculated by summing the individual resistances.
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
i.e. RT = 4 + 6 + 10
RT = 20 ohms
12
V = IR so current = = 0.6 amps
20
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• Parallel
1
Parallel connection ensures each resistor is individually controllable and receives the same
1 1 1 1
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3
Figure 1.6
1 1 1 1
RT = 4 + 6 + 10
1 15 + 10 + 6
=
RT 60
1 31
RT = 60
60
RT =
31
RT = 1.94 ohms
12
V = IR so current = = 6 amps approx
1.94
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Figure 1.7
First evaluate the parallel resistors then add the result to the series resistor.
1 1 1
= + Find the lowest common denominator
RT 10 6
1 3 + 5
= 30
RT
1 8
= 30
RT
30
RT = Therefore the total resistance for the two parallel resistors is:
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RT = 3.75 ohms
R1 × R2
RT =
R1 + R2
10 × 6
RT =
10 + 6
60
RT = RT = 3.75 ohms
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Note: The total resistance of resistors in parallel is always less than the value of the lowest
1
resistor e.g. 3.75 ohms is less than 6 ohms.
Kirchoff’s Laws
• First law
The total current flow into a point on a circuit is equal to the current flow out of that point
e.g.
Figure 1.8
• Second law
If all the voltage drops in a closed circuit are added together, their sum always equals the
voltage applied to that closed circuit.
2V 4V 6V
12 V
Figure 1.9
To prove Kirchoff’s 2nd Law, first we must calculate the current and therefore the total
resistance:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
RT = 2+4+6
RT = 12 ohms
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V
DC Electrics - Basic Principles
V = IR » I=
R
12
I=
12
I = 1 amp
We can now calculate the voltage drops throughout the circuit. At present all we know is there
is 12 volts before the 2 ohm resistor and zero volts after the 6 ohm resistor.
Using Ohm’s Law V= IR. To calculate the voltage drop across the 2 ohm resistor:
Therefore, the voltage drop is 2 volts i.e. 12 volts enters the 2 ohm resistor and 10 volts exits.
Using the same approach for the 4 ohm resistor:
V = 1 amp × 4 ohms = 4 volts i.e. 10 volts enters the 4 ohm resistor and 6 volts exits.
V = 1 amp × 6 ohms = 6 volts i.e. 6 volts enters the 6 ohm resistor and zero volts exit.
Therefore, the voltage drop in the closed circuit is 2 volts + 4 volts + 6 volts = 12 volts which
equals the voltage applied.
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DC Electrics - Basic Principles
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Questions - Theory
1
1. All effects of electricity take place because of the existence of a tiny particle called
Questions
the:
a. electric
b. proton
c. neutron
d. electron
a. positively charged
b. negatively charged
c. statically charged
d. of zero potential
a. positively charged
b. neutral
c. negatively charged
d. of zero potential
a. positively charged
b. negatively charged
c. isolated
d. overheated
a. positively charged
b. negatively charged
c. over charged
d. saturated
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8. Friction causes:
1
a. mobile electricity
Questions
b. basic electricity
c. static electricity
d. wild electricity
a. a light meter
b. a generator
c. a primary cell
d. starter generator
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Questions - Units 1
1
Questions
a. kVARs
b. watts
c. amps
d. volts
a. watts
b. amperes
c. ohms
d. volts
a. the volt
b. the watt
c. the ohm
d. the ampere
4. An ammeter measures:
a. current
b. power dissipation
c. differences of electrical potential
d. heat energy
a. insulators
b. resistors
c. collectors
d. conductors
a. the ohm
b. the ampere
c. the volt
d. the watt
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a. 180 ohms
Questions
b. 40 ohms
c. 30 ohms
d. 20 ohms
9. A voltmeter measures:
a. electromotive force
b. the heat loss in a series circuit
c. the current flow in a circuit
d. the resistance provided by the trimming devices
10. Watts =
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Questions - Units 2
1
1. The total resistance of a number of power consumer devices connected in series is:
Questions
a. R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
1 1 1 1 1
b. = + + +
RT R 1 R2 R 3 R 4
1
c. = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
RT
R 1 R 1 R
d. = + 2 + + 4
T1 R 1 R 1
Resistance in ohms
a. Current in amps =
Electromotive force in volts
b. Current in amps
Resistance in ohms =
Electromotive force in volts
a. 640 volts
b. 12 volts
c. 10 volts
d. 8 volts
5. In a simple electrical circuit, if the resistors are in parallel, the total current
consumed is equal to:
a. the sum of the currents taken by the resistors divided by the number of
resistors
b. the sum of the currents taken by the resistors
c. the average current taken by the resistors times the number of the resistors
d. the sum of the reciprocals of the currents taken by the resistors
a. E or W
b. V or E
c. I or V
d. R or W
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a. watts
Questions
b. bars
c. volts
d. ohms
a. volts
b. ohms
c. inductance
d. amps
a. amps × volts
b. watts
c. ohms
d. volts
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Questions - General
1
R
a. I=
V
b. R
V=
I
c. V
I=
R
d. R=V×I
a. ampere
b. vol
c. watt
d. ohm
a. amps
b. volts
c. watts
d. ohms
a. ampere
b. volt
c. watt
d. ohm
a. ampere
b. volt
c. watt
d. ohm
a. amperes
b. volts
c. watts
d. ohms
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a. 1250 k ohms
Questions
b. 1.25 k ohms
c. 1.25 M ohms
d. 0.125 k ohms
a. 15 000 ohms
b. 1500 ohms
c. 150 000 ohms
d. 1500 k ohms
a. 550 000 M ohms
b. 0.55 M ohms
c. 55000 ohms
d. 0.55 ohms
a. 11.5 ohms
b. 11 500 k ohms
c. 11.5 k ohms
d. 11.5 M ohms
a. 14 ohms
b. 39.6 ohms
c. 25.6 ohms
d. varies with the applied voltage
a. 2 amps
b. 2 volts
c. 2.5 amps
d. 2.5 volts
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a. 14 kilowatts
Questions
b. 56 kilowatts
c. 56 watts
d. 14 watts
a. 14 watts
b. 28 watts
c. 112 watts
d. 28 kilowatts
a. 2.3 volts
b. 28 volts
c. 9.2 volts
d. 92 volts
a. 28 volts
b. 14 volts
c. 14 amps
d. 3.5 volts
a. 28 volts
b. 4.8 volts
c. 9.6 volts
d. 14 volts
a. 0.04 amps
b. 0.4 amps
c. 4 amps
d. 40 milliamps
a. 0.04 amps
b. 0.4 amps
c. 4 amps
d. 40 milliamps
a. 120 milliamps
b. 1.2 amps
c. 19.2 amps
d. 1.92 milliamps
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a. 1.92 kilowatts watts
Questions
b. 1.92 watts
c. 65.3 watts
d. 65.3 kilowatts
a. 5.76 kilowatts
b. 5.76 volts
c. 5.76 watts
d. 3.33 watts
a. 18.4 kilowatts
b. 42.32 watts
c. 18.4 watts
d. 4.232 kilowatts
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Annex A
1
Questions
R2
R1 R3 R5
R4
28 V DC
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Questions
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1 Answers
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Answers - Theory
1
Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
d a a c a b c c c b
Answers - Units 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
d a c a d c b d a d
Answers - Units 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
a b c c b b c b d d
Answers - General
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
c c b b a d c b d b c c
13 Total circuit resistance, evaluate the total resistance of the three resistors in
a parallel first
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
RT R1 R2 R3
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
RT 12 12 4
1 1+1+3
=
RT 12
1 5
=
RT 12
12
RT = = 2.4 Ω
5
Then add the resistances in series
4.6 + 2.4 + 7 = 14 Ω
14 V
I= = 2 amps
a R
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
c b c b b b b b b b c c
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Chapter
2
DC Electrics - Switches
Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Proximity Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Time Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Centrifugal Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
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DC Electrics - Switches
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DC Electrics - Switches
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Switches
The initiation and control of aircraft circuits is achieved by switches and relays. Some typical
2
switches are described here.
DC Electrics - Switches
Toggle Switch
A general purpose switch common in older aircraft having a number of isolating contacts
inside. It can be a two position switch (on or off) or a multi-position switch sprung biased to
the centre or off position and then pressed and held to select in the desired direction.
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.1
Switch Light
Switch lights have largely replaced toggle switches
in modern aircraft and combine the functions of a
switch with a push action and an indicator light for
the associated function.
• A
lternate action press and release to activate,
press and release a second time to deactivate.
Figure 2.2
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Guarded Switches
Toggle switches or switch lights can be guarded to prevent inadvertent operation, e.g. generator
disconnects the fuel dump master. (See previous diagram)
2
DC Electrics - Switches
Microswitch
Microswitches are still used in modern aircraft to detect the position of a particular device e.g.
door opened or closed.
The name Microswitch describes the small movement between the ‘make and break’ position.
Microswitches can activate indications on the flight deck or control relays for a sequenced
operation. They are largely replaced by proximity detectors on modern aircraft.
Proximity Detectors
Proximity detectors are electrical or electronic sensors that respond to the presence of a
material. The electrical or electronic response is used to activate a switch, relay or transistor.
There are many types of proximity detectors, the major types being inductive, capacitive and
magnetic. The inductive and magnetic sensors need the monitored material to be metal, but
the capacitive type can monitor either metal or non-metal materials.
Inductive Type
This type of sensor has an inductance coil whose inductance changes when a ferromagnetic
material (target) is brought into close proximity with it.
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DC Electrics - Switches
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2
DC Electrics - Switches
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.4
• A printed circuit card located in what is called the landing gear accessory unit.
• A sensor located on appropriate landing gear structure.
• An actuator (or target) for each sensor, located adjacent to its sensor.
The proximity sensor is a hermetically sealed unit, and is actuated by the presence of the
actuator or target, i.e. it is not touched by it. As a result, the proximity switch is unaffected by
atmospheric conditions, and is highly reliable.
Capacitive Type
In this type of sensor detection is made by a capacitor undergoing a capacitance change owing
to the proximity of material.
Magnetic Type
A coil situated in a magnetic field will have an electromotive force (EMF) induced in it if the
magnetic flux changes. The magnitude of the induced EMF will depend on the rate at which
the flux is changed. These are the basic principles on which the magnetic proximity detectors
operate.
In its simplest form, a coil is wound around a bar magnet and one pole of the magnet is then
located close to a ferrous object. If the ferrous object moves, the flux in the magnet changes
and an EMF is induced in the coil. If a number of ferrous objects move past the magnet, a train
of pulses is induced in the coil.
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Magnetic detectors are most commonly used in conjunction with mild steel gear wheels, each
tooth in the wheel being, in effect, a ferrous object. The detector is located radially and close to
the periphery of the wheel and provides an output having a frequency equal to the frequency
2
Figure
Figure2.5
2.5
Figure 2.6
Figure 2.6 Landing Gear Position Sensors
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DC Electrics - Switches
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Time Switches
Time switches or relays can be initiated electrically or mechanically to activate a circuit after a
2
specific time interval has occurred, e.g. auxiliary power unit air intake door closes 30 seconds
DC Electrics - Switches
after APU has shut down.
Centrifugal Switches
These can be set to activate or de-activate a circuit as the RPM of a device increases or decreases,
e.g. starter motor cut-out switch.
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Chapter
3
DC Electrics - Circuit Protection and Capacitors
Electrical Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Circuit Protection Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Fuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
The Cartridge Fuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Spare Fuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
High Rupture Capacity (HRC) Fuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Dummy Fuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Current Limiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Circuit Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Reverse Current Circuit Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Capacitor in a DC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Capacitor in an AC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Capacitors in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Capacitors in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Questions - Circuit Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Questions - Fuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Answers - Circuit Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Answers - Fuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
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Electrical Faults
In an electrical circuit, abnormal conditions may arise for a variety of reasons, which can cause
overcurrent or overvoltage conditions.
3
If allowed to persist, these abnormal conditions or faults will lead to damage or destruction
• Fuses
• Circuit breakers
The fundamental difference in the type of protection provided by fuses and circuit breakers is
in their time of operation relative to the attainment of maximum fault current.
A fuse normally opens the circuit before full fault current is reached, whereas the circuit breaker
opens after the full fault current is reached.
This means that when circuit breakers are used as the protection device, both the circuit breaker
and the component must be capable of withstanding the full fault current for a short time.
The circuit breaker has the capability, which the fuse has not, of opening and closing the circuit,
and can perform many such operations before replacement is necessary. It may also be used as
a circuit isolation switch.
Fuses
There are 3 basic types of fuse currently in use on aircraft:
• Cartridge fuse
• High rupture capacity (HRC) fuse
• Current limiter fuse
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Figure
Figure 3.1. Typical Fuses, (a) 3.1 Typical
A Light fuses Fuse. (b) A High Rapturing
Duty Circuit
a. A light duty circuit fuse Capacity Fuse. b. A high rupturing capacity fuse
The latter type element is generally used in heavy duty circuits, the zinc strip being cut to a
specified width.
A fuse operates when the current flowing through it is sufficient to melt the wire or strip
element, the time taken varying inversely with the current.
All fuses are rated at a specific current value, i.e. the rating indicates the current they will carry
continuously or intermittently without unduly heating up or deteriorating.
The rating of a fuse for a particular circuit is such that it is not less than the normal current
flowing in the circuit, but that it operates (‘blows’) at a current level below the safety limit of
the equipment or cable used.
For this reason only the specified fuse should be used in a particular circuit. The diagram shows
typical aircraft fuses; the ratings can vary between 0 .5 and 500 amps, the higher ratings being
limited to the HRC or current limiter types.
Fuses are made of a type of wire which has a low melting point, and when it is placed in series
with the electrical load it will melt, blow or rupture when a current of higher value than its
ampere rating is placed upon it.
A blown fuse may be replaced with another of the correct rating once only. If it blows again
when switching on, there is a defect in the system and the fuse must not be changed again
until the circuit has been investigated.
Spare Fuses
The carriage of spare fuses is mandatory, the quantity of spares being at least 10% of the
number of each rating installed, with a minimum of 3 of each.
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3
The body is a ceramic material of robust construction and has one or more element holes.
The HRC has the following advantages over the normal glass cartridge type:
Dummy Fuses
Aircraft electrical circuits which are not in use will have dummy fuses fitted. If it is necessary to
isolate a particular circuit by the removal of the fuse in order that the system be made ‘safe’
or for work to be carried out, a dummy fuse or fuse holder should replace the fuse which has
been removed.
Dummy fuse links are manufactured to standard fuse dimensions from red plastic, the centre
portion being square in section with corrugated sides to facilitate identification.
Services protected by circuit breakers are made safe in a similar manner, a warning flag or plate
is clipped to the tripped circuit breaker, indicating that the service has been rendered safe for
servicing.
Current Limiters
Current limiters, as the name suggests, are designed to
limit the current to some predetermined amperage value.
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The central portion is enclosed by a rectangular ceramic housing, one side of which is furnished
with an inspection window which, depending on the type, may be glass or mica.
Circuit Breakers
3
Circuit breakers combine the function of fuse and switch and can be used for switching circuits
DC Electrics - Circuit Protection and Capacitors
They are fitted to protect equipment from damage resulting from overload, or fault conditions.
The design and construction of CBs is wide and varied.
Some electrically operated CBs may also include electromagnetic and reverse current tripping
devices.
The smaller type single button CBs, shown in Figure 3.3, range from 5 amps to
45 amps, whereas the larger reverse current CBs can be rated up to 600 amps.
The diagram shows two typical CBs, the single push pull button type has a white marker band
to assist in identifying a ‘tripped’ circuit breaker amongst a panel of many.
The CB at (b) is fitted with a “manual trip” button and is more usually associated with a heavy
duty circuit.
CBs are common on the flight deck of modern aircraft and can be categorized as either:
The non-trip free circuit breaker may be held in under fault conditions and the circuit will be
made, this is clearly dangerous.
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The trip free circuit breaker if held in under the same circumstances, the circuit can not be
made.
Pressing the re-set button will reset either CB if the fault has been cleared.
3
Reverse Current Circuit Breakers
Capacitors
Introduction:
A capacitor can perform three basic functions:
Construction:
In its simplest form a capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by an insulator called a
dielectric. Wires connected to the plates allow the capacitor to be connected into the circuit.
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Symbols:
Figure 3.5 shows the electrical circuit symbols for various capacitors. With the polarized
capacitor it is important to connect the positive terminal to the positive supply. Non-polarized
types can be connected either way round.
3
DC Electrics - Circuit Protection and Capacitors
VARIABLE PRESET
Capacitance
The capacitance (C) of a capacitor measures its ability to store an electrical charge. The unit of
capacitance is the FARAD (F). The farad is subdivided into smaller, more convenient units.
• M
aterial of the dielectric - different materials have different values of capacitance, for
example paper, mica, air and fuel. The value of the dielectric is referred to as the dielectric
constant (k). For example, waxed paper has a k value of about 3, whereas air has a k of 1.
So a capacitor having waxed paper as its dielectric would have 3 times the capacitance of
the same capacitor having air as its dielectric.
Working Voltage:
This is the largest voltage DC or Peak AC which can be applied across the capacitor. It is often
marked on the case of the capacitor and if it is exceeded, the dielectric may break down and
permanent damage result.
Capacitor in a DC Circuit
Figure 3.6 shows a capacitor in series with a battery and a switch. If the switch is closed, electrons
are pushed by the battery on to plate Y building up a negative charge. This charge exerts a
repelling force across the dielectric which causes electrons to leave the plate X and be attracted
to the positive plate of the battery. While this charging action is taking place electrons are
passing through the connecting wires but no current flows through the dielectric.
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3
12 V
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.6
After a short time the difference in charge between the plates results in a potential difference
existing between the plates. The flow of electrons will reduce and stop when the potential
difference between the plates is equal to the supply voltage. The capacitor is now fully charged,
current has stopped flowing, the plates are said to be charged and there exists an electric field
between the plates. The capacitor is now blocking DC flow.
If the switch is opened and the capacitor is disconnected from the battery, it holds its charge:
a capacitor stores electrical energy by the formation of an electric field between the plates.
The capacitor will only discharge if it is now connected to an external circuit.
Capacitor in an AC Circuit
Figure 3.7 shows the battery replaced with an Alternating Current Supply. A light bulb is placed
in series with the supply and the capacitor.
As the terminals X and Y are now changing from positive to negative at a rate depending on the
frequency of the supply, current is first flowing in one direction, reversing and flowing in the
opposite direction. The capacitor is charging in one direction, discharging and then charging
in the opposite direction. This process continues until the supply is disconnected. The bulb will
be continuously ON. Current flows in the wires but no current flows through the dielectric.
X X
Y Y
Figure 3.7
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Capacitors in Parallel
Capacitors connected in parallel are effectively increasing the area of the plates. The total
capacitance CT can be found by adding the individual capacitances:
3
CT = C1 + C2 etc
DC Electrics - Circuit Protection and Capacitors
V C1 C2
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.8
Capacitors in Series
Capacitors in series have effectively increased the distance between the plates and therefore
the total capacitance has decreased. The total capacitance is found by using the formula for
resistances in parallel:
1 1 1
= + etc
CT C1 C2
C1 C2
Figure 3.9
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a. if the reset button is depressed and held in, the circuit will be made
3
b. the trip button may be pressed to reset, but not permanently
Questions
c. a non-trip free circuit breaker can never be bypassed
d. the reset button may be pressed to make the circuit permanent
5. If the reset button is pressed in the trip free circuit breaker, the contacts with the
fault cleared will:
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Questions - Fuses
1. A fuse is said to have blown when:
a. an excess current has burst the outer cover and disconnected the circuit from
3
the supply
Questions
b. the circuit is reconnected
c. a current of a higher value than the fuse rating has melted the conductor and
disconnected the circuit from the supply
d. the amperage has been sufficiently high to cause the fuse to trip out of its
holder and has therefore, disconnected the circuit from the supply
5. The size of fuse required for an electrical circuit whose power is 72 watts and
whose voltage is 24 volts is:
a. 24 amps
b. 10 amps
c. 5 amps
d. 15 amps
6. When selecting a fuse for an aircraft circuit the governing factor is:
a. cooler air
b. the breaking of the glass tube
c. excess voltage breaking the fuse wire
d. excess current rupturing the fuse wire
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d. of low resistance
Questions
9. Fuses:
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Questions
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Answers - Fuses
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
c b d c c d d a d c
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Chapter
4
DC Electrics - Batteries
Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Secondary Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Lead Acid Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Alkaline Battery (Nickel Cadmium, NiCad) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Battery Checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Battery Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Secondary Batteries Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Questions - Batteries 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Questions - Batteries 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Questions - Batteries 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Answers - Batteries 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Answers - Batteries 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Answers - Batteries 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
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Batteries
The purpose of a battery in an aircraft is to provide an emergency source of power when the
generator is not running and to provide power to start the engine.
A battery is made up of a number of cells which convert chemical energy into electrical energy
4
by a transfer of electrons from one material to another causing a potential difference between
them. During the transfer of electrons the chemical composition of the two materials changes.
DC Electrics - Batteries
Primary Cell
A primary cell consists of two electrodes immersed in a chemical called an electrolyte. The
electrolyte encourages electron transfer between the electrodes until there is a potential
difference between them. When the electron transfer ceases the cell is fully charged and the
potential difference is approximately 1.5 volts between the two electrodes.
Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1 A Primary
A primary cell Cell
When the positive and negative terminals are connected to an external circuit electrons flow
from the negative terminal to the positive terminal through the circuit. At the same time more
electrons are allowed to transfer inside the cell from the positive electrode to the negative
electrode. As this circulation of electrons continues, the negative electrode slowly dissolves in
the electrolyte until it is eventually eaten away and the cell is then “dead” and is discarded.
Primary cells cannot be recharged.
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Secondary Cells
Secondary cells work on the same principle as primary cells but the chemical energy in the cell
can be restored when the cell has been discharged by passing a “charging current” through the
cell in the reverse direction to that of the discharge current. In this way the secondary cell can
be discharged and recharged many times over a long period of time
4
During recharging electrical energy is converted into chemical energy which is retained until
DC Electrics - Batteries
The Capacity of a cell is a measure of how much current a cell can provide in a certain time.
Capacity is measured in Ampere hours (Ah) and is determined by the area of the plates; the
bigger the cell the greater its capacity.
A cell with a capacity of 80 Ah should provide a current of 8 A for 10 hours, or 80 A for 1 hr.
Theoretically that should be true but in practice the capacity will reduce as the rate of discharge
is increased. Capacity is normally measured at the 1 hour rate.
A single cell battery may be used on its own or cells may be connected in series, or in parallel
depending on the voltage and capacity required
For cells in series the positive terminal of one cell is connected to the negative terminal of the
next and so on. The total voltage is the sum of the individual cell voltages. But the capacity is
that of one cell.
For cells in parallel the positive terminals are joined together and the negative terminals are
joined together. The total voltage is that of one cell but the capacity is the sum of the individual
cell capacities.
2V 2V 2V
2V 10 Ah
10 Ah 10 Ah 10 Ah 2V 10 Ah
2V 10 Ah
6V 10 Ah
2V 30 Ah
Figure 4.3
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DC Electrics - Batteries
Figure 4.4
One of the most common types of secondary cell is the Lead Acid cell.
The active material of the positive plate is lead peroxide and the negative plate is spongy lead,
both plates are immersed in an electrolyte solution of water and sulphuric acid. The container
is glass or hard plastic with a filler cap to allow replenishment of distilled water, which is lost
through evaporation during use. A vent hole in the cap allows the escape of hydrogen gas,
which is produced when the cell is working
The state of charge of a lead acid cell can be determined by measuring the strength of the
electrolyte solution. This is done with a hydrometer which measures the specific gravity (SG). A
fully charged cell will have a SG of 1.27, a discharged cell will have a SG of 1.17.
When the cell is connected to an external circuit and current is flowing, lead sulphate is formed
at both plates and the specific gravity will fall as the acid becomes weaker. When the SG has
fallen to 1.17 and the voltage to 1.8 volts the cell should be recharged.
To charge a cell it is connected to a battery charger which applies a slightly higher voltage
to the cell and causes current to flow in the reverse direction through the cell. While this is
happening the lead sulphate which had been deposited on the plates is removed and the SG
of the electrolyte rises to 1.27. The voltage ‘on load’ should have returned to just above 2 volts.
When charging a lead acid battery it is important that the rate of charge is controlled. Charging
too quickly can cause ‘gassing’ and evaporation to occur which may lead to boiling the battery
dry and causing damage to the plates.
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4
DC Electrics - Batteries
The off load voltage of each cell of a lead acid battery is 2.2 volts.
Electrolytes are highly corrosive and if spilled in aircraft can cause extensive damage.
The neutralizing agent to be used for an acid electrolyte is a sodium bicarbonate solution. The
performance of a battery is affected by temperature. In low temperatures the rate of discharge
is decreased because of higher internal resistance. In warm temperatures the battery rate of
discharge will increase. In general the battery performs better in warm temperatures (just like
a car battery). As a lead acid battery discharges the SG of the electrolyte reduces. In freezing
temperatures with a discharged battery there is a risk of the electrolyte freezing. It is therefore
important to maintain the battery in a fully charged state during winter operations.
Figure 4.6 shows a free liquid type of lead acid battery where the electrolyte is in liquid form.
Figure 4.7 shows an absorbed liquid type of lead acid battery where the electrolyte is absorbed
into the active materials in the plates making it less prone to spillage.
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DC Electrics - Batteries
Figure 4.6 Lead acid battery (free liquid type)
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Unlike the lead acid battery, the relative SG of the nickel-cadmium battery electrolyte does
not change and the voltage variation from “fully charged” to “fully discharged,” is very slight.
The only way to determine the state of charge is to carry out a measured discharge test i.e. a
capacity test.
The terminal voltage remains substantially constant at 1.2 volts throughout most of the
discharge. Due to its low internal resistance it is also capable of supplying high current during
its discharge cycle and low current during recharging without violent fluctuations of terminal
voltage.
NiCad batteries have a low thermal capacity; the heat generated in certain conditions is faster
than it can dissipate, so causing a rapid increase in temperature.
This has the effect of lowering the effective internal resistance thus allowing an ever increasing
charging current, which, unless checked, leads to the total destruction of the battery.
This condition is known as a thermal runaway, and can cause so much heat that the battery
may explode. For this reason the charging of the battery must be closely monitored and includes
some safety features.
A built-in thermal switch monitors the temperature and operates on a preset value of
temperature. This effectively isolates the battery from the charging source until a reduction in
temperature reverts the switch back to its normal position. Associated with the temperature
switch may be an indicator light on the flight deck to alert the pilot.
The nickel cadmium battery, however, is more robust and can hold a constant terminal voltage
much better during the discharge cycle. It is therefore much preferred in large modern aircraft
because in the event of a total failure of the aircraft generators the NiCad battery will provide
a much more stable voltage.
Figure 4.8 is a graphical representation of a comparison of the discharge voltage of a lead acid
against a NiCad during discharge.
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DC Electrics - Batteries
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.8
Battery Checks
The Capacity of a battery is the product of the load in amperes that the manufacturers state it
will deliver, and the time in hours that the battery is capable of supplying that load.
A 40 Ah battery when discharged at the 1 hour rate should supply 40 amps for the 1 hour. This
is known as the ‘rated load’. Alternatively the battery could supply 4 amps for 10 hours at the
10 hour rate.
A Capacity Test, a test to determine the actual capacity of aircraft batteries, is carried out every
3 months and the efficiency must be 80% or more for the battery to remain in service.
This capacity will ensure that essential loads can be supplied for a period of 30 minutes
following a generator failure.
Spare batteries will be held ready for use in the electrical workshop. Lead acid batteries are
stored in a charged state to prevent deterioration of the battery by sulphation. NiCad batteries
can be stored in a discharged state with no detrimental effect to the battery and therefore
have a longer storage life or ‘shelf life’.
The On-load Check is carried out by applying the rated load to the battery circuit for a short
period of time, during which time the battery voltmeter reading must remain constant and
not fall below a stated value. Modern aircraft use times as low as 10-20 seconds with the rated
load selected.
The pilot’s preflight check of a battery may include comparing the ‘on load’ voltage with the
‘off load’ voltage to give an indication of the state of charge of the battery.
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If the battery is not supplying any load then it is likely to show its nominal voltage (off load
voltage). If the battery is then loaded up by switching on selective loads (e.g. pitot heater,
landing lights, blower motors) and the voltage is maintained then the battery is in a good
state of charge. If the voltage falls below a stated value within a time limit determined by the
manual then the battery is in a low state of charge and should be replaced.
Battery Charging
4
DC Electrics - Batteries
A Constant Voltage Charging system is employed with most lead acid batteries to maintain
the battery in a fully charged condition during flight. With this system the output voltage of
the generator is maintained constant at 14 volts for a 12 volt battery and 28 volts for a 24 volt
battery.
The generator voltage exceeds the battery voltage by 2 volts for every 12 volts of battery
potential.
With alkaline batteries which are susceptible to thermal runaway it may be that a constant
current charging system is employed by a dedicated battery charger which monitors battery
temperature and voltage. Some charging systems use a method known as pulse charging and
once the battery is up to 85% capacity, the battery charger delivers short pulses of charging
current.
NOTE: After starting an engine using the aircraft’s battery, whether it is a lead acid battery or
an alkaline battery, the generator, when it is on line, recharges that battery.
This is indicated by the high initial reading on the generator’s ammeter (load ammeter) or the
battery ammeter (centre zero). This reading should quickly reduce as the battery is recharged,
but if the charge rate increases, or remains high, it could be an indication of a faulty battery.
A high charge rate could result in a battery overheating and subsequent damage.
weak bicarbonate
lead lead sulphuric + water
sulphate sulphate 1.170
acid
ALKALINE potassium
nickel cadmium hydroxide /
oxide
distilled water 1.240 -
Boric acid
potassium 1.300
nickel cadmium hydroxide /
hydroxide hydroxide distilled water
Figure 4.9
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Questions - Batteries 1
1. Battery voltage is tested with:
a. a megometer
b. a voltmeter on rated load
c. an ammeter with a rated voltage
4
d. a hygrometer
Questions
2. Two 12 V 40 Ah batteries connected in series will produce:
a. 12 V 80 Ah
b. 12 V 20 Ah
c. 24 V 80 Ah
d. 24 V 40 Ah
a. 12 V 80 Ah
b. 24 V 80 Ah
c. 12 V 20 Ah
d. 24 V 40 Ah
a. 6 monthly
b. 2 monthly
c. 3 monthly
d. every minor check
5. An aircraft has three batteries each of 12 volts with 40 Ah capacity connected in
series. The resultant unit has:
6. An aircraft has a battery with a capacity of 40 Ah. Assuming that it will provide its
normal capacity and is discharged at the 10 hour rate:
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8. The method of ascertaining the voltage of a standard aircraft lead acid battery is by
checking:
a. using an ammeter
b. measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte
c. a boric acid solution
d. using an ohmmeter
10. In an AC circuit:
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Questions - Batteries 2
1. The specific gravity of a fully charged lead acid cell is:
a. 1.270
b. 1.090
c. 1.120
4
d. 0.1270
Questions
2. The nominal voltage of the lead acid cell is:
a. 1.2 volts
b. 1.5 volts
c. 1.8 volts
d. 2.0 volts
a. on open circuit
b. using a trimmer circuit
c. with an ammeter
d. on load
4. In an aircraft having a battery of 24 volts nominal off load and fully charged the
voltmeter would read:
a. 22 volts
b. 24 volts
c. 26 volts
d. 28 volts
5. The system used to maintain aircraft batteries in a high state of charge is the:
a. 2.2 volts
b. 1.8 volts
c. 1.2 volts
d. 0.12 volts
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a. 0.120 - 0.130
b. 1.160
c. 1.240 - 1.30
d. 1.800
4
a. hydrochloric acid
b. sulphuric acid
c. boric acid
d. potassium hydroxide
a. saline solution
b. sulphuric acid
c. cadmium and distilled water
d. potassium hydroxide solution
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Questions - Batteries 3
1. The number of lead acid cells required to make up a twelve volt battery is:
a. 8
b. 12
c. 6
4
d. 10
Questions
2. A voltmeter across the terminals of a battery with all services off will indicate:
a. electromotive force
b. resistance
c. a flat battery
d. residual voltage
a. sulphuric acid
b. distilled water
c. sulphuric acid diluted with distilled water
d. boric acid
a. caustic soda
b. soap and water
c. soda and water
d. bicarbonate of soda and water
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4
Questions
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Answers - Batteries 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
b d a c d c c d b c
Answers - Batteries 2
4
Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
a d d c d c c c b d
Answers - Batteries 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
c a d d b a a d c a
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Chapter
5
DC Electrics - Magnetism
Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Temporary Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Permanent Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
The Molecular Structure of Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
The Magnetic Effect of a Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
The Corkscrew Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
The Magnetic Field of a Solenoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
The Right Hand Grasp Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
The Strength of the Field of a Solenoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Solenoid and Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
The Forces on a Conductor Which is Carrying a Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
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Magnetism
A magnet has the following properties:
5
DC Electrics - Magnetism
If iron filings are sprinkled on to a sheet of paper which is placed over a magnet, the filings
arrange themselves into a distinctive pattern. They trace out invisible lines of influence in the
magnetic field. These lines are called lines of flux or lines of force.
We can give direction to the lines of flux by putting arrowheads on them in the direction a
compass needle would point if placed in the magnetic field.
Lines of flux of a magnet emerge from the N pole and re-enter at the S pole.
Although, in diagrams, some lines of flux are shown incomplete they are in fact always
continuous.
When two magnets are brought close together their resultant field is modified by the fact that
lines of flux cannot cross. Where lines of flux from the two magnets are in the same direction
they reinforce one another and the flux density is increased.
When lines of flux from the two magnets oppose one another they tend to cancel each other
out. Magnetic effects are most powerful at two points, usually near the ends of the magnet,
called the poles of the magnet.
When a magnet is freely suspended and comes to rest, the end nearest to the earth’s magnetic
north pole is called the ‘north seeking’ or North (N) pole of the magnet. The other is the South
(S) pole. If the N pole of a magnet is brought near the N pole of another magnet, the two poles
repel each other. Similarly two S poles repel each other.
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DC Electrics - Magnetism
Temporary Magnets
Temporary magnets are made from soft iron which is easily magnetized but readily loses its
magnetic properties.
Permanent Magnets
Permanent magnets are made from hard alloy steels which are difficult to magnetize but retain
their magnetism well.
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Permeability
If an unmagnetized piece of soft iron is placed in a magnetic field, the lines of flux concentrate
to flow through the iron. The iron itself becomes magnetized and produces additional lines of
flux.
5
If it is removed from the magnetic field, the soft iron loses most of its magnetism. Soft iron is
said to have low magnetic retentivity. The little magnetism which remains is called its residual
DC Electrics - Magnetism
magnetism.
Magnetism
Magnetism may be destroyed by:
N S
N S
N S
UNMAGNETIZED MAGNETIZED
S N S N S N
S N S N S N S
S N S N S N
S N S N S N
S N S N S N S
S N S N S N
N S N S N S
SATURATED
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CURRENT FLOW
5
DC Electrics - Magnetism
FIELD
INTO PAPER
OUT OF PAPER
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DC Electrics - Magnetism
Figure 5.6. Combined Magnetic Fields
Figure 5.6 Combined magnetic fields
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If a solenoid is held in the right hand so that the fingers are curled round it pointing in the
direction of the conventional current, the outstretched thumb points to the North pole of the
solenoid.
When the current is switched off the magnetic field collapses leaving a little residual magnetism
in the soft iron core.
The solenoid has a moving core whereas the relay has a stationary core and an attracted
armature.
The wires that form the coil of the solenoid or relay are insulated and have no physical or
electrical contact with the circuit which is controlled by the contacts.
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This is the basic motor principle and the direction of movement can be deduced by using
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule. This will be explained in the section dealing with motors.
5
DC Electrics - Magnetism
S
FIELD
STRENGTHENED
S
FIELD WEAKENED
CONDUCTOR MOVES
IN DIRECTION OF
ARROW
Figure 5.9.
FigureInteraction
5.9 InteractionBetween Two
between two Magnetic
magnetic fields Fields
The motion caused by the effects of current through a conductor suspended in a magnetic
field is known as Lorentz force.
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Questions
1. The area of force around a magnet is termed:
a. conductance
b. stable
c. magnetic resistance
d. magnetic field
5
a. reluctance
b. saturation
c. active
d. reactance
a. steel
b. plastic
c. liquid
d. glass
a. voltage
b. current
c. resistance
d. engine resistance
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5
Questions
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Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
d b a c c b d b a
5
Answers
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Chapter
6
DC Electrics - Generators and Alternators
Electromagnetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Faraday’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Lenz’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Simple Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Simple DC Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Characteristics of the Series Wound DC Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Commutator Ripple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Characteristics of the Shunt Wound DC Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
A Compound Wound DC Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Flashing the Generator Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Alternators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Voltage Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Voltage Regulator Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Layout of a Generator System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Load Sharing Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Operation of Load Sharing Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Questions - Generator Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Questions - Generator Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Answers - Generator Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Answers - Generator Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
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Electromagnetic Induction
Batteries are a good source of DC electricity by conversion of chemical energy, but they are not
inexhaustible and will go flat after a period of time and need recharging. The primary source
of electricity in an aircraft is always the generator or alternator.
If a conductor is moved in a magnetic field, the conductor will ‘cut through’ the invisible lines
6
of flux. When this happens an Electromotive Force EMF (voltage) is induced into the conductor
If the conductor is connected to a complete circuit then a current will flow in the circuit in
proportion to the induced EMF.
0 0
S S
Figure 6.1 The situation with relative motion between Figure 6.2 The situation with the magnet at rest
the magnet and the coil
Figure 6.3 The direction of the relative motion determining the direction of current flow
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For example, in Figure 6.4 the first finger is aligned with the field and the thumb is pointing
upward in the direction of rotation of the red half of the armature. The second finger shows
the current coming out of the red (negative) half of the armature. The blue half of the armature
is moving downward therefore, with the first finger still aligned with the field, if the hand is
6
rotated through 180 degrees, the second finger will show the current going into the armature.
DC Electrics - Generators and Alternators
If the direction of rotation or the field polarity is reversed, then so will be the direction of the
current. However, if both are reversed the direction of current remains unchanged.
ThuMb
Motion
First
Finger
Field
SeCond
Finger
Current
Figure 6.5 Factors which determine the strength of the induced EMF
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Faraday’s Law
Faraday’s law states:
When the magnetic flux through a coil is made to vary, a voltage is set up. The magnitude of
this induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change of flux.
Lenz’s Law
Lenz’s law states:
6
DC Electrics - Generators and Alternators
A change of flux through a closed circuit induces a voltage and sets up a current. The direction
of this current is such that its magnetic field tends to oppose the change in flux.
Simple Generator
The simplest form of a generator is a single loop of wire turning in a fixed magnetic field
produced by a permanent magnet (Figure 6.6). The closed circuit is made by attaching rotating
slip rings to both ends of the loop which are in contact with stationary carbon brushes.
Continuous contact between the slip rings and the brushes is maintained by spring pressure.
The brushes are attached to cables which form a closed circuit.
This type of generator produces an AC voltage in the armature and therefore an Alternating
Current in the external circuit (first flowing one way, then changing direction and flowing the
opposite way).
Figure 6.6 and Figure 6.7 show the layout of a simple AC generator and the voltage output
rising then falling then changing direction as the armature sides reverse their direction through
the magnetic field. The graphical view shows how a sine wave output of AC is generated. The
maximum voltage is induced when there is maximum cutting of lines of flux. The position
where no voltage is induced (position 1, 3 and 5 Figure 6.7), when the armature is moving
parallel to the lines of flux, is known as the neutral plane.
A coil of wire can be wrapped around the two poles of the magnet. Passing a current through
this coil will allow the magnetic field strength to be increased and so increase the voltage
output of the generator. This is termed the field coil and is used to control the voltage to a
fixed value irrespective of the generator speed.
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N N N N N
S S S S S
1 2 3 4 5
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Simple DC Generator
To produce a DC output from the simple generator it is required to change the AC EMF induced
into the armature to a DC output at the generator terminals. This is done by replacing the slip
rings with a Split Ring Commutator.
6
DC Electrics - Generators and Alternators
Figure 6.8 The Simple DC Generator
Figure 6.8 The simple DC generator
Figure 6.96.9
Figure DC DCGenerator Voltage
generator voltage Output
output
A split ring commutator is constructed of a single ring of conductive material with an insulator
electrically separating each half of the ring. The armature is constructed with one end of the
loop connected to one conductor of the split ring and the other end to the other one. The
commutator rotates with the armature.
Electrical continuity from one side of the armature, through the armature circuit and to the
other side of the armature is achieved by the use of carbon brushes.
As the armature rotates from 0° to 180° (Figure 6.9) the positive brush is in contact with
commutator segment A, and the negative brush is in contact with commutator segment B. As
it rotates from 180° to 360° the positive brush is in contact with commutator segment B and
the negative brush is in contact with commutator segment A. The result is that every 180° the
armature terminals are reversed. This causes the current and voltage in the armature circuit to
become DC after commutation.
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This means that the same current which flows through the armature and external circuit also
flows through the field coils.
Since the field current, which is also the load current, is large, the required strength of
6
magnetic flux is obtained with a relatively small number of turns in the field windings. As
DC Electrics - Generators and Alternators
the load draws more current from the generator this additional current increases the field
strength and generates more voltage in the armature winding. A point is soon reached, A,
where further increase in load current does not result in greater voltage, because the magnetic
field has reached saturation point (this is the point where no more magnetic lines of force can
be absorbed by the pole pieces). Because a constant voltage is required for aircraft systems the
series generator cannot be used.
A
LOAD
A SERIES WOUND DC
DIAGRAMMATIC VIEW
GENERATOR
LOAD CURRENT
Figure 6.11
Figure 6.10Series Wound
Series wound Generator
generator
Commutator Ripple
Commutator ripple is the term given to the fluctuation of the voltage output of a DC generator
as the voltage rises and falls during the rotation of the armature loop, particularly at low RPM.
By increasing the number of coils in the armature or the number of field coils, or indeed both
then the pulsating or ripple effect of the DC produced by a generator can be reduced. The
following diagram compares a single coil armature with a multiple coil.
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DC Electrics - Generators and Alternators
Figure 6.11 Single coil and multiple coil armature outputs
The shunt field windings have a large number of turns, and therefore require a relatively small
current to produce the necessary field flux.
When a shunt generator is started, the build-up time for rated terminal voltage (the maximum
voltage at which the generator can continuously supply its rated load current) at the brushes is
very rapid since field current flows even though the external circuit is open.
Figure 6.12 shows a schematic diagram and characteristic curve for the shunt generator. It
should be noted that over the normal operating range of ‘no load’ to ‘full load’, the drop in
terminal voltage as the load current increases is relatively small The shunt generator is therefore
used where a virtually constant voltage is desired, regardless of load changes.
The terminal voltage of a shunt generator can be controlled by a variable resistance connected
in series with the shunt field coils.
LOAD
LOAD CURRENT
A SHUNT WOUND DC
GENERATOR DIAGRAMMATIC VIEW
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Compound wound generators were designed to overcome the drop in terminal voltage which
occurs in a shunt wound generator when the load is increased. This voltage drop is undesirable
where constant voltage loads are used. By adding the series field, which increases the strength
6
of the total magnetic field when the load current is increased, the voltage drop caused by the
DC Electrics - Generators and Alternators
increased load current flowing through the resistance of the armature is overcome, and it is
possible to obtain an almost constant voltage output.
It will have been noted that magnetism can be lost, destroyed or reversed due to the passage
of time, the effects of heat, exposure to an AC field, hammering or shock, and the application
of a reversal of polarity. The loss of residual magnetism in a DC generator, which will prevent
any build up in output voltage, can be corrected by momentarily passing a current through the
field in the normal direction.
This procedure is known as “flashing the field”. In practice some aircraft might have a button
or switch to allow this procedure to be carried out from the cockpit.
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Alternators
Most modern light aircraft use an alternator rather than a DC generator to provide constant
voltage electricity for its electrical system because of the advantages an alternator has.
The alternator has a much better power to weight ratio, will produce a stable output at low
RPM and does not suffer with the problems of a commutator as it uses a rectifier to convert AC
to DC. The following table and diagram identify the constructional differences between the DC
generator and the alternator.
6
DC GENERATOR ALTERNATOR
LOAD
LOAD
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Voltage Control
The output voltage of a generator or alternator is dependent upon:
Most light aircraft DC electrical systems operate at 14 volts and so all the equipment is designed
6
to operate correctly when supplied with 14 volts. It is therefore necessary for the output
DC Electrics - Generators and Alternators
As can be seen from the points above, there are four factors which influence the output voltage
of a generator or alternator.
The number and size and shape of the turns is a design factor and therefore the operator
cannot alter them.
The generator or alternator is driven by a drive belt or an engine accessory gearbox and
therefore the speed of rotation of the armature or field is linked to the speed of rotation of the
engine. Controlling the output voltage by controlling the speed of the engine is not a practical
solution.
Remember back to basic magnetism, the strength of the magnetic field produced by a coil of
wire is proportional to the current flowing through the coil (an electromagnet).
The only practical method of controlling the output voltage of a generator is to control the
strength of the magnetic field by controlling the current flow in a coil wound around the
magnetic pole pieces (field coil or field winding). Control of the current flow is achieved by a
voltage regulator.
• A
variable resistance in series with the field coil. In older voltage regulators the variable
resistance was achieved using a Carbon Pile. In modern voltage regulators it is achieved by
employing an electronic solid state system of transistors, diodes and resistors. The net result
is the same whichever is used.
• A
control coil in parallel with the field coil and the armature. This is used to sense the
generator output voltage and vary the resistance to control the current through the field
coil, therefore controlling the voltage.
The voltage regulator senses the output voltage of the generator or alternator and adjusts
the field current to maintain the correct output voltage irrespective of generator speed or
electrical load
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Figure 6.15 Carbon pile voltage regulator
In Figure 6.15 the control coil, which is in parallel with the generator armature, has the
generator output supplied across it. Because the control coil has a fixed resistance and Ohm’s
Law states that V = I R, the current through the control coil will vary in direct proportion to
the generator output voltage. As the current varies so will the strength of the magnetic field
produced by the coil.
The strength of the magnetic field produced by the control coil affects the value of the variable
resistance, (the compression of the carbon pile) which is in series with the field coil. As the
resistance in the variable resistor varies, because V = I R, so the current in the field coil varies. As
the current through the field coil varies so does the strength of the magnetic field it produces,
and therefore the EMF induced into the armature, and the output voltage of the generator is
controlled automatically.
In Figure 6.15 the field coil is shown outside of the generator for clarity, in fact it is an integral
part of the generator construction.
The vibrating contact voltage regulator (Figure 6.16) controls the voltage output in a similar
fashion but instead of varying a resistance it rapidly switches in and out a fixed resistance.
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When the generator is started both sets of spring biased contacts are closed. Generator voltage
is felt at the shunt winding and series winding of the voltage regulator. Current flows through
the series winding and closed voltage regulator contact breaker to the field coil to enable the
output voltage to build up.
As the regulated voltage is achieved, the current through the shunt and series winding causes
an electromagnetic effect which is sufficient to open the contact breaker points. This open
circuits the series winding and causes the field current to pass through the fixed resistor causing
a reduction of field current and therefore voltage. As the electromagnetic effect of the series
winding is lost, the contact breaker closes under spring action and restores field current and
6
The frequency of operation of the contact depends on the load on the generator but is typically
between 50 and 200 times a second.
The current regulator or current limiter limits the maximum output current in a similar fashion
when the demand on the generator may exceed its maximum safe load. The current regulator
contacts will open, switching in the resistor to reduce excitation current.
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Bus bar
6
O
A
When paralleling generators it is necessary for each generator to supply half of the total current
demanded by the loads on the bus bar. This is known as LOAD SHARING.
To achieve load sharing the output voltage of both generators must be exactly the same. If
there is any potential difference between the generator outputs then current will flow from
the higher potential generator to the lower potential generator. This is known as recirculating
current.
If this is the case then generator with the higher voltage output will be supplying all the current
demanded by the bus bar loads and whatever current is demanded by the potential difference
between the generator outputs. The generator with the lower voltage output will be supplying
no current to the bus bar. There will be no load sharing, and the current flowing to the low
output generator will be attempting to turn the generator into a motor. The direction of
rotation of the motor will be in opposition to the direction of rotation of the engine. Flow
of current to the low output generator is undesirable and parallel systems will have reverse
current relays fitted to protect against this fault in the event of a failure of the load sharing
circuit.
The load sharing circuit consists of equalizing coils in the voltage regulators which finely
adjusts each generator field current to ensure the output voltages of the paralleled generators
are equal.
In each voltage regulator the equalizing coil is positioned such that it affects the magnetic
field produced by the control coil, which affects the value of the variable resistance, which in
turn affects the current through the shunt field coil and so regulates the output voltage of the
generator. The direction of flow of current through the equalizing coil will determine whether
the voltage output of the generator is increased or decreased.
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• W
ith both generators “off line” there is no output from either generator and both Equalizing
Relays and Line Contactors are open. (The line contactor is a large solenoid operated contact
which enables the output line of the generator to be connected to the bus bar when the
output voltage of the generator has been checked and found to be acceptable. It may be
closed automatically or manually from the cockpit.)
6
• W
hen No. 1 generator is brought “on line”, No. 1 generator line contactor closes
DC Electrics - Generators and Alternators
and its output, regulated by its voltage regulator, is supplied to the aircraft bus bar.
No. 1 Equalizing Relay, which is part of the generator line contactor, is closed.
• W
hen No. 2 generator is brought “on line”, No. 2 generator line contactor is closed and its
output, regulated by its voltage regulator, is supplied to the aircraft bus bar.
• N
o. 2 Equalizing Relay is also closed. This now connects both generator voltage regulators
into the Equalizing circuit.
• I f there is any potential difference between the output of generator 1 and 2, there will be a
current flow through the equalizing coils which will apply correcting values to each voltage
regulator increasing the voltage of the lower voltage generator and reducing the voltage of
the higher generator until they are the same, equally sharing the total aircraft load.
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Line
Contactors
6
Equalizing
Equalizing
Coil
14 V 14 V
Voltage Control
GEN1
Coil GEN2
Field Coil
Figure 6.20
Figure Load
6.18 Load Sharing
sharing
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a. capacitive reaction
b. the reverse current relay
c. electro transmission
d. electromagnetic induction
a. AC
b. DC and after commutation is AC
c. DC
d. synchronized AC and DC
a. a capacitor
b. an armature
c. a condenser
d. a commutator
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c. senses generator output current and adjusts the field voltage
Questions
d. senses back EMF
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a. 24 volts
b. 28 amps
c. 28 volts
d. 24 amps
5. In DC electrical generating systems, the voltage regulator controls the system
voltage within prescribed limits:
a. regardless of varying engine RPM and electrical load, by varying the current in
the generator field windings
b. by means of a relay which closes contacts in the output line when a certain
RPM is reached
c. by temperature
d. by a variable resistance which limits the voltage given by the batteries
7. If an aircraft electrical system is quoted as 24 volts DC, the output of the generator
is:
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6
c. a resistance in the generator output circuit
Questions
d. the resistance of the armature circuit
10. In a generator control circuit the strength of the magnetic field is controlled by:
a. the commutator
b. the voltage regulator
c. the reverse current contactor
d. the output CB
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c c a c a c b b a b
Answers
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7
DC Electrics - DC Motors
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Electric Motors
An electric motor is a machine for converting electrical energy into mechanical energy. Its
function is, therefore, the reverse of that of a generator. There is little difference between the
construction of DC motors and DC generators; both have essentially the same parts and they
look alike. In fact, in many cases, a DC machine can be used either as a motor or a generator.
Remember back to magnetic principles, a current flowing through a wire placed in a magnetic
field causes the wire to move due to a force acting on the wire; a motor works on this principle.
7
The direction of rotation of a motor can be determined by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
DC Electrics - DC Motors
(Figure 7.1). To do this, align the first finger with the field from the North Pole to the South
Pole. Point the second finger in the direction of the current flowing into or out of the armature
and the thumb will indicate the direction of motion.
For example in Figure 7.1 the first finger is aligned with the field and the second finger is pointing
in the direction of the current coming out of the red (negative) half of the armature. The
thumb is pointing upward indicating that the motion is upwards and therefore anticlockwise.
In the blue (positive) half of the armature the current is flowing into the armature. Therefore,
with the first finger still aligned with the field if the hand rotated through 180 degrees, the
thumb will now be pointing downward confirming anticlockwise rotation of the armature.
If the current or the field polarity is reversed, then so will be the direction of rotation of the
motor. However, if both are reversed the direction of rotation of the motor remains unchanged.
ThuMb
Motion
First
Finger
Field
SeCond
Finger
Current
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Practical DC Motor
The simple DC generator shown earlier and the DC motor below are not practical and can
be improved by adding further armature/s and improving the shape of the pole pieces.
(Figure 7.2b.) Generator voltage output and motor speed can be controlled by the addition of
field windings which enable the field strength to be adjusted. Figure 7.3 shows a sectional view
of a practical DC generator which is similar to a DC motor.
7
DC Electrics - DC Motors
Figure 7.2
a: Simple DC motor b: Improved DC motor
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Back EMF
The movement of the conductor in the magnetic field induces in it an electromotive force (EMF)
which we know from Lenz’s law will oppose the rate of change of magnetic flux producing it.
So an EMF is induced into the rotating part of the motor which tends to oppose the rotation
of the motor. That is to say, the induced voltage will oppose the supply voltage. It is therefore
called the back EMF.
The back EMF is proportional to motor speed and can never be as great as the supply input
voltage. The difference between the applied EMF and the back EMF is always such that current
can flow in the conductor and produce motion.
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Slow Start Resistor
DC Electrics - DC Motors
Some motors may have a slow start resistor in the circuit which is switched in series with the
armature when the motor is first started to reduce the initial starting current before a back
EMF has been established. The resistor is then bypassed by a centrifugal or time switch when
the motor is turning to apply full current to the armature.
Commutation
The simplest form of motor has a single loop of wire able to rotate freely between the poles of
a permanent magnet. A connection is made from the DC supply source (a battery) to the loop
by brushes on a commutator; the 2 segments of which are connected to opposite ends of the
loop. An example of this type of motor is shown (Figure 7.2a).
A single loop DC motor would not be able to turn heavy loads. To obtain a large mechanical
output, with smooth running, the same improvements are made as in the case of the DC
generator. That is a laminated iron core carrying a number of armature coils is used, and a
corresponding number of commutator segments. The magnetic field is produced by an electro-
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magnet and its field coils and the spacing between the armature and pole pieces is kept as
small as possible.
Series motors run slowly with heavy loads and very rapidly with light loads. If the load is
completely removed, the motor can dangerously over speed and possibly disintegrate.
The reason for this is that the current required to rotate the motor with only a light load is very
small, and consequently the series wound field coils produce only a weak magnetic field. This
means that the motor cannot turn fast enough to generate the amount of back EMF needed to
restore the balance. Series wound motors are variable speed motors and their speed changes
with the applied load, for this reason they are not used either when a constant speed condition
is needed, or where the load is intermittent. The series wound motor has a high starting torque
and because of this it must never be started off load. Use of the series wound motor is mainly
confined to electric actuators, starter motors and landing gear actuation.
If the load on the motor increases, the motor slows down, reducing the back EMF (which
depends upon speed as well as on the constant field strength).
The reduced back EMF allows the armature current to increase, thereby furnishing the heavier
torque needed to drive the increased load.
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If the load is decreased, the motor speeds up, increasing the back EMF and thereby decreasing
the armature current and the torque developed whereupon the motor slows down. In a shunt
wound motor, the variation of speed from ‘no-load’ to normal or ‘full’ load is only 10 % of the
‘no-load’ speed. Shunt wound motors are therefore considered constant speed motors.
Shunt wound motors are normally used where constant speeds under varying loads are
required and tasks where it is possible for the motor to start under light or no-load conditions,
such as fans, centrifugal pumps and motor generator units.
SHUNT FIELD
7
DC Electrics - DC Motors
ARMATURE
Starter-generator Systems
Several types of turbine-powered aircraft are equipped with starter systems which use a starter
generator having the dual function of engine starting and of supplying DC power to the
aircraft’s electrical system.
Starter-generator units are basically compound-wound machines with two sets of field
windings, one armature winding and a commutator. They are permanently coupled with the
appropriate engine via a drive shaft and gear train.
For starting purposes, the unit functions as a fully compounded motor, the shunt field winding
being supplied with current via a field changeover relay.
When the engine is running and the starter motor circuit is isolated from the power supply,
the changeover relay is also automatically de-energized and its contacts connect the shunt field
winding to a voltage regulator. The changeover relay contacts also permit DC to flow through
the shunt winding to provide initial excitation of the field.
The machine thereafter functions as a conventional DC generator, its output being connected
to the bus bar when it reaches the regulated level.
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Engine
Engine Generator
Motor
Drive shaft Series field
Drive shaft Series field
7
DC Electrics - DC Motors
The advantage of the starter-generator is that only one device provides both functions, thereby
saving weight and complexity. The disadvantage is its inability to maintain full output at low
RPM hence their use is typical on turbine engines which maintain a high engine RPM. A typical
starter generator supplies 300 amps at 28 volts.
Actuators
Equipment and components which are installed in the modern aircraft are generally inaccessible
for manual operation by the pilot or crew. Remote control of such items is achieved by the use
of electrical actuators.
• Solenoid actuators
• Motor actuators
Solenoid Actuators
Solenoid actuators are used to control hydraulic and pneumatic system selectors. Application
of electrical power to a solenoid results in a valve opening under magnetic attraction.
A wide ratio gear train is used to transmit the power and the actuator can be either rotary or
linear in movement.
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Limit switches which are operated by the mechanical load are normally fitted in series with
the field windings, these stop the motor automatically when the load reaches the limits of its
travel.
7
DC Electrics - DC Motors
Figure
Figure 7.8 The 6.31
Split Field Series Actuator
On completion of the actuator travel the limit switches are tripped as follows:
• O
pen Limit Switch. This breaks the supply to the motor on completion of travel and makes
the circuit to the ‘open’ position indicator.
• C
lose Limit Switch. This sets up the ‘close’ circuit ready for completion when a selection of
‘close’ is made on the control switch.
Note: The brake solenoid operates immediately the supply is broken thus preventing over-runs
or creep.
A slipping clutch may also be fitted between the armature shaft and gearing to prevent damage
which could be caused by mechanical overload.
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Motor Actuators
There are two types of motor actuators in use:
• Rotary actuators
• Linear actuators
Rotary Actuators
Rotary actuators are operated by small reversible motors which rotate an output shaft through
a gearbox.
7
They are used for the operation of fuel valves and air/oil shut-off valves.
DC Electrics - DC Motors
MOTOR
REDUCTION
GEAR
CLUTCH
SELECTOR SWITCH
OPEN
CLOSE
28 V DC
Figure 6.28
Figure Rotary
7.9 Rotary Actuator
actuator
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Linear Actuators
Linear actuators have small reversible motors which are coupled through a reduction gear to a
screw jack which extends or retracts a ram or plunger.
They are used for any operation which requires a push/pull action, e.g. flaps, undercarriage,
trim tabs, and also as inching controls for oil cooler shutters.
Operation is by means of selector switches when used for full up/down operation, but for
small movements, such as those required with trimming controls, a spring-loaded self-centring
‘OFF’ switch is used, movement of the switch one way or the other away from centre supplying
power to the actuator motor, which will then operate in the selected sense.
7
DC Electrics - DC Motors
Two limit switches control the extent of travel and direction, and also operate visual indicators.
The respective switch opens to stop the motor at full travel.
With an inching actuator, both limit switches will be closed at any time the actuator is not at
a full travel position, this will facilitate motor reversal by means of the inching control switch.
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Actuator Brakes
Many actuators are fitted with electromagnetic brakes to prevent over-travel when the motor
is switched off.
The design of brake systems vary with the type and size of the actuator, but in all cases the
brakes are spring-loaded to the ‘on’ condition when the motor is de-energized, and the
operating solenoids are connected in series with the armature so that the brakes are withdrawn
immediately power is applied.
Actuator Clutches
7
Friction clutches are incorporated in the transmission systems of actuators to protect them
DC Electrics - DC Motors
Position indicators with a graduated scale are fitted in situations where movement either side
of a datum, or between open or closed, is to be shown.
In both cases an indication of either Loss of Power supply, or that the actuator is travelling
between selected positions, will be required.
Indicator Lights
Indicator lights are usually of the ‘press-to-test’ type. Application of finger pressure on the
front glass of the lamp unit enables the filament to be tested without operating the control
switches of the actuator.
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Electromagnetic Indicators
The electromagnetic indicator was introduced as a replacement for the simple filament lamp
indicator.
7
DC Electrics - DC Motors
NO POWER
NO POWER
OPEN
O P E N
PRISM
DOLLS EYE
FigureFigure
6.307.11Electro-Magnetic Indicators
Electromagnetic indicators
The types in common use are the doll’s eye and prism indicators which are illustrated in Figure
7.11. The pictorial presentations offered by these indicators are further improved by the
painting of ‘flow lines’ on the appropriate panels so that they interconnect the indicators with
the system control switches, essential indicators and warning lights.
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7 Questions
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Questions
1. Rotary actuators are used for:
a. undercarriage retraction
b. centre of gravity assessment
c. operation of fuel cocks
d. movement of control surfaces
a. a clutch
7
b. limit microswitches
c. mechanical indicators
Questions
d. mechanical stops
3. On a twin engined DC aircraft having two DC generators load sharing is achieved
by:
a. non-return valves
b. lights or doll’s eye indicators
c. travel indicators
d. veger counters
a. to indicate to the pilot that the circuit has power and is complete
b. to control the movement of a rotary actuator
c. to indicate to the pilot that the circuit has operated
d. only to indicate to the pilot that the equipment has malfunctioned
a. an inverter
b. a rotary transformer
c. a rectifier
d. an alternator
a. a linear actuator
b. a rotary actuator
c. a combination of linear and rotary actuator
d. a rectifier
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Questions
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Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
c b b b a c a a
7
Answers
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The term on line means that the generator or alternator has been switched into the electrical
system and is actually supplying power to the system.
With multi-engine aircraft two or more generators or alternators are installed in parallel.
The ampere capacity of an aircraft electrical system is determined by the number of power-
consuming devices fitted.
8
DC Electrics - Aircraft Electrical Power Systems
Figure 8.1 Dipole system
A dipole or two wire system is required where an aircraft is made of a non-conductive material.
The current needs a complete circuit to flow and therefore needs a negative wire to connect
the load to the negative side of the generator as well as a positive or ‘live wire’ to connect from
the bus bar (distribution point) to the load.
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This is the most common type of system on an aircraft with metal construction. The metal
airframe is used as the negative conductor completing the circuit for the current flow. The
negative side of the generator is connected to an ‘airframe earth’ as is the negative side of
each load.
A generator produces direct current, DC, by using a rotating armature, stationary field and a
commutator as described in the previous chapter whereas an alternator produces alternating
current, AC, by using a rotating field and a stationary armature. If it is required to convert
the AC output of an alternator to DC, a diode rectifier is used, fitted in the end frame of the
alternator.
Most modern light aircraft have a direct current system which is powered by an alternator.
The full power output of a generator is closely related to the RPM of the engine and is usually
attained with the engine running at half speed whereas the full power output of an alternator
can be attained at slow running, one obvious advantage that an alternator has over a generator.
The generator is driven at a speed which is approximately three times that of the engine.
Voltage Regulators
The Voltage Regulator maintains the output voltage of the generator or alternator at a constant
value, irrespective of the engine RPM or electrical loads. This is achieved by controlling either
the current flow in the field coils of a generator, or the current flow in the exciter field of an
alternator.
The basic voltage regulator setting controls the generator output to maintain 14 volts for a
14 volt system with a 12 volt battery and 28 volts for a 28 volt system with a 24 volt battery.
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The overvoltage protection circuit will automatically disconnect the field circuit if the voltage
rises to typically 16.5 volts in a 14 volt system, thereby reducing the generator output to zero
and safeguarding the system.
It may also open the generator cut-out to prevent reverse current flow.
8
The generator cut-out permits the generator voltage to build up to a preset figure before its
The contacts of a cut-out are closed by rising voltage and opened by reverse current. A cut-out
is not fitted in an alternator system as the Rectifiers provide reverse current protection.
The reverse current cut-out relay shown below would be used with a DC generator. It may be
an integral part of the voltage regulator or it may be a separate unit. Before the generator is
started, the spring holds the contacts open. As the generator builds up voltage, that voltage
is applied to the shunt (voltage) coil which has many turns of thin wire and is connected in
parallel with the generator output. When the voltage has built up above the battery voltage
the current through the voltage coil causes a magnetic influence to close the contacts and
connect the generator to the bus bar. The current flows through the current coil, which has
a few turns of thick wire, and through the contacts to the bus bar and the aircraft loads.
The current flow through the current coil increases the magnetic effect and helps to keep the
contacts closed against the spring.
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When the output voltage of the generator falls below battery voltage then current flow is
reversed and current flows back toward the generator. The falling voltage of the generator
causes the magnetic influence of the voltage coil to reduce and as the current flow through
the current coil is reversed, it reverses the magnetic field produced by the current coil. This
opposes the field produced by the voltage coil and allows the contacts to open by the spring,
disconnecting the generator from the bus bar and preventing reverse current into the generator.
Rectifiers
The rectifiers in the alternator end frame convert AC to DC and permit the current to flow out
from the alternator but not into it from the battery. They have a low resistance in the direction
of current flow and a high resistance in the other direction.
8
Inverters
DC Electrics - Aircraft Electrical Power Systems
Static Inverter
Static inverters are solid state devices which covert DC to constant frequency AC. A typical
input to a static inverter would be 18 - 30 volts DC and the output would be 115 volts AC at
400 hertz frequency. The internal circuitry of a static inverter contains standard electrical and
electronic components such as oscillators, diodes, transistors, capacitors and transformers.
Rotary Inverter
Rotary inverters convert DC to AC by using a constant speed DC motor to drive an alternator
thereby producing constant frequency AC.
The on-coming generator cannot switch on line until its output voltage is 2% above the output
voltage of the generator which is already on line. The 2% difference in potential is between the
on-coming generator output and the battery bus bar.
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Monitoring Instruments
Instruments and warning lights must be provided for the pilot to monitor the aircraft DC or
AC electrical system. The AC system is covered in the AC chapter, here we will examine typical
meters and show their use in a DC system.
8
the movement of the coil; as the coil rotates one spring is wound up, the other unwound. The
When current flows through the coil a magnetic field is created which interacts with the main
field and causes the coil to rotate moving the indicator pointer across the scale until the torque
is balanced by the hairspring. The greater the current flow through the coil, the greater will be
the movement of the pointer. When the current flow reduces, the pointer will be returned to
its ‘zero’ mark by the hairspring. So the deflection of the pointer is proportional to the current
flowing through the coil, giving rise to an evenly divided scale.
The meter is likely to be housed inside a case made of soft iron to prevent stray magnetism
affecting the indication.
To enable the range of the instrument to be extended a shunt (resistor of low resistance value)
can be fitted in conjunction with this type of meter when used as an ammeter. When used as
a voltmeter, a multiplier (resistor of high resistance value) is fitted. A shunt or multiplier will
allow only a proportion of the total current to be allowed through the instrument therefore
protecting the delicate mechanism but still allowing it to measure large values.
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The number of indicating devices required and the types employed depends on the type of
aircraft and the overall nature of its electrical installation.
One ammeter (or load meter) is normally provided for each possible source of power, and a
single voltmeter with multiple selections for each DC system.
• The charge/discharge ammeter (or ‘centre zero’ ammeter) see Figure 8.5.
• The generator ammeter or load meter (‘left zero’ ammeter) see Figure 8.5.
The charge/discharge or centre zero type ammeter displays information about current flow
into or out of the battery.
8
If the needle is to the right of zero, the alternator is working and supplying power to the
DC Electrics - Aircraft Electrical Power Systems
If the needle is to the left of zero, then the battery is discharging, indicating that the alternator
is not supplying power to the electrical system.
The load meter or left zero type of ammeter displays actual current draw (system demand)
from the alternator.
If the load meter reads zero, then the alternator is not supplying power to the system, leaving
the battery as the sole source of power in a single-engine system.
If an alternator fails in flight, all operating electrical equipment begins to deplete the battery.
The pilot must therefore immediately assess the situation to determine what equipment is
absolutely essential to the safety of flight at that moment and turn off everything else to
conserve battery power.
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Figure 8.6 shows both how current is measured with an ammeter placed in the current flow
so that it measures the current flowing through it and how EMF and pd are measured with
a voltmeter connected to the two points between which the potential difference is to be
measured.
Voltmeters have a high internal resistance and are connected in parallel to measure the voltage
between two points. It may have a multiplier fitted in series with the meter to increase the
indicating range of the instrument.
Ammeters have a low internal resistance and are placed in series to measure current through
the load. An ammeter may have a shunt fitted in parallel with the meter to increase the
indicating range of the instrument.
8
DC Electrics - Aircraft Electrical Power Systems
Figure 8.6 Ammeter and voltmeter connections
The Battery
The battery would normally be a 12 or 24 volt lead acid or alkaline and can be used to start the
engines, or to supply electrical power in the event of generator or alternator failure.
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Bus Bars
GEN. FAILURE
WARNING L L
LIGHT O O
A A
D D
CENTRE ZERO
LOAD METER AMMETER
BUS BAR
GEN.
CUT-OUT
ALTERNATOR
8
SWITCH BATTERY
SWITCH
DC Electrics - Aircraft Electrical Power Systems
14 V VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
OVERVOLTAGE VOLTMETER
PROTECTION 12 V
UNIT
FIELD
In most types of aircraft, the output from the generating sources is coupled to one or more low
impedance conductors referred to as bus bars.
The bus bars are the collection and distribution centre for a generator or alternator power
supply. They use solid copper bars which can be drilled to permit supply and distribution cables
to be attached to them.
Bus bars are usually situated in junction boxes or distribution panels located at central points
within the aircraft, and they provide a convenient means for connecting power supplies to the
various consumer circuits; in other words, they perform a ‘carry-all’ function.
Bus bars vary in form dependent on the methods to be adopted in meeting the electrical
power requirements of a particular aircraft type.
In its simplest form a bus bar can take the form of a strip of interlinked terminals, while in the
more complex systems main bus bars are thick metal (usually copper) strips or rods to which
input and output supply connections can be made.
The strips or rods are insulated from the main structure and are normally provided with some
form of protective covering. Flat, flexible strips of braided copper wire are also used in some
aircraft and serve as subsidiary bus bars.
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M MASTER INTERLOCK
BATTERY &
BATTERY ALTERNATOR SWITCH
STARTER
SWITCH
STARTER LAMP ALT
SOLENOID TEST MASTER RADIO
SOLENOID OVER INTERFERENCE
VOLTAGE CAPACITOR
PROTECTOR
G
B VOLTAGE
U ALTERNATOR
5A FIELD
REGULATOR
8
AMMETER
R
WARN
LIGHT
CABIN
LIGHT
15A EXTERNAL
POWER
CIGAR RECEPTACLE
LIGHTER
The function of a distribution system is primarily a simple one, but it is complicated by having
to meet additional requirements which concern a power source, or a power consumer system
operating either separately or collectively, under abnormal conditions.
The requirements and abnormal conditions may be considered in relation to three main areas,
which are summarized as follows:
• P
ower-consuming equipment must not be deprived of power in the event of power source
failures unless the total power demand exceeds the available supply.
• F aults on the distribution system (e.g. fault currents, grounding or earthing at a bus bar)
should have the minimum effect on system functioning and should constitute minimum
possible fire risk.
• P
ower-consuming equipment faults must not endanger the supply of power to other
equipment.
These requirements are met in a combined manner by paralleling generators where appropriate,
by providing adequate circuit protection devices, and by arranging for failed generators to be
isolated from the distribution system.
The operating principle of these methods is concerned with the additional one of arranging
bus bars and distribution circuits so that they may be fed from different power sources.
In adopting this arrangement it is usual to categorise all consumer services into their order of
importance and, in general, they fall into three groups:
• Vital
• Essential
• Non-essential
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Vital services are those which would be required after an emergency wheels-up landing,
e.g. emergency lighting and crash switch operation of fire extinguishers. These services are
connected directly to the battery.
Essential services are those required to ensure safe flight in an in-flight emergency situation.
They are connected to DC and AC bus bars, as appropriate, and in such a way that they can
always be supplied from a generator or from batteries.
Non-essential services are those which can be isolated in an in-flight emergency for load
shedding purposes (see below), and are connected to DC and AC bus bars, as appropriate, and
are supplied from a generator.
Figure 8.10 illustrates, in a very simplified form, the principle of dividing categorized consumer
services between individual bus bars; this is an example of a parallel bus bar system.
8
DC Electrics - Aircraft Electrical Power Systems
In this example, the power distribution system is one in which the power supplies are 28 volts
DC, from engine-driven generators operating in parallel, 115 volts 400 Hz AC from inverters,
and 24 volts DC from batteries.
Both bus bars are in turn connected to a single bus bar which supplies power to the essential
services. Thus, with both generators operating, all consumers requiring DC power are supplied.
The essential services bus bar is also connected to the battery bus bar so ensuring that the
batteries are maintained in the charged condition.
The battery bus bar may be referred to as a ‘hot bus’ or ‘hot battery bus’ because it is always
connected to the battery.
In the event that one generator should fail it is automatically isolated from its respective bus
bar and all bus bar loads are then taken over by the operating generator. In the event of a
generator failure the pilot will commence “LOAD SHEDDING” (page 131).
Should both generators fail, however, non-essential consumers can no longer be supplied, but
the batteries will automatically supply power to the essential services and keep them operating
for a predetermined period calculated on the basis of consumer load requirements and battery
state of charge. (Normally a minimum of 30 minutes).
In the case of the system represented in Figure 8.10, the DC supply to power the inverters is
taken from bus bars appropriate to the importance of the AC operated consumers.
Thus, essential AC consumers are operated by the No. 3 inverter and so it is supplied with DC
from the essential services bus bar.
No. 1 and No. 2 inverters supply AC to non-essential services and so they are powered by DC
from the No. 1 and No. 2 bus bars.
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8
CONSUMERS INV3
BATTERY SWITCH
EXT.
PWR. BATTERY BUS (HOT BUS)
VITAL
CONSUMERS
24 V 24 V
BATTERIES
Load Shedding
Load shedding is the overall reduction of the electrical loads on the power supply system in
the event that the generators cannot supply all of the load demanded. In some aircraft it can
be automatically achieved, in other aircraft the pilot must monitor the electrical load by use
of the ammeters or load meters and maintaining the total load within the rated value of the
generator or alternator. After generator failure some non-essential loads would be switched
off to prevent overloading the remaining generator or battery. This will result in a decrease in
current demand from the bus bar and enable the essential loads to be supplied.
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• S witch off all unnecessary electrical loads. Details are given in the aircraft handling notes of
the items to be the subject of load shedding.
• Isolate the generator or alternator electrically by turning the master switch or alternator
switch “off”. This will break the field circuit and the output voltage will fall to zero or a
residual value, making the failed system ‘safe’.
8
• In most cases a failure of the generator will cause the reverse current relay to operate,
DC Electrics - Aircraft Electrical Power Systems
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d. to prevent discharge of the battery through the generator
Questions
3. A generator cut-out will open when:
5. In the event of the cut-out points sticking in the closed position, the most probable
results, when the engine stopped would be:
6. To prevent circulating currents when more than one generator is being connected
to the same bus bar:
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8. On a 28 volt system with a 24 volt battery the cut-out contacts close at
approximately:
a. 36 volts
b. 24 volts
c. 28 volts
d. 26 volts
a. a rectifier.
b. a converter
c. an inverter
d. a reverse current relay
8
10. If the cut-out is open, the battery is feeding the loads which are:
Questions
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a. one ammeter for each generator and one voltmeter switchable to indicate
either generator voltage or battery voltage
b. one voltmeter for each generator. and one ammeter switchable to indicate
either generator current or battery current
c. one ammeter showing the total output and one switchable voltmeter
d. one ammeter and one voltmeter each showing the average current and
voltage output
8
a. electromagnetic spring action
b. electromagnetic induction
Questions
c. electrostatic induction
d. electrodynamic induction
a. the flow in the electrical system before the battery cut-out contacts close
b. the rate of flow at all times
c. the pressure in the electrical system before and after the cut-out contacts close
d. the flow in the electrical system after the battery cut-out contacts close
a. when the battery voltage exceeds that of the generator and the cut-out has
opened
b. at night only
c. when the generator is supplying current to a fully charged battery, and no
electrical loads are switched on
d. when the battery charge current is lower than required to maintain its fully
charged state
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10. In a twin-engine aircraft, fitted with two generators, if one should fail:
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8
c. an increase in voltmeter readings, a discharge in ammeter reading and
generator warning light on
Questions
d. failure of electrically driven instruments
3. In a twin-engine aircraft, with a generator fitted to both engines, the starboard
generator fails. Then:
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8. If the ammeter shows ‘no’ charge, yet the battery remains charged, you would
look for:
10. During flight a malfunction of the generator cut-out would be indicated by:
Questions
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Questions
8
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Questions - Distribution
1. A short circuit in a “single pole” electrical circuit would be caused:
8
b. the component not working
c. an increase in voltage
Questions
d. an item of equipment burning out because of a large current flow
4. An electrical system which uses the aircraft structure as a return path for current is
known as:
5. On a single pole circuit, if the positive conductor is shorted to the aircraft structure:
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Questions
8
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8
Questions
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8 Answers
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Answers
c b c c b c d d c b
Answers - Distribution
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
c b a b b c c a d
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Chapter
9
DC Electrics - Bonding and Screening
Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
The Static Discharge System or Static Wicks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Discharge of Static on Touchdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
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Bonding
An aircraft in flight will pick up, or become charged with, static electricity from the atmosphere.
Bonding will prevent any part of the aircraft from building up a potential so great that it will
create a spark and generate a fire risk.
Each piece of the metal structure of the aircraft, and each component on the aircraft, is joined
to the other by flexible wire strips. All strips must be clean and free from any insulating coatings
such as anodizing, paint, grease and oxides to prevent electrolytic corrosion occurring which
would introduce resistance.
This process is called bonding, and it provides an easy path for the electrons from one part of
the aircraft to another.
Bonding can also act as part of the earth return system in a unipole circuit and will also help to
9
prevent radio interference due to static discharges.
They are fitted to the trailing edge of the aircraft control surfaces, and the tips of wings, or
stabilizers. Static electricity is dispersed from them into the atmosphere.
The free end of the wick becomes ‘teased’ (spread out) and a brush discharge action takes
place. Modern wicks are like miniature barbed antenna, small wire brushes, or alternatively are
straight metal wicks.
This is achieved by fitting nose, tail or main wheel tyres which contain a high proportion of
carbon in the rubber.
The tyre is in contact with the main bond via the wheel bearing and any static charge is
dissipated to earth on touchdown.
Screening
Screening is designed to prevent radio interference by absorbing electrical energy.
Static electrical charges, produced by the operation of certain electrical equipment, create
interference on radio circuits.
This interference is overcome by fitting interference suppressors in the cables connected to the
source of interference, and by total enclosure of the cables in a continuous metal sheath.
Screening is required for ignition systems, DC generators and motors (commutator machines),
slip ring machines operating at over 200 RPM and also for any electrical equipment operating
by making and breaking a circuit at a frequency greater than 10 Hz.
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Questions
1. Why are static wick dischargers fitted to aircraft?
2. Bonding is used to protect the aircraft against fire from arcing of static electricity
by:
a. metal components become very hot and ignite inflammable gases and
materials
b. sparks occur due to differences of potential and could ignite inflammable
gases and materials
c. of colour charged electrons
d. aircraft tyres become heavily charged and may burst on landing
4. Static electrical charges and currents in an aircraft structure are evened out by:
a. hardening
b. screening
c. bonding
d. anodizing
a. heat screening
b. providing a positive reaction
c. ensuring that the different parts of the aircraft are maintained at a different
potential
d. ensuring that the different parts of the aircraft are maintained at the same
potential
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Questions
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9
Questions
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Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
c d b c d d d
9
Answers
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Chapter
10
DC Electrics - Specimen Questions
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10
Questions
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Questions
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Questions – General 1
1. Spare fuses are carried:
10
a. generator bus and battery bus bar
b. generator bus bar and earth
Questions
c. batteries
d. battery bus bar and earth
a. back EMF
b. current necessary to excite the generator
c. current passing between two paralleled generators of differing voltage
d. current passing between AC and DC systems
5. A megohm is:
a. 10 000 ohms
b. 1000 ohms
c. 1 000 000 ohms
d. 1 000 000 000 ohms
7. When a generator is on line and its associated ammeter reads 10 amps, this is an
indication of:
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a. V2 or I2 × R or I × V
R
b. V2 or I × R or I × V
R
c. V or I2 × R or I2 × V
R2
V or I × R2 or I × V
d.
R2
9. Assuming a 5 amp circuit has failed during flight and investigation has shown that
the fuse is open circuit, the action to be taken is to:
d. switch off, replace the failed fuse with one of the correct rating once only
a. double
b. increase only if the battery is in circuit
c. remain the same
d. decrease
11. A simple electrical circuit has a current flow of 4 amperes and its resistance is 5
ohms. How much power (watts) is used?
a. 20 watts
b. 45 watts
c. 80 watts
d. 100 watts
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14. An aircraft has a battery with a capacity of 60 Ah. Assuming that it will provide its
nominal capacity and is discharged at the 10 hour rate:
15. A NiCad battery shows a high temperature after engine start, this could be an
indication of:
a. thermal runaway
b. it is not connected to the battery bus bar
c. normal temperature during charging
d. depends upon the outside air temperature
16. When generators are connected in parallel their output voltage must be:
10
a. divided by the circuit resistance
b. the same
Questions
c. added together
d. controlled by one generator
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Questions – General 2
1. In a direct current generating system the voltage regulator controls the system
voltage within prescribed limits:
a. a red warning light lighting and the ammeter showing zero or discharge
b. a red warning light going out and the ammeter showing a discharge
c. a current limiter tripping
d. a circuit fuse blowing
5. On a twin-engine aircraft with a generator fitted to each engine, if the starboard
generator fails,:
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10. As the speed of an electric motor increases the back EMF will:
10
c. increase
d. decrease
Questions
11. The output of a shunt wound generator:
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Answers – General 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
c d a c c c d a d a c b
13 14 15 16
d c a b
Answers – General 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
a d b a d a d a d c b d
13 14 15
10
c d b
Answers
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AC ELECTRICS
ATPL GROUND TRAINING SERIES
-
+
+
+
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11 AC Electrics -Introduction to AC
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11
AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
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Chapter
11
AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
The Nature of Alternating Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
The Relationship of Current and Voltage in an AC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Resistance in AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Inductance in AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Inductive Reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Capacitance in AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Capacitive Reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Resonant Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Power in AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Power in a Purely Resistive Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Power in a Purely Inductive Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Power in a Capacitive Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
Power in a Practical AC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Power Factor Resume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
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Introduction
Alternating current (AC) is used in most large modern transport aircraft because of the
following advantages that it holds over direct current (DC) supplies:
• T
he supply voltage can be converted to a higher or lower value with almost 100%
efficiency using transformers.
• A
ny required DC voltage can be obtained simply and efficiently using transformer
rectifier units. (TRUs).
• T
hree phase AC motors which are simpler, more robust and more efficient than DC
motors, can be operated from a constant frequency source, (AC generators).
11
• A
C machines do not suffer from the commutation problems associated with DC
machines and consequently are more reliable, especially at high altitude.
AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
• H
igh voltage AC systems require less cable weight than comparable power low voltage DC
systems.
Figure 1.111.1Simple
Figure ACgenerator
Simple AC Generator
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The magnitude of the voltage depends on the speed of rotation and the field strength (i.e. rate
of change of flux).
When an armature is connected to a load (resistor) in a closed circuit through slip rings and
carbon brushes a current will flow around the circuit in proportion to the induced voltage.
If this armature is rotated as in Figure 11.2 then the flux is constantly changing. In positions 1,
3 and 5 the two sides of the loop are moving parallel to the field and so there is no voltage
induced as there is no rate of change of flux. In positions 2 and 4 the two sides of the armature
are moving at right angles to the field and the maximum voltage is induced as there is maximum
rate of change of flux. In between these positions the induced voltage is between maximum
and zero.
The polarity of the induced voltage changes as it passes through zero because the direction
that each side of the armature moves through the field is reversed. If the polarity reverses
then so must the current through the external circuit, and current flowing backwards and
forwards about a mean position is alternating current. The direction of current flow through
each side of the armature at any point can be determined by using Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
for generators.
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AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
Figure 11.2 shows one complete revolution of the generator armature and the associated rise
and fall of induced voltage.
Figure 11.3 illustrates the production of AC. The blue vector arrow OP represents one half of
the coil of the generator, pivoted at O and rotating in an anti-clockwise direction. The EMF
induced in the coil is proportional to the ordinate ON, or can be calculated by multiplying the
max value by the sine of the Phase Angle at that point.
Successive ordinates plotted to a time scale corresponding to the rate of rotation of OP produce
a sine wave which represents an alternating current or voltage.
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Terms
AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
Several terms are used to describe alternating current, illustrated in Figure 11.3 and some of
these terms are explained below:
• Cycle. A cycle is one complete series of values, e.g. the graph of Figure 11.3
• P
hase. A sine wave can be given an angular notation called phase. One cycle represents
from 0° - 360° of phase.
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• Frequency. The number of cycles occurring each second is the frequency of the supply. The
frequency is measured in hertz (Hz). One cycle per second is equal to one hertz. Constant
frequency AC supply systems usually have a frequency of 400 Hz. Frequency is dependent
upon the number of times a North and a South pole pass the armature in a given time
period.
To determine the frequency of a generator output, the following formula can be used:
Number of Poles RPM
× = Frequency in hertz
2 60 (seconds)
The number of poles is the total of North and South poles making up the field of the
generator and the RPM is the speed of rotation in revolutions per minute.
For example, an 8 pole generator rotating at 6000 RPM will have an output frequency of:
8 6000
× = 400 hertz
2 60
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• P
eriod. The period is the time it takes for one cycle to occur. It is the reciprocal of the
frequency:
AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
1
Period (T) = seconds
f
• A
mplitude or Peak Value. The amplitude of a sine wave is the maximum value it attains in
one cycle, see Figure 11.5.
• R
oot Mean Square Value (RMS). The effective value of an alternating current is calculated
by comparing it with Direct Current. The comparison is based on the amount of heat
produced by each current under identical conditions.
A DC current of 1 amp will make a resistor hotter than AC with peak value of 1 amp. So to
make the resistor as hot with an AC current its peak value must be higher so that its effective
value can be 1 amp.
The effective value is termed the Root Mean Square, which is found by taking a number of
instantaneous values of voltage or current, whichever is required, during a half cycle. These
values are squared and their mean (average) value determined. Obtaining the square root
of the mean value gives the Root of the Mean of the Squares, the RMS value.
Another way of looking at it is that the voltage (or current) rises from zero to maximum in
90° of phase angle, the average value must occur at the midway point of 45°. As the values
follow a sine curve as previously described then the value at 45° is a product of the peak
value multiplied by the sine of 45 (0.707).
Therefore the RMS value of alternating current (or voltage) is related to its amplitude or
peak value.
Most AC supply values are given in RMS terms. In general terms, ammeters and voltmeters
are calibrated in RMS values also.
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The Relationship of Current and Voltage in an AC Circuit
AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
Current and voltage in an AC circuit have the same frequency and the wave form (the shape
of the cycle) is similar, e.g. if the voltage waveform is sinusoidal then the current waveform is
also sinusoidal.
In a DC circuit the current flow was directly affected by the applied voltage and circuit resistance
in the relationship formulated by OHM’s Law (V = IR). I.e. the current is directly proportional to
the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance.
There are very few AC circuits in which the current is affected solely by the applied voltage
and resistance such that both the current and the voltage pass through zero and reach their
peaks in the same direction simultaneously. In such circuits voltage and current are said to be
in phase and the circuit is said to be resistive.
In most circuits, however, because of the ever changing values of voltage and current, the
current flow is influenced by the magnetic and electrostatic effects of inductance and
capacitance respectively, which cause the current and voltage to be out of phase. This means
that although they are at the same frequency, the voltage and current do not pass through
zero at the same time. The difference between corresponding points on the waveforms is
known as phase difference or phase angle. Inductive and capacitive circuits will be studied
later in this text.
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Resistance in AC Circuits
There is no such thing as a ‘pure resistance’ when considering an AC circuit. All resistors, even a
piece of wire, have ’inductance’ as well as resistance, but for the purpose of studying AC theory
in this chapter we have to assume that we can build separate circuits having only resistance,
inductance or capacitance.
The voltage and current waveforms when AC is applied across a pure resistive circuit are sine
waves. Both waveforms are in phase as shown in Figure 11.6, and Ohm’s Law applies as in DC
circuits, remembering that values quoted will be RMS values.
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AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
Inductance in AC Circuits
In a simple generator, a change of flux through a conductor induced a voltage in that conductor,
by rotating the conductor relative to the magnetic field. A different kind of generator uses a
rotating magnetic field and a stationary conductor. Both rely on the physical movement of
conductor or field.
A change of flux in a coil can be achieved without physical motion, by varying a current flow,
thereby changing the magnetic field relative to a coil. Figure 11.7 shows how voltages can be
induced in this manner.
Figure 11.7a shows a DC circuit containing a coil, controlled by a switch. This is the primary
circuit, and with no current flow there is no magnetic field created in the coil. Alongside the
primary circuit is another circuit containing a coil and an ammeter, this is the secondary circuit.
As there is no current flow in the primary circuit there will be nothing happening.
In Figure 11.7b the switch has been made and a magnetic field is produced by the current flow
through the coil which expands while the current is increasing. This magnetic field ‘cuts’ the
coil in the secondary circuit as it is expanding, thereby inducing a voltage and current flow
which will show by a deflection of the ammeter. When the current is stable at its maximum
the magnetic field will be stable and there will be no induced voltage. Therefore the meter in
the circuit will kick sharply as the switch is closed and return to zero when the magnetic field
becomes static.
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In Figure 11.7c the switch has been opened and there is a rapid collapse of the magnetic field
because the current flow has ceased, inducing a voltage in the secondary circuit. The meter will
kick in the opposite direction as the field collapses to zero.
Figure 11.7d and e show an AC circuit. With an ever changing and alternating current flow in
the circuit, the magnetic field will be constantly changing; therefore, there will be a continually
induced voltage and current flow proportional to the AC waveform. This will be indicated by
the ammeter needle swinging alternately left and right. The greatest voltage will be induced
when the current is changing at its greatest rate, i.e. when it is changing polarity.
This is called mutual induction and is the principle of operation of transformers. The magnitude
of the induced voltage is dependent on the rate of change of the magnetic field which is
proportional to the frequency of the supply.
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AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
Figure 11.7 Inductance
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Referring to Figure 11.8, the secondary circuit has been removed, but the AC supply still
generates an ever changing magnetic field which has the effect of inducing a voltage in the
coil itself. This is called self-induction and according to Lenz’s law the voltage induced will
oppose any change of current in the circuit. This self-induced voltage is often referred to as the
Back EMF.
The amount of inductance in any circuit can be measured by the size of the induced voltage. A
number of factors affect induced voltage.
The first two items refer to the construction of the coil itself and determine the value of the
self-inductance for a given frequency. This is referred to as the Inductance of the coil and is a
measure of its ability to produce a Back EMF. A coil with a high value of inductance will produce
a greater Back EMF than one with a small value for the same supply frequency.
Any device having inductance can be referred to as an inductor. The unit of inductance (L) is
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the henry (H). Inductance is usually expressed in millihenries or microhenries as the henry is
AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
too large a unit for practical use. A circuit has an inductance of one henry if a current change
of one ampere per second induces a back EMF of one volt.
The effect of inductance in an AC circuit is to cause the voltage and current to be out of phase;
because of the opposition to the current flow, the rise in current is held back behind the rise in
voltage i.e. current lags voltage.
In a circuit having only inductance the current lags the voltage by 90°. This is illustrated in
Figure 11.9.
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Inductive Reactance
The opposition to current flow in this circuit is called the Inductive Reactance.
It is called reactance rather than resistance because the effects of inductance depend on the
frequency of the supply as well as the value of the inductance.
XL = 2 π f L
From this formula it can be seen that as frequency increases, the value of inductive reactance
increases so the circuit current would decrease. Conversely, and more importantly, as the
circuit frequency decreases, the inductive reactance decreases and the circuit current increases.
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AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
Capacitance in AC Circuits
Capacitance is the ability of a circuit to store an electrical charge. A device used to introduce
capacitance into a circuit is known as a Capacitor. A capacitor consists of two plates separated
by a dielectric, see Figure 11.10. Dielectrics can be, amongst other things, air, mica or waxed
paper.
They are:
The capacitor will store an electric charge, much like a hydraulic accumulator stores fluid under
pressure, but first it needs to be charged.
When connected to the battery as shown in Figure 11.10 electrons will be removed from the
plate connected to the positive terminal of the battery and added to the plate connected to
the negative terminal, conventional current flow will be from positive to negative. This process
will continue until the plates become saturated and no more current will flow.
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AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
The potential difference between the plates is at its maximum and the capacitor is now fully
charged, its voltage being equal to the battery voltage.
If the switch is now moved to a mid position, the charging circuit is disconnected and the
capacitor will hold its charge indefinitely, in a similar fashion to an accumulator. (In practice
there will be some leakage which allows the capacitor to discharge over a period of time).
Using the switch to connect the capacitor to the external circuit will allow the capacitor to
discharge and current will flow around the circuit in the opposite direction until the potential
difference across the plates has become equal. Notice that the capacitor has discharged in the
opposite direction to which it was charged. Note also that electrons do not pass between the
plates through the dielectric
Figure
Figure 1.11
11.11Capacitor in an
Capacitor in AnAC
ACcircuit.
Circuit
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When fitted in an AC circuit as shown in Figure 11.11 the capacitor will be constantly charging
and discharging as the applied voltage and current flow are constantly reversing polarity and
direction. As the applied voltage falls, the capacitor discharges current back into the circuit in
the opposite direction and its voltage falls.
This has the effect of shifting the voltage out of phase with the current, and in a purely
capacitive circuit the current will lead the voltage by 90°. See Figure 11.12.
The unit of capacitance is the farad, and a capacitor is given the symbol C. If a current of
1 ampere flowing for 1 second creates a potential difference of 1 volt between the plates of a
capacitor then it is a 1 farad capacitor. Because of the values involved, a 1 farad capacitor is not
a practical size and a more common unit is the microfarad or picofarad.
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AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
Figure 11.12 Phase relationship in a purely capacitive circuit
Capacitive Reactance
The opposition to current flow in this circuit is called Capacitive Reactance. As in the inductive
circuit, the amount of reactance is dependent upon frequency and the value of the capacitor
in farads. Capacitive reactance is measured in ohms and is given the symbol XC. It can be
calculated by using the following formula:
1
XC =
2πfC
From this formula it can be seen that as frequency increases, the value of capacitive reactance
decreases so the circuit current will increase. Conversely if frequency decreases, capacitive
reactance increases and circuit current will decrease.
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Impedance
The total opposition to current flow in an AC circuit is a combination of resistance, inductive
reactance and capacitive reactance. But because in each circuit there is a different phase
relationship between the voltage and current, they cannot simply be added together.
Inductive reactance can be thought of as having the opposite effect to capacitive reactance as
in one circuit the current lags the voltage by 90° and in the other the current leads the voltage
by 90°, so they are 180° apart and the total reactance can be found by subtracting one from
the other. Impedance is the vector sum of the resistance and total reactance and represents
the total opposition to current flow measured in ohms and given the symbol Z.
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AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
Figure 11.13
Pictorially this can be shown as vectors in an impedance triangle, from which it can be seen that
resistance is out of phase with reactance by 90°:
Mathematically the vector sum of the two can be expressed using Pythagoras’ Theorem.
Resonant Circuits
Changes of supply frequency in a circuit will have the opposite effect on capacitance and
inductance. An increase of supply frequency will increase the inductive reactance (XL) and
decrease the capacitive reactance (XC). Increasing XL will cause the current in the circuit to
decrease and decreasing XC will cause the current to increase.
The manner in which the inductance and capacitance react in an opposite way to changes of
supply frequency means that there will be one specific frequency for each circuit at which their
values will be equal.
When the Capacitive Reactance and the Inductive Reactance in a circuit are equal the circuit
is said to be Resonant.
If a capacitor and an inductance are placed in series with each other, at the resonant frequency
the current flowing in the circuit will be maximum. If, on the other hand, the capacitor and
inductance are placed in parallel with each other, the current flowing in the circuit at resonant
frequency will be at a minimum.
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Summary
• T
he Voltage and Current phase relationship in reactive circuits can be remembered using
the following mnemonic:
C I V I L
• T
he effect of frequency variation on inductive and capacitive reactance is shown in the
following graph.
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AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
Figure 11.14
Power in AC Circuits
The power absorbed in a DC circuit, according to Ohm’s Law, is the product of the Voltage and
the Current. So it is in AC circuits. However, due to the change in phase relationship between
voltage and current in reactive circuits, the actual power absorbed is not necessarily the same
as the power apparently supplied.
Once again the Resistive, Inductive and Capacitive circuits need to be examined separately and
then a practical circuit having a combination of all three is considered.
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6
5
Voltage 4 Average power
Current (True power)
Power 3 RMS Volts ×
2 RMS Amps
Watts or kW
1
0
-1
Voltage and Current -2
‘in phase’ = Real power
-3
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-4
AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
-5
-6
Notice that the power curve is always positive because the voltage and current are in phase
and its frequency is twice that of the voltage and current.
This positive power is known as the True Power, Real Power or Wattfull Power and its value
is the product of the RMS current and the RMS voltage. It is measured in watts or kilowatts
(kW).
The average power over a complete cycle is the average value of the power curve and can be
represented by a line drawn halfway between the minimum and maximum values.
The axis of that power waveform is the same as that of the voltage and current but its frequency
is double.
If the axis of all the waveforms is the same, then the positive power is equal to the negative
power. The positive cycle represents power given to the circuit to generate the magnetic field,
and the negative cycle is power given back by the circuit in generating the Back EMF.
Thus in a circuit that contains only inductance, the true power is zero and only the power
required that is necessary to overcome the inductive reactance is absorbed. This called reactive
power and is the product of the voltage and current that is 90° out of phase. It is measured as
Volts × Amps Reactive VAR or kVAR.
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The product of the RMS voltage and the RMS current in this circuit is known as the apparent
power and is measured in VA or KVA.
Positive power
True power = 0
Negative power
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when current 90° out of
phase with voltage)
AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
Figure 11.16 Power in a purely inductive circuit
As before the RMS volts × RMS amps is apparent power (VA or kVA)
True
power = 0
Negative power
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Calculating power, therefore, depends on the ratio of resistance in a circuit to the inductance
or capacitance (remember that inductance has the opposite effect to capacitance so if both
are present in a circuit, the effects of one will cancel out some of the other leaving the circuit
more inductive or capacitive depending on which one is more dominant, the resistance will
always be there).
Figure 11.18 shows a circuit having equal resistance and inductance; notice the phase angle is
45° and that the amounts of positive power and negative power are not equal.
A line dividing the power curve into two equal areas would show the average power consumed
in that circuit. The “average power” in a circuit with both resistance and inductance is the true
power (kW) consumed in that circuit.
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The apparent power (kVA) is the RMS volts × amps and the reactive power (kVAR) is the
AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
Positive power
More positive power
than negative power.
True power axis now
above the zero axis. True
power
(kW)
Negative power
Figure 11.18 Power in a circuit having equal amounts of resistance and inductance
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Power Factor
There is a definite relationship between the apparent power and the true power; the value of
each will change with the ratio of resistance to inductance (or capacitance) and therefore with
the phase angle.
The greater the phase angle, the greater will be the apparent power compared with the true
power, and vice versa. This relationship is called the power factor and can be calculated as the
ratio between true power and apparent power.
TRUE POWER
= POWER FACTOR (PF)
APPARENT POWER
In a purely inductive (or capacitive) circuit the true power would be zero and the phase angle
will be 90° so from the formula we can deduce that the power factor must also be zero, its
minimum value.
Decreasing the phase angle increases the true power and increases the power factor.
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In a purely resistive circuit the phase angle will be zero and the true power will equal the
apparent power so the power factor will be its maximum or 1.
AC Electrics - Introduction to AC
The power factor can also be calculated as the cosine of the phase angle.
• Apparent Power = the product of RMS voltage and current in one half cycle.
• A
pparent Power can also be called the Theoretical Power or Rated Power. It is measured in
VA or kVA.
• True Power = Apparent Power, but only if the voltage and the current are in phase.
• True Power = Zero, but only if the voltage and the current are 90° out of phase.
• T
rue Power can also be called the Real Power, the Effective Power, the Wattful Power or the
Working Power consumed in the circuit.
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Questions
1. The impedance of a circuit:
a. ohms
b. the power factor
c. kVAs
d. the RMS value
d. the impedance
4. The amount of electrical power output for a given generator weight is:
a. cycles or hertz
b. watts
c. megacycles
d. cycles / minute
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8. If the frequency in an inductive circuit is less than it was designed for, then current
consumption will:
a. decrease
b. remain the same
c. fluctuate
d. increase
a. current decreases
b. current increases
c. current flow is unaffected by frequency change
d. the voltage fluctuates
10. The line voltage of a typical aircraft constant frequency paralleled AC system is:
a. 115
b. 208
c. 200
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d. 400
Questions
11. A 400 Hz supply has:
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a. kVA
b. kVAR
c. kW
d. kW/kVAR
a. RMS values
b. average values
c. peak values
d. mean values
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b. kW
kVAR
kW
c.
kVA
d. kVAR
kW
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d. the value of DC which would provide the same heating effect
Questions
25. In a reactive circuit:
a. separated by a diabetic
b. which have current flowing between them
c. which will not allow a potential difference between them
d. separated by waxed paper or mica
a. the henry
b. the ohm
c. the farad
d. the coulomb
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a. WATTFUL POWER
REAL POWER
RATED POWER
b.
APPARENT POWER
APPARENT POWER
c.
TRUE POWER
REAL POWER
d.
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APPARENT POWER
32. Transferring electrical energy by means of a magnetic field is called:
Questions
a. electrostatic induction
b. electromolecular induction
c. electromagnetic induction
d. electromolecular amplification
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Questions
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Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
c b a c a d c d b c c c
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
a d d b a a a b c d a d
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
a d c a b d d c
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Answers
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Chapter
12
AC Electrics - Alternators
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The industry standard that has evolved for constant frequency aircraft is: 115 V/ 200 V/ 400 Hz
/ 3 phase
The distribution system is laid out in a similar fashion to the DC aircraft using a system of bus
bars having a distinct hierarchy, the emphasis being placed on the ability of the system to cope
with failure with the minimum loss of electrical services.
This chapter will explain different types of AC generator, their operation, control and protection
and some typical aircraft AC systems.
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Generators / Alternators
AC Electrics - Alternators
In a DC generator the rotating part is always the armature. In an AC generator this is not
generally true.
• Rotating Armature.
• Rotating Field.
The rotating armature is only used in very small output alternators and is not generally used
for supplying AC systems.
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NOTE: The field MUST be energized by DC to keep the correct polarity in the rotor.
One advantage of a rotating field alternator is that only a low current is fed through slip rings
to the field windings.
The output is taken from the stationary armature windings, which means that problems
associated with arcing from the brush gear are greatly reduced. Figure 12.1 illustrates a simple
rotating field alternator.
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The output of this type of machine will rise to a maximum in one direction, then fall to zero,
AC Electrics - Alternators
rise to a maximum in the other direction and then fall to zero again.
Polyphase Circuits
Polyphase or “multi-phase” alternators have two or more single phase windings symmetrically
spaced around the stator.
The number of separate stator windings determines the number of phases present in
the supply. The currents and voltages generated in this type of machine will have the same
frequency but be out of phase with each other.
Note that the phase windings are mechanically arranged to be at 120° to each other in the
sequence A, B, C so that the outputs are electrically separated by 120° as shown in the diagram.
It can be seen that “A” phase reaches a peak going positive before “B” phase reaches a peak
going positive before “C” phase reaches a peak going positive. This is the phase sequence ABC.
The peak values of the voltages induced in the three single phase windings of the three phase
alternator shown in Figure 12.3 are 120° displaced from each other. The three phases are
independent of each other.
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AC Electrics - Alternators
Figure 12.4 Star and delta connection for three phase alternators
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The neutral point is normally grounded and used as the earth return in modern aircraft. The
AC Electrics - Alternators
neutral line will carry any out of balance current. This means that if there is an earth fault on
one phase, the neutral will carry an exceptionally high load.
This is the type of alternator that will be fitted to a typical aircraft distribution system because
it can cope with different loads on each bus bar, the delta connection can not.
The connection at the opposite end of the phase from the neutral is called the line connection.
A voltmeter measuring the potential difference between the neutral and the line lead would
read phase voltage. A voltmeter measuring the potential difference between two line
connections would read line voltage.
In this type of alternator the phase voltage and line voltage are different because phase
voltage is measured across one phase whereas line voltage is measures across two phases and
is the vector sum of the two.
Given one or the other of these values, the following formula will enable the student to
establish the missing criterion:
The line voltage of a typical aircraft supply system would be 200 volts, and from the formula
above it can be seen that the phase voltage would be:
200
or 115 volts
1.73
To be more specific, a modern aircraft power supply would be 115 V/ 200 V/ 400 Hz/ 3 phase.
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While the voltages of line and phase differ in the star connected system, because the windings
form only one path for current flow between phases:
Logically, because the potential measured across the phase is measured between two lines,
then:
BUT
This type of connection will not be used in a practical distribution system because it cannot
cope with unbalanced loads as there is no neutral point. However, they may be used for specific
purposes e.g. speed sensors or tacho generators.
Practical AC Generators
Rotating Armature alternators suffer from various disadvantages:
• The rotating coils are heavy and centrifugal forces are high.
• Efficient insulation of the rotating coils is difficult.
• The resistance across the brushes to the slip rings is high.
• The rotating coils are difficult to cool.
• They have a poor power to weight ratio.
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Rotating Field alternators make up the majority in use. From the previous sections it will be
seen that in this type of alternator the field is in the rotor and the phase windings form the
stator.
• Brushed alternators.
• Brushless alternators.
Brushed Alternators
The current supply for the excitation of the rotor field can be provided initially from the aircraft
DC bus bar (battery) and then subsequently by rectified AC. The DC current is directed through
brushes and slip rings to the rotating field.
Control of the excitation current is by the voltage regulator which samples the alternator
output (115 V AC) and adjusts the excitation current to maintain the correct voltage irrespective
of the alternator speed and loads.
The voltage regulator in its simplest form is a variable resistance connected in series with the
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field coil (the principle of the carbon pile regulator in Chapter 6, page 93 ).
AC Electrics - Alternators
115 V AC BUS
TRU
28 V DC BUS BAR
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Brushless Alternators
115 V AC BUS
TRU
28 V DC BUS BAR
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AC Electrics - Alternators
A brushless alternator incorporates an exciter generator mounted on the same shaft as the main
generator. The purpose of the exciter generator is to provide a current for the main generator
rotating field. The rotating rectifier converts the AC produced in the exciter armature to DC
required for the main rotor field supply.
Voltage regulation is effected by controlling the exciter field strength and thereby the current
strength at the main rotor field coil.
Modern brushless alternators may have a third generator on the same shaft called a Permanent
Magnet Generator (PMG) which provides excitation current for its exciter generator. Alternator
output is usually 115 V/200 V/400 Hz/3 phase.
NOTE: The connection of two frequency wild generators in parallel is not possible.
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Frequency wild alternators are usually used on aircraft to power the electrical de-icing systems,
where the resistances that make up the heater mats are not affected by changing frequencies.
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The oil which forms the fluid, through which the mechanism operates and also facilitates
AC Electrics - Alternators
lubrication and cooling, is contained within a reservoir, entirely separate from the engine oil
system. The output of the hydraulic pump, and therefore the speed of the hydraulic motor,
depends on the angle of a swash plate within the pump. The angle of the swash plate is
controlled by a device called a speed governor. The speed governor is controlled by the load
controller which senses the output frequency of the alternator and is responsible for increasing
or decreasing the torque output of the CSDU to the alternator drive.
Most CSDUs are capable of maintaining the alternator output frequency within 5% of 400 Hz
(380 - 420 Hz).
In the event of a mechanical failure in the alternator, the CSDU is protected by a Quill Drive;
this is the equivalent of a weak link which will break before any major damage can be caused.
The CSDU operates in one of three modes: overdrive, straight through drive or underdrive.
Some constant frequency generators have their CSDU and generator combined in one unit
called an Integrated Drive Unit (IDU) or Integrated Drive Generator (IDG).
• L ow Oil Pressure Warning Lights. These will illuminate when the oil pressure drops below
a predetermined minimum value.
• High Oil Temperature warning. This allows the CSDU oil outlet temperature to be monitored.
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The disconnection can be carried out at any time the engine is running, although reconnecting
may only be done “manually” on the ground following shut down of the engine.
Figure 12.9 illustrates a CSDU and the drive disconnect mechanism. The disconnect unit is
operated by the selection of a momentary action ‘Drive Disconnect’ switch by the pilot. This
operates a solenoid which causes a mechanical separation of the input drive from the engine
to the constant speed unit. Exceptionally, some aircraft may allow automatic disconnection of
the generator drive by a generator control unit (GCU) under certain fault conditions.
Some IDGs are known as Permanent Magnet Generators (PMGs). The generator has three
separate generators on the same shaft: a permanent magnet generator which provides for
initial excitation of the exciter generator which controls the main generator field. This type of
generator is invariably controlled by a Generator Control Unit (GCU).
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AC Electrics - Alternators
Figure 12.9
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aircraft. The VSCF also incorporates a built-in test facility which can provide fault isolation
information to the ground engineer.
Self-excited Generators
A self-excited generator is one which has some permanent magnetism in its exciter generator.
On initial rotation, the flux from these Stationary Permanent Magnets causes an induced AC
voltage and therefore current to flow in its rotor. The rotor output is then fed directly to a
rotating rectifier which in turn supplies the rotating field coils of the main generator with a DC
supply.
The output of the main generator stator is tapped to provide a regulated supply to the exciter
field so enabling the voltage to be controlled.
This “load sharing” or “paralleling” requires that two parameters are regulated:
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• Real Load.
AC Electrics - Alternators
• Reactive Load.
Real Load
Real Load is the actual working load output available for supplying the various electrical
services and it is measured in kilowatts (real power or true power).
Real Load is directly related to the mechanical power or torque which is being supplied to the
alternator drive by its prime mover, i.e. the engine or CSDU.
Real Load Sharing is achieved by controlling the Constant Speed Drive Unit (CSDU) and
adjusting the torque at its output shaft so that if the torque of the two or more CSDUs is equal
then the real load taken by each generator is the same.
Reactive Load
Reactive Load is the so-called Wattless Load which is the vector sum of inductive and capacitive
currents and voltages expressed in kVAR (Kilovolt-Amperes Reactive). Reactive Load Sharing
is achieved by controlling the Voltage Output (Exciter Field Current) of each generator that
is connected in parallel. If their voltages are identical then the reactive load on each generator
will be the same.
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Parallel Connection
To control the real and reactive load when two or more generators are paralleled there are
two separate load sharing circuits, one to detect and control real load and one to detect and
control reactive load.
N.B. It must be stressed that until a generator is connected in parallel with one or more
generators it will not be connected into the load sharing circuits. While constant frequency
alternators are operating as individual units, such as at engine start when only one alternator
may be on line, their real load and reactive load sharing circuits are not connected.
However, if the two alternators are at different frequencies before they are connected in
parallel then damage can occur as one generator tries to slow down and the other tries to
speed up, so they must be at the same frequency before paralleling.
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As well as being at the same frequency they must also be of the same phase sequence, i.e. at
AC Electrics - Alternators
any point in time, phase A, B and C on the first generator must be identical to phase A, B and
C on the second generator. The voltage of each generator being paralleled must also be the
same.
Figure 2.10
Figure Conditions
12.10 ConditionsRequired Before
required before Parallelling
paralleling
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To operate the generators in parallel they are connected through their respective generator
bus bars to a synchronizing bus bar via a Bus Tie Breaker (BTB). A Bus Tie Breaker is a 3 phase
circuit breaker controlled automatically or manually from the flight deck.
The synchronizing bus bar takes no electrical loads at all, it is only there to allow the engine
driven generators to be operated in parallel. Ground power or power from the APU generator
can be connected into the synchronizing bus and from there can be fed to the load bus bars
through the BTBs when the engine generators are not operating and the GCBs are open.
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AC Electrics - Alternators
GENERATOR
GCB GCB
CIRCUIT
NO.2 NO.3
BREAKER NO.1
BUS TIE
BREAKER NO.1 BTB BTB
NO.2 NO.3
GROUND
POWER OR
APU
SYNCHRONIZING BUS
After paralleling, the load controllers work together to evenly share the real load by increasing
the torque input to the lower speeding alternators drive and decreasing the torque input to
the higher speeding alternators to ensure each alternator takes an equal share of the load.
Current transformers sense the Real Load distribution at the output of each of the paralleled
alternators.
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When current flows through these transformers, voltage is induced in them and a current will
flow in the Load Sharing Loop. Each of the current transformers, which are connected in series
with each other in the loop, has an Error Detector wired in parallel with it.
If it is assumed initially in Figure 12.12 that conditions of balanced load have been attained,
then the current output of each current transformer can also be assumed to be 5 amperes and
no current will flow through the error detectors.
5A
2A 1A 1A
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AC Electrics - Alternators
Now imagine that the drive unit of the No 1 alternator increases its torque output, it will take a
bigger share of the load than the other two alternators which will decrease by a proportional
amount.
The output of the No. 1 alternator current transformer has increased to 7 amperes so this will
mean that the output of the No. 2 and 3 transformers will decrease to 4 amperes so that the
average current flowing in the circuit is still 5 amperes.
According to Kirchoff’s first law the difference between each current transformer and the
average current will be pushed through the error detectors in opposite directions. This signal,
when amplified, will be sent to the speed governors to tell the CSDU for the No. 1 Gen to
reduce torque (speed) and the CSDUs for the No. 2 and 3 Gen to increase torque (speed) until
the current in each transformer is once again equal and the real load is once again balanced.
The sensing of out of balance loads by the current transformers is the same but this time the error
detector needs to know the difference between the reactive loads carried by each generator.
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The mutual reactor is a phase shifting transformer which ensures that the error detector only
detects that part of the current which is 90° out of phase with the voltage (reactive load).
The error signal is then amplified and correcting signals are sent to the generator field circuit
to increase the voltage on the low voltage generator and reduce the voltage of the higher
voltage generator to balance the reactive load.
Reactive load sharing is controlled by the Voltage Regulators matching voltage outputs
(field excitation).
5A
2A 1A 1A
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AC Electrics - Alternators
Figure 12.13 Reactive load sharing circuit
In those three and four generator systems the load sharing circuits operate as shown above but
are extended to cater for the required number of generators.
If any generator in a parallel system is not connected in parallel then it will not be connected
to the load sharing circuits either.
Alternator Cooling
The heat generated in the alternator stator windings due to the current flow through them
means that some form of cooling system is required. Those systems with frequency wild
generators or constant frequency generators with separate CSDUs typically use ram air cooling
in flight and some means to induce an airflow on the ground. IDGs or IDUs use their oil to cool
the stators which is then cooled in its own oil cooler.
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connected in parallel with each other while the BTBs are closed. Control of the BTB can be
AC Electrics - Alternators
automatic or manual dependent on the type of aircraft. Correct signals from a Synchronizing
Unit (monitoring phase frequency and voltage) must be available before the BTB will close and
put the alternator in parallel with another. In a paralleled system the BTBs are normally closed.
In a Split Bus system (non paralleled) the BTB is normally open.
Visual indication of the position of the BTBs is given by indicators on the electrical control panel
or the electronic display panel.
Discriminatory Circuits
When alternators are paralleled, Discrimination Circuitry is required to ensure that in the event
of a fault only the faulty system is disconnected from the appropriate bus bar. This is achieved
by selective switching of the GCBs and BTBs.
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Synchronizing Units
Before the alternator can be connected to a bus bar which is common to another alternator
its voltages, frequency and phase sequence must be within very strict limits and in the same
order. The Synchronizing Unit ensures that these values are within limits before it will allow
connection to a common bus bar. There are two methods in use:
• Automatic Control
• Manual (Dark Lamp) Method
Automatic control will not allow the BTB or GCB to close and parallel the generators until the
voltage, frequency and phase sequence of the oncoming generator is within limits. This may be
achieved by circuitry within a bus bar protection control unit or in the Generator Control Units
(GCUs) of a modern IDG system.
The Manual (Dark Lamp) method is a much older method but remains in use on a few aircraft.
Synchronizing Lights on the alternator control panel will show when there are differences
between phases of two supplies. Synchronization is indicated when the lamps are “dark” and
then the BTB, or GCB, can be closed by means of the manual switch.
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Generator Failure Warning Light
AC Electrics - Alternators
A Generator Failure Warning Light will illuminate when its associated GCB is tripped. The
Centralized Warning System will operate simultaneously with the Generator Warning Light
and in some aircraft Aural Warnings are generated.
Aircraft with electronic systems management display units will show the failure and the
associated schematic display.
Load Meters
kW / kVAR Meters are used in paralleled alternator systems to indicate the Real Power (kW) or
the Reactive Power (kVAR) output. Only one meter may be used to indicate both parameters,
selection of a switch will determine which of the two is shown. Typically the switch is selected
so that the kW output is normally displayed.
The Real Load is the part of the alternator output which is available to do work at the bus bar.
The Reactive Load is the part of the alternator output which is used to create electromagnetic
and electrostatic effects in the circuits. It is the so-called Wattless Load which is the vector sum
of the inductive and capacitive currents and voltages.
Load meters on modern electronic display units may only show a percentage of the maximum
power being taken.
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The GCU may also house an Exciter Control Relay otherwise known as a Generator Control Relay
or Generator Field Relay. The exciter control relay controls the exciter field current supply to the
generator field. In the event of a dangerous fault occurring (over excitation or overvoltage) the
fault protection circuit will open the exciter control relay which will cause the generator output
to fall to a residual value making it safe. The GCU will also open the generator circuit breaker
(GCB) to disconnect the generator from its bus bar. (In a paralleled system power would be
maintained to the generator bus bar from the other generators through the BTB).
Emergency Supplies
In the unlikely event of some, or the entire engine driven AC power generation systems on the
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aircraft failing, alternative methods of supply must be made available. Some alternative means
AC Electrics - Alternators
It can be used, among other things, to drive a 115 V/ 200 V/ 400 Hz/ 3 phase alternator for
ground servicing supplies, or, in some aircraft, for emergency supplies in the air.
The APU alternator cannot be paralleled with the engine driven alternators, and will only
supply power to the bus bars when no other source is feeding them.
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When plugged into the aircraft it can be used to supply all the aircraft electrical services.
The ground power unit circuitry must include automatic protection systems which will ensure
that ground power:
annot be connected to the aircraft distribution system if the system is already being
• C
supplied by its own alternators.
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• Will be rejected and switched off at source if overvoltage occurs.
AC Electrics - Alternators
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Each engine drives a constant frequency generator (Integrated Drive Generator or IDG). Oil
temp indications are shown along with overheat and low pressure warning lamps in the
disconnect switch. The disconnect switch is guarded to prevent inadvertent operation.
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The APU also drives a generator but this one does not need a constant speed unit because the
APU runs at a constant speed.
The generator field switch lights control the field excitation circuit (exciter control relay). The
“flow bar” in the “close” switch light illuminates to indicate the generator field is complete and
the voltage and frequency can be checked by selecting the required generator on the rotary
switch and reading off the voltmeter and frequency meter in the upper right corner of the
panel. The “trip” switch light opens the field circuit to reduce the generator voltage to zero.
The Generator Circuit Breaker (GCB) is controlled by the GCB switch lights (close/trip) which
connect or disconnect the generator to its own AC bus bar or the APU to the AC Tie Bus. The
load on each generator can be monitored by the Real/Reactive load indicator showing kW
or kVAR. The meter normally shows kW but kVAR can be shown by pressing and holding the
kVAR button to the left of the gauges.
The BTBs are controlled in the same manner to connect the generator busses to the AC tie bus
for parallel operation. All three generators are normally connected in parallel to share the total
aircraft electrical load.
Each AC bus feeds a TRU which converts 115 V/ 200 V/ 400 Hz/ 3 phase AC to 28v DC to power
the individual DC busses. These too are normally paralleled through tie breakers which are all
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controlled by the DC Bus Isolation switch.
AC Electrics - Alternators
The DC part of the system can also be checked for voltage and current by use of the other
rotary selector and meters for DC Volts and Amps
The Standby bus bars can be fed from the normal electrical supply (AC and DC) or from the
battery in the event of a total supply failure. The red fail lights indicate no voltage on the
Essential or Standby bus bars.
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Questions
1. An alternator is:
2. To prevent high circulating currents between paralleled alternators, the following
conditions should be met:
a. the rotor
b. the megacycle
c. the stator
d. the frequency
a. paralleled
b. a rotating magnet type
c. self-exciting
d. unparalleled
a. flight instruments
b. charging a battery
c. all AC equipment
d. prop and engine de-icing systems
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a. an inverter
b. a diode
c. an autotransformer
d. a rectifier
10. An alternator normally used to supply an aircraft’s power system would be:
a. single phase
b. three phase
c. two phase
d. frequency wild
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11. A permanent magnet in a rotating field generator:
Questions
a. provides for initial excitation of the field
b. controls the amount of excitation in the stator windings
c. provides the initial excitation in the voltage regulator
d. can be flashed by the application of alternating current
15. In a 3 phase supply system, line voltage would be sensed between the:
a. phases only
b. phase and earth
c. phase and neutral
d. phases and earth
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16. One advantage of three phase generation over single phase generation is that:
17. In a typical aircraft constant frequency supply system, the phase voltage is:
a. 200
b. 115
c. 208
d. 400
18. An alternator with its output taken from its stationary armature, has:
a. a stationary field
b. its field excitation fed directly to the armature
c. AC excitation
d. a rotating field
19. The phase voltage in a star wound three phase system is measured between:
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b. two phases
c. two lines
d. neutral and earth
20. If one phase of a star wound three phase system becomes earthed, it will:
21. The alternators fitted in an aircraft’s main power supply system would normally be:
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a. unimportant
b. 180° apart
c. synchronous
d. 120° apart
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a. each alternator has its own constant speed drive unit
Questions
b. all engines are run at the same speed
c. all alternators are driven by the same engine
d. engine speed is governed by the constant speed drive unit
29. For a modern aircraft powered by an AC system, the ground power unit must
supply:
a. 28 volts AC only
b. 200 volts
c. 115 volts, three phase
d. 115/200 volts, three phase, 400 Hz
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a. their frequency, phase, phase sequence and voltage must match, and a means
of automatic real and reactive load sharing must be available
b. real and reactive loads must match. Frequency, phase and voltage must be
within limits
c. the synchronization lights on the alternator control panel must be fully bright
d. suitable control arrangements must exist for the sharing of real and reactive
loads. These will correct any phase or frequency error existing at the time of
connection
a. AC
b. DC from the aircraft batteries
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35. If each phase of a three phase star wound system has a phase voltage of 115 volts,
the voltage obtained by bridging two phase would be:
a. 200 volts AC
b. 173 volts DC
c. 28 volts DC
d. 173 volts AC
36. Protection from ‘earth’ faults and ‘line to line’ faults is given by:
37. Warnings of CSDU oil overheat are given in the cockpit by:
a. audio warning
b. an ‘oil overheat’ warning light
c. a ‘low oil pressure’ warning light
d. a temperature gauge
a. faults can propagate, and any error in supply can affect all services
b. the system is less flexible due to the need for additional control and protection
circuits
c. the greater load on the CSDUs means that their power / weight ratio is much
reduced
d. there is a considerable increase in complexity compared with a non-paralleled
system, due to the need for CSDUs and load sharing circuits
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a. balance the battery voltage when more than one battery is being used
b. prevent recirculating currents
c. control their voltage
d. reduce their magnetic fields
41. The purpose of the differential protection circuit in a three phase AC system is:
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42. An alternator driven by a CSDU
Questions
a. can never be paralleled
b. will require a voltage controller
c. will require a lubrication system separated from its drive oil system
d. will not require a voltage controller
a. the drive disconnect unit will automatically separate the CSDU from the
alternator
b. the real load will be adjusted to compensate
c. the quill drive will fracture
d. the CSDU oil temperature will decrease
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a. always paralleled
Questions
50. If the CSDU drive disconnect unit has been used, the drive can:
51. When selected to ‘kW’, the alternator load meter will indicate the:
a. is self-contained
b. is common with the engine oil system
c. is used only for cooling
d. is used only for lubrication
53. An alternator driven by a non-integrated constant speed drive unit, has windings
that are cooled by:
a. water
b. oil
c. oil and water
d. air
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a. kW & kVA
b. kW & kV
c. kV & kVAR
d. kW & kVAR
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57. When an external AC supply is feeding the bus bars:
Questions
a. the internal bus bars are disconnected
b. the aircraft generators are run in parallel with the external supply
c. the aircraft generators are taken off line
d. the synchronizing unit will ensure that no frequency difference exists between
the aircraft generators and the external supply
a. generators can be run in parallel only when all engine RPMs match
b. generators can never be run in parallel and there can be no duplication of
supply
c. generators can never be run in parallel, but after rectification, the DC can be
fed to a common bus bar to provide a redundancy of supply
d. capacitive and inductive loads can be fed with no problems of overheating
60. A fault on one phase of a three phase AC star connected system would:
a. have no effect
b. affect only the phase concerned
c. cause inductive loads to overheat
d. affect all three phases
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a. to change AC into DC
b. to change the frequency of the AC supply
c. to act as a back up for the alternator
d. to change DC into AC
63. In the event of a mechanical failure occurring in the generator, the CSDU is
protected by:
a. a hydraulic clutch
b. a universal joint
c. a quill drive
d. a feather drive
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64. To increase the real load which is being taken by a paralleled alternator:
Questions
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
b c c a d c d d a b a c
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
c a a c b d a b c d a c
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
a c a b d b c a a d a b
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
b d b d a b c b c a d c
49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
b a b a d d c b c a c d
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61 62 63 64 65
d a c d c
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13
AC Electrics - Practical Aircraft Systems
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AC Electrics - Practical Aircraft Systems 13
13
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To load
Bus bars Flight deck CB
panel
Engine/Wing
Generator
Disconnect
Breaker 1
Generator
Breaker 2
APU Generator
Breaker
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Engine/Wing
AC Electrics -Practical Aircraft Systems
Disconnect
From APU
Generator
CSD Generator 2
Power Distribution
In a very basic form, Figure 13.1 shows the general layout of an electrical distribution system for
a twin jet aircraft. One generator is driven by and mounted on each engine and one generator
is mounted on the APU (not shown). The feeder cables from each generator are routed
through the aircraft wings and fuselage to meet at a central distribution compartment usually
beneath the flight deck or cabin floor. This distribution compartment will house many of the
components already described: GCBs, BTBs GCUs or voltage regulators, current transformers,
main bus bars and bus bar protection circuitry, battery and battery charger. Bus bars and bus
bar extensions may be found on the flight deck behind the rear, side and overhead circuit
breaker panels.
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generators are off line.
If both alternators should fail, then the AC non-essential services, which are normally supplied
from the main AC bus bars, are isolated.
The changeover relay between the No. 1 main bus bar and the essential AC bus bar will
automatically switch over. This causes the essential AC bus bar to be connected to an Emergency
Static Inverter, which should, if the batteries are in a fully charged state, supply the essential AC
bus bars for 30 minutes.
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Under normal conditions, the DC supply in Figure 13.2 is obtained from the two independent
TRUs and the batteries.
The No. 1 TRU supplies essential DC loads and the No. 2 TRU supplies non-essential DC loads.
In normal operation the two bus bars supplying the essential and non-essential DC loads are
connected together by the Isolation Relay. The batteries are connected directly to the Battery
Bus Bar, and through the Battery Relay they will feed the essential DC bus bar.
If, one alternator fails then both TRUs are still supplied through the now closed contacts of the
bus tie breaker, and will still supply all of the DC consumers.
If, however, both alternators fail, the DC Isolation Relay will open and separate the essential
and non-essential bus bars.
Non-essential loads will now no longer be powered, but the AC and DC essential loads will be
fed from the battery bus bar (the AC loads from the static inverter).
External power or supplies from the APU can be used to feed all electrical services in the aircraft
on the ground, but the APU generator may only be capable of supplying one bus bar in flight.
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When the GCB closes it connects its associated alternator to its Load Bus Bar. Once the GCB has
closed it will remain closed during all normal circuit functioning.
The Bus Tie Breakers are normally closed so that the closure of the GCB effectively connects the
alternator to the Synchronizing Bus Bar. If the other one of a pair of alternators (1 & 2) or (3 &
4) now comes “on line” it too will be joined in parallel to the synchronizing bus bar, but only
once the voltage, frequency and phase sequence have been satisfied allowing its GCB to close.
In the system described there are two synchronizing bus bars which can be combined or isolated
by the Split System Breaker (SSB) depending on the flight phase or other system requirement.
Keeping the synchronizing bus bars isolated from each other will allow the alternators to
operate as two paralleled pairs which would be a requirement for example during a dual
autopilot autoland to enable the two autopilots to have totally separate power supplies.
If a single alternator failure occurs with a system similar to that shown in Figure 13.5, then
13
opening of the associated GCB will allow its paired alternator to feed the loads of both of
them. However, this would place a larger load upon that alternator than is being carried by the
AC Electrics - Practical Aircraft Systems
Closure of the SSB would bring all three alternators into parallel operation, thus sharing the
total aircraft load between them. Failures are not always that simple however. If there was
an earth fault on a load bus bar for instance, opening of the associated GCB would do little
to help, the other alternator/s would now be attempting to feed the earth fault. Operation
of the BTB associated with the faulty bus bar would prevent the serviceable alternators being
affected by the fault, and then the earth fault could be totally isolated by opening the GCB of
the alternator feeding it.
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An example of an aircraft with this type of paralleled system is the Boeing 747 - 400. Shown
below in Figure 13.6 and Figure 13.7 are the control panel and the EICAS display for the
electrical system.
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AC Electrics - Practical Aircraft Systems
Figure 13.6 747 - 400 electrical control panel
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Questions
1. The purpose of a synchronizing bus bar is to:
a. in DC circuits only
b. in both AC and DC circuits
c. in AC circuits only
d. only to protect the wiring
3. Where the aircraft’s main electrical supply is AC, DC requirements are met by:
a. batteries
b. TRUs
c. inverters
d. a static inverter
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4. In a split bus system using non-paralleled constant frequency alternators as the
primary power source:
Questions
5. In a split bus system using non-paralleled constant frequency alternators as the
primary power source, if both alternators fail:
6. In normal operation, the split bus bar AC system takes its DC supply from:
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a. are automatically connected via the isolation relay if one alternator fails
b. are automatically connected via the bus tie breaker if one alternator fails
c. can be connected together by switch selection if one alternator fails
d. can never be connected together because there is no load sharing circuit
a. there are two synchronizing bus bars which are normally kept isolated
b. the GCBs connect the generators to the synchronizing bus bar
c. the BTBs connect the synchronizing bus bars together
d. the GCRs connect the generators to their load bus bars
11. If external power is plugged into an aircraft which utilizes the split bus system of
13
power distribution, then:
Questions
a. it will automatically parallel itself with any alternators already on line
b. it will only supply non-essential AC consumers
c. it will supply all the aircraft services
d. essential AC consumers will be supplied from the static inverter
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Chapter
14
AC Electrics - Transformers
Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Transformation Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Power in a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Three Phase Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Autotransformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Rectification of Alternating Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Half Wave Rectification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Full Wave Rectification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Three Phase Rectifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Transformer Rectifier Units (TRUs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Inverters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
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Transformers
One of the biggest advantages that an AC supply has over a DC supply is the ease with which
the value of alternating voltage can be raised or lowered with extreme efficiency by the use of
Transformers.
A simple transformer would consist of two electrically separate coils wound over iron laminations
to form a common core. This forms a completely closed magnetic circuit. See Figure 14.1.
The Primary winding is connected to the AC supply and the output is taken from the Secondary
winding.
The alternating voltage and current in the primary winding creates an alternating flux which
links across to the secondary winding.
The alternating flux in the secondary winding sets up an EMF of mutual inductance which is
available as the output voltage. The output voltage will be 180° out of phase with the input
voltage. If a load is placed across the terminals of the secondary winding then a current will
flow in the circuit.
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AC Electrics - Transformers
Figure 14.1 A simple transformer
Transformation Ratio
The Transformation Ratio of a transformer is the ratio of the number of turns of wire on the
secondary winding (N2) to the number of turns of wire on the primary winding (N1). The
transformation ratio will also allow the determination of input and output voltages by using
the formula:
N2 E2
TRANSFORMATION RATIO (r) = =
N1 E1
If the transformation ratio is greater than one, then the transformer is a Step Up transformer.
If the ratio is less than one, then the transformer is a Step Down transformer. See Figure 14.2.
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Power in a Transformer
If we ignore the very small losses that do occur in a transformer, then we can say that the
power that goes into a transformer equals the power that comes out of it. The power in either
the primary winding or the secondary winding is equal to the product of the voltage times the
current in either winding.
or
A three phase transformer consists of the primary and secondary windings of each phase
wound on one of three laminated iron limbs.
Autotransformers
Where AC is required for the operation of instruments on the aircraft, an Autotransformer can
be used to either step down, or sometimes even step up, the source supply; the supply usually
required for instruments is 26 volts AC.
It should be noted that part of the winding carries both the primary and secondary current
because it is common to both windings.
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Autotransformers are less expensive than two coil transformers because they use less wire;
however, they do not electrically isolate the primary and secondary windings and so cannot be
used in many circuits for this reason.
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at a predetermined voltage; these rectifiers are called Zener Diodes.
AC Electrics - Transformers
A diode has a high resistance in one direction and a low resistance in the other. The accepted
symbol for a diode rectifier and the direction of conventional current flow is shown in
Figure 14.4.
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This is shown in Figure 14.6. The output of a Three Phase Rectifier is essentially a steady output.
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DC OUTPUT
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A A
AC Electrics - Transformers
B B
C C
- DC OUTPUT + - +
LINE VOLTAGE BETWEEN PHASES A AND B LINE VOLTAGE BETWEEN PHASES A AND C
- +
LINE VOLTAGE BETWEEN PHASES B AND C
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TRUs are invariably multi-phase units to achieve a smooth DC output. Indications of TRU output
(amps) can be shown on the main electrical panel on the flight deck.
Cooling is achieved by drawing air through the unit which may be monitored for temperature
with an overheat warning supplied.
Inverters
An inverter converts DC to AC.
Inverters are usually “solid state” static inverters, transistorized in modern aircraft, providing
constant frequency AC for operation of flight instruments and other essential AC consumers.
Rotary and Static inverters are described in the DC section and are not generally used in modern
aircraft.
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Aircraft which have a frequency wild distribution system (British Aerospace ATP, ATR 42) use
AC Electrics - Transformers
inverters to supply their normal constant frequency requirements. This is done by transforming
and rectifying the frequency wild into DC, and then supplying the DC to the inverter (static) to
give a controlled AC output.
Inverter output can be monitored for voltage and frequency in the same manner as the main
generators.
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Questions
1. Instrument transformers normally:
2. An autotransformer:
a. varies its turns ratio automatically to maintain a constant output voltage with
varying input voltage
b. has only one coil which is used as both primary and secondary
c. will maintain a constant output frequency with a varying supply frequency
d. requires an inductive supply
14
4. A transformer which halves the voltage will have:
Questions
a. twice as many turns on the secondary as on the primary
b. half as many turns on the secondary as on the primary
c. half as much current flowing in the secondary as in the primary
d. four times as many turns on the secondary as on the primary
7. If the voltage induced in the secondary windings is greater than that in the primary
then the transformer is:
a. an autotransformer
b. a step up
c. a step down
d. a magnetic amplifier
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b b b b c b b
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Chapter
15
AC Electrics - AC Motors
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The brush equipment is another weak link, the heat generated at the brushes causing them to
stick in the holders and as a consequence the resistance between them and the commutator
increases, often to the point of becoming an open circuit, when the motor will stop.
Synchronous AC motors do in fact use brush gear, their rotors being fed by relatively low current
DC through slip rings, but these in general are less troublesome.
AC motors are particularly suited for constant speed applications since their speed is determined
by the frequency of the applied power supply.
The majority of AC motors used in aircraft can be divided into two types:
15
• S
ynchronous Motors. These are basically alternators operated as motors. Alternating
AC Electrics - AC Motors
current is applied to the stator but the rotor has a direct current power source.
• I nduction Motors. This type has alternating current applied to the stator but the rotor has
no power source.
As illustrated in Figure 15.1, the application of a three phase supply to the stator causes a
rotating magnetic field to be set up around the rotor. If a bar magnet was suspended in the
field, it would rotate synchronously with it (at the same speed as the rotating field).
In the same way, the rotor of a synchronous motor, which is energized with DC, acts like a
magnet. It lines up with the field created by the stator and if the field turns, the rotor turns
with it.
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Synchronous motors are in fact single speed motors, the speed of rotation depending upon
the frequency of the supply. Since in most cases the supply frequency is constant, then so is
the motor speed. A synchronous motor will rotate at the same speed as the alternator that is
supplying it providing it has the same number of poles, i.e. if a synchronous motor with 4 poles
is supplied with a constant frequency 400 Hz supply, it will rotate at a constant 12 000 RPM.
Number of Poles RPM
× = Frequency (hertz)
2 60
2
∴ RPM = Freq × 60 ×
Number of Poles
One disadvantage of the synchronous motor is that it is not self-starting. To obtain the initial
rotation some induction windings have to be added to the rotor to assist in bringing it up to
synchronous speed.
Synchronous motors are used on aircraft to indicate engine RPM. A small three phase alternator
(tacho-generator) is driven by the engine so that the frequency of the supply will be directly
proportional to engine speed. The electrical output is connected to a synchronous motor in
the RPM indicator. The indicator needle is coupled to the synchronous motor via a permanent
magnet and a ‘drag cup’. As the synchronous motor rotates, it ‘drags’ the drag cup around
with it, and the faster the motor goes, the further the drag cup moves and the further around
the scale the needle moves. So the movement of the needle will be in proportion to engine
RPM.
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It is the most commonly used because of its simplicity, its robustness and because it is relatively
cheap to produce.
This relative cheapness is mainly because of the fact that the rotor is a self-contained unit and
not connected to the supply.
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AC Electrics - AC Motors
Figure 15.2 Squirrel cage induction motor
The resultant induced voltage creates a relatively large current flow in the squirrel cage. This
current flow sets up its own magnetic field which interacts with the rotating field of the stator
to produce a torque. If a three phase motor has two phases of its supply reversed, then its
direction of rotation will be reversed also.
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Slip Speed
The speed of the motor is determined by the frequency of the supply and the load on the
motor. The rotor never quite reaches true synchronous speed, if it did then the squirrel cage
bars would not be cut by any lines of force and thus would not produce the induced voltage.
The difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed is called the slip speed or rotor
slip. A typical value of slip would be 5%. Because of the difference in speed between the stator
field and rotor, the induction motor is sometimes referred to as being asynchronous.
If the current in the split phase winding can be made to lead or lag the current in the main
winding by 90° then a rotating field can be produced.
• Resistance starting
• Inductance starting
• Resistance / inductance starting
• Capacitance starting
15
The application of each method depends on the power output of the motor, e.g. capacitance
started motors are usually of less than 2 HP output.
AC Electrics - AC Motors
Fault Operation
Occasionally the failure of one phase of the supply to a three phase induction motor does
happen. If the motor is lightly loaded then it will probably continue to run at about half of
its normal speed. This will create a humming noise in the motor which, because of the usually
remote locations in which the motors are mounted, will probably not make itself apparent.
The fault usually becomes apparent the next time an attempt is made to run the motor, when
it will not start.
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Questions
1. Synchronous motors are usually supplied by:
a. three phase AC
b. single phase AC
c. DC to the stator
d. DC to the stator and AC to the rotor
a. voltage
b. current
c. reactance
d. frequency
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c. will stop immediately
d. will run at about half speed but will not start on its next selection
Questions
5. The basic principle of operation of a 3 phase induction motor is:
6. In an induction motor:
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10. A starting circuit for a powerful single phase induction motor might be:
a. a capacitance starter
b. a resistance / inductance starter
c. a cartridge starter
d. a bump starter
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Chapter
16
AC Electrics - Semiconductors
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An Introduction to Semiconductors
Most people own some type of hand-held or desktop calculator these days. The cost of these
useful devices varies depending on sophistication; simple ones are given away free as advertising
gimmicks, yet there is more computing power inside one of these tiny machines than took Neil
Armstrong to the moon!!
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AC Electrics - Semiconductors
Figure 16.1 A hydrogen atom
The most simple atom is the Hydrogen atom. It consists of a nucleus, containing one proton
(positively charged) and one neutron (neutrally charged), and an electron (negatively charged)
orbiting about the nucleus.
Conductors and insulators have more complex atoms with an increasing (equal) number of
neutrons, protons and electrons with the latter orbiting the nucleus in multiple orbits or shells.
These atoms are held together by the bonds formed between the valence electrons in the
outer shells and arrange themselves into a lattice type arrangement equidistant from each
other. Electrons in the outer shells are less tightly bonded to their parent atom than those on
the inner shells and are free to move from one atom to the next.
These electrons, known as free electrons, form the basis for current flow within the material.
Conductors, formed by atoms held together by electrovalent bonds, possess large numbers of
free electrons, and this allows current to flow easily through the material or put another way;
the material has high conductivity (low resistivity). Gold, silver and copper are all examples
of good conductors.
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Insulators, on the other hand, are formed by atoms held together by covalent bonds and
possess few free electrons. This means that current flow is difficult; the material has low
conductivity (high resistivity). Mica is one example of a good insulator.
Semiconductors
Semiconductors, as their name would imply, fall somewhere between a conductor and an
insulator. Silicon and germanium are examples of semiconductors.
Both materials are formed by atoms with covalent bonds. Though each possesses some free
electrons at normal temperatures, they are closer to being insulators than conductors. Thus an
EMF applied across the material would give rise to an intermediate current flow, higher than
that in an insulator, but less than that in a conductor.
Conductivity can be improved by the controlled addition of impurities into the silicon or
germanium material using a process known as doping.
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N-Type Material
By doping the silicon or germanium with arsenic or antimony, atoms which have 5 valance
electrons in their outer shell are introduced into the lattice structure. The ratio of impurity
atoms to original atoms (doping ratio) is in the order of 1:108.
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AC Electrics - Semiconductors
Figure 16.3 N-type material
Four of the five electrons form covalent bonds with the surrounding atoms, the 5th electron,
having no such ties, becomes a free electron. Conductivity through the material is thus
increased.
We call this type of material N-type because of the surfeit of free electrons which are, of course,
negatively charged. However, it should be noted that the material remains electrically neutral;
for each free electron there is a fixed positive ion within the material.
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P-Type Material
By doping with impurities such as aluminium or indium, again in the same doping ratio as
above, atoms with only three valence electrons in their outer shell are introduced.
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AC Electrics - Semiconductors
This time there are only 3 electrons to form the covalent bonds, one is missing. In other words
there is a hole in the valent structure.
Electrons from adjacent atoms tend to move into these holes thus creating holes around the
donor atoms which in turn ‘steal’ electrons from their neighbours moving the hole on further.
Again, it should be noted, it possesses no electrical charge, there being an equal number of
holes and fixed negative ions.
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Current Flow
Applying an EMF across a piece of N-type material would cause the free electrons to migrate
towards the positive terminal.
Any electrons leaving the material at the positive terminal are replaced by electrons entering at
the negative terminal, thus the overall balance between free electrons and fixed positive ions
is maintained.
In P-type material the situation is more complex, but in general, electrons are attracted into the
positive terminal creating holes in this region.
The holes ‘migrate’ towards the negative terminal and are ultimately filled by an electron
entering at that point.
Hence in P-type semiconductor material we can consider current flow as the drift of holes in
the conventional direction, namely from the positive to the negative terminal. Again, overall
balance is maintained between electrons and fixed negative ions.
This migration produces a charged region known as the Depletion Layer and creates a Barrier
Potential restricting further electron/hole movement. This barrier potential may be represented
16
as an imaginary battery, though it should be remembered, the regions of increased positive
and negative charge exist only across the junction. The material as a whole possesses no
AC Electrics - Semiconductors
electrical charge.
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Reverse Bias
If we now connect an external EMF across the P-N material, as shown in Figure 16.6 A, more
electrons are drawn across the barrier into the P-type material and more holes are drawn to
the N-type.
This deepens the depletion layer and further electron/hole migration is prevented. Apart from
a small leak current, in the order of µA, no significant current flows. The junction is said to be
reverse biased.
16
AC Electrics - Semiconductors
Forward Bias
By applying the external EMF, as shown in Figure 16.6 B, the direction of the electric field is
such as to produce a drift of holes in the P-type material to the right, and of free electrons in
the N-type to the left.
In the junction region, free electrons and holes combine, thus the barrier potential is overcome.
In other words, the material acts as a rectifier and has similar conduction characteristics to a
thermionic diode (valve).
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The three regions of either type of transistor are known respectively as Collector, Base and
Emitter.
The circuit symbol for each transistor differs only in regard to the direction of the arrow
between Base and Emitter.
The arrow always represents conventional current flow; thus for an N-P-N transistor it points
from Base to Emitter, and for a P-N-P, from Emitter to Base.
Operation. N-P-N Transistor: If we apply an EMF across the Collector - Emitter region, as shown
in Figure 16.9 left, no current flows.
However, if we now add an EMF between across the Base - Emitter region, as shown in Figure
16.9 right, a large current flows from Emitter to Collector.
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AC Electrics - Semiconductors
The theory governing the flow of current in a transistor is complex and generally beyond the
scope of this course, but in simple terms here is what happens.
By applying an EMF, or Bias voltage, between Base and Emitter of an N-P-N transistor, the
junction is forward biased and a large number of free electrons are attracted to the Base
region.
However, in the relatively thin Base region, few holes are produced for these free electrons to
combine with, so the surplus diffuse into the Collector region where they migrate towards the
applied positive potential.
Holes that have combined with free electrons are replaced as an electron leaves the Base region
for the positive terminal of the Bias supply.
Consequently, a relatively small Base - Emitter current flow produces a large Emitter - Collector
flow.
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Operation. P-N-P Transistor: A P-N-P transistor’s operation is similar in all respects to that of an
N-P-N transistor except that the applied EMFs are reversed.
Summary
The ability of a transistor to control a large Emitter - Collector current by means of a small
Base - Emitter current means it can act as a switch or amplifier: as a switch by turning the
Base - Emitter current on and off, or as an amplifier by superimposing a small alternating
current signal on the Bias voltage. In conjunction with the Junction Diode and other electronic
components, such as resistors, capacitors and inductors, the applications for the transistor are
almost limitless.
Furthermore, the ability to control precisely those areas to which doping is applied, using
photo-etching techniques, means that all of the above components can be incorporated into
a highly sophisticated and complex circuit within a single, small piece of silicon. The ubiquitous
computer chip is one such example.
For the future, as production techniques improve, faster, more powerful circuits will be
contained in ever smaller packages, leading in turn to more sophisticated technology being
incorporated in the modern airliner.
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Chapter
17
AC Electrics - Logic Gates
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There are six commonly used logic gates: the ‘AND’, the ‘OR’, the ‘INVERT’, the ‘NOR’, the
‘NAND’ and the ‘EXCLUSIVE OR’. The name of each gate represents the function it performs.
Binary Logic
Logic gates are of a binary nature, i.e. the inputs and the outputs are in one of two states
expressed by the digital notation ‘1’ or ‘0’. Other corresponding expressions are also frequently
used, they are:
Truth Tables
Truth Tables are a systematic means of displaying binary data. Truth tables illustrate the
relationship between a logic gate’s inputs and outputs. This type of data display can be used
to describe the operation of a gate. For troubleshooting purposes, the truth table data is often
reviewed in order to determine the correct output signal for a given set of inputs.
Gate Symbols
Each logic gate has a symbol of a specific shape. The symbols are designated to “point” in a
17
given direction, that is, the inputs are always listed on the left of the symbol and the outputs
on the right.
• I f positive logic is used in the digital circuit, a ‘binary 1’ equals a high voltage level and a
‘binary 0’ equals a low voltage level. The actual voltage values may be either both positive
or both negative, or one positive and one negative. The only stipulation for positive logic
is that a ‘binary 1’ is created by a greater positive voltage than a ‘binary 0’ . Each signal
represents the greater positive voltage value as a ‘binary 1’, and therefore the following
examples employ the positive logic concept. Most digital systems employ positive logic
throughout the entire computer and related component circuitry.
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he negative logic concept defines ‘binary 1’ as the lower voltage value and ‘binary 0’ as
• T
the higher voltage value (more positive). Although less popular, negative logic is used in
some systems in order to meet certain design parameters.
Figure 17.1 The symbol and truth table for an ‘AND’ gate
Figure 7.10. The Symbol and Truth Table for an 'AND' Gate.
A simple ‘AND’ circuit may also be represented by two switches in series used to turn on a light
as shown in Figure 17.1. If both switches (inputs) are ‘1’ (on), the light will turn ‘1’ (on). If either
switch is ‘0’ (off), the light will be ‘0’ (off).
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Only if all inputs become ‘0’ will the ‘OR’ gate produce a ‘0’ output. If any input is a ‘1’,
regardless of the other input values, the ‘OR’ gate will produce a ‘1’ output.
A two-input ‘OR’ gate symbol and corresponding truth table are illustrated in Figure 17.2.
A simple ‘OR’ circuit may be made up of two switches in parallel controlling one light. If either
switch is ‘1’ (on), the light will turn ‘1’ (on).
A
A
C
C
B B
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The ‘INVERT’ gate is sometimes referred to as a ‘NOT’ gate. The symbol and truth table for an
‘INVERT’ gate are shown in Figure 17.3.
An ‘INVERT’ circuit might comprise a switch controlling a normally closed relay which turns on
or off a light. As also illustrated in Figure 17.3, if the switch is turned ‘1’ (on), the light is ‘0’ (off).
A
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The ‘NAND’ gate circuit illustrated in Figure 17.4 shows if either switch is closed, there will be
no output.
A B
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AC Electrics - Logic Gates
Figure 7.13.Figure
The17.4
Representations
The representationof
of the 'NAND'
the ‘NAND’ Gate.
gate
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B
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An illustration of the representations of the ‘EXCLUSIVE OR’ gate is shown in Figure 17.6. This
gate compares a maximum of two input signals to determine its output.
As shown in the truth table within Figure 17.6, if the input signals have like values, the output
will be ‘0’, if the input signals have unlike values, the output will be ‘1’
A C
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AC Electrics - Logic Gates
Figure 7.15. Representations
Figure ofofthe
17.6 Representations the'EXCLUSIVE OR' Gate.
‘EXCLUSIVE OR’ gate
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Questions
1. The logic function of the circuit shown is:
a. ‘AND’
b. ‘OR’
c. ‘NOR’
d. ‘NOT’
a. an ‘AND’ gate
b. a ‘NOR’ gate
c. an ‘OR’ gate
d. an ‘EXCLUSIVE OR’ gate
5. A gate which requires that all inputs must be HIGH to obtain an output would be:
a. a ‘NOR’ gate
b. an ‘OR’ gate
c. an ‘AND’ gate
d. a ‘NOT’ gate
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a. an inverter
b. an ‘AND’ gate
c. an ‘EXCLUSIVE NOR’ gate
d. an ‘OR’ gate 28 V
8. A transistor:
9. A transistor:
17
a. is made up of crystals in the arrangement of emitter, base and collector
b. is made up of crystals in the arrangement of emitter, collector and base
Questions
c. is made up of crystals in the arrangement of collector, emitter and base
d. requires a current of ten amps through the base to transmit
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a. ‘AND’
b. ‘EXCLUSIVE NOR’
c. ‘EXCLUSIVE OR’
d. ‘EXCLUSIVE NOT’
14. In order to energize the relay shown in this circuit, the logic state at the inputs
must be:
a. ‘OR’
b. ‘NAND’
c. ‘AND’
d. ‘NOT’
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Questions
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Questions
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17 Answers
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Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
b a c a c d c d a b c a
13 14 15
c c d
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Answers
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Chapter
18
Index
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18 Index
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A CIVIL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Collector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Commutator Ripple. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Alkaline Battery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Conductors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
ALL or NOTHING Gate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Constant Speed Drive Unit (CSDU). . . . . 195
Alternate Action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Conventional Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Alternator Cooling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Corkscrew Rule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Alternators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Aluminium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Current Limiters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Ammeter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Ampere Hours (Ah). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Amperes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 D
Amps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Delta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190, 192
AND Gate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Dielectric. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Antimony. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Differential Fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
ANY or ALL Gate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Dipole. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Apparent Power (VA or kVA). . . . . . . . . 175 Dog Clutch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Armature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Doping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Arsenic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Drive Disconnect Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Autotransformers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Dummy Fuses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Auxiliary Power Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
E
B
Earth Return. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Back EMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Electric Motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Back EMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Electrodes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Base. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Electrolyte. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Electromagnetic Indicators. . . . . . . . . . . 115
Bimetallic Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Electromagnetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Binary Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Electromotive Force (EMF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Bipolar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Electron Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
18
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Index
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G Microvolt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Milliamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Generator Circuit Breaker (GCB). . . . . . . 199 Millivolt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Generator Control Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Momentary Action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Generator Cut-out. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Generator Field Relay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 N
Germanium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 NAND Gate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Guarded Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Negative Ion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
H Negative Temperature Coefficient. . . . . . . 6
Nickel Cadmium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Half Wave Rectification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Non-essential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Non-trip Free Circuit Breaker. . . . . . . . . . . 40
Hertz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 NOR Gate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
High Rupture Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 N-Type Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Nucleus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
I
Indium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 O
Impedance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Off Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Ohm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Inductance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Ohm’s Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Induction Motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 On Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Inductive Reactance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 OR Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Overvoltage Protection Unit. . . . . . . . . . 123
Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Integrated Drive Generator (IDG). . . . . . 195 P
Integrated Drive Unit (IDU). . . . . . . . . . . 195 Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Inverters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124, 236 Permeability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
J Phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
P-N Junction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Junction Diode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Positive Ion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
18
Junction Transistor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Positive Temperature Coefficient . . . . . . . . 6
Index
Potassium Hydroxide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
K
Potential Difference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Kilovolt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Kirchoff’s Laws. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Primary Cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
L Primary Winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Lead Acid Battery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Protons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Lenz’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Proximity Detectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Limit switches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 P-Type Material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Linear Actuators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Load Meter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Q
Load Sharing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Quill Drive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Load Shedding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 ,131
Logic Gates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 R
Lorentz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Ram Air Turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Reactive Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
M
Reactive Load Sharing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Magnetism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Reactive Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Microamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Reactive Power (VAR or kVAR). . . . . . . . 175
Microswitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Real Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
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Slip Rings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Slip Speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Index
Solenoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Spare Fuses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Specific Gravity (SG). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Split Bus System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Split Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Split Ring Commutator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Squirrel Cage Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Static Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Static Inverter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Static Wicks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Step Down transformer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Step Up transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Switch Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Synchronizing Bus Bar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Synchronous Motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
278