Mnhmuhc v`mtcrdnh

Lung Ngkräs Gnrvn`z Mcgtr`rns M.M. >990:9;;;= 1>/941919

@G]NTC ]CAQ@ @H MNHMPHC Z@M[CQDNH

YQ@]@G[NKC YCQ<
LPNG NGKQ@] GNQZN@\ MCG[Q@QN]

KCM@G[@<
FNQDC NHFNG\N

PGDZ@QD]DKNK K@
]PMQ@ MNHMPHC DDD

DGB@GD@QDN MDZDH ([@QM@Q ]@F@][Q@)

1919
Mnhmuhc v`mtcrdnh
Lung Ngkräs Gnrvn`z Mcgtr`rns M.M. >990:9;;;= 1>/941919
Dgtrckummdýg.

Pgn rnfn k` hns fnt`fîtdmns qu` s` `stukdn `g hns mnrr`rns k` dgb`gd`ræn `s `h Mîhmuhc
Z`mtcrdnh. ]u crdb`g s` `gmu`gtrn n jdg`s k`h sdbhc UZDDD y n prdgmdpdcs k`h sdbhc UDU,
ju`rt`f`gt` hdbnkcs mcg hcs dgdmdcs k` hn jæsdmn-fnt`fîtdmn, hn t`rfckdgîfdmn, hn
edkrckdgîfdmn, hn f`mîgdmn k` hcs jhudkcs, hn `h`mtrdmdknk, `h fnbg`tdsfc, hn t`cræn k`h
pct`gmdnh y hn @munmdýg k` Hnphnm`. Hn mcfpr`gsdýg k` hcs mcgm`ptcs qu` dgvchumrn, `s
`s`gmdnh pnrn nhufgcs k` mnrr`rns k` dgb`gd`ræn. H`s prcpcrmdcgnrî e`rrnfd`gtns aîsdmns
qu` hcs nyuknrîg `g hn fck`hdznmdýg fnt`fîtdmn k` kdv`rscs j`gýf`gcs jæsdmcs k` hcs
sdst`fns `g dgb`gd`ræn qu` pckrîg s`r ngnhdznkcs n pnrtdr k` ugn r`pr`s`gtnmdýg v`mtcrdnh.

@h mîhmuhc v`mtcrdnh `s ug mnfpc

mn fpc k` hns fnt`fîtdmns r`j`rdkns nh ngîhdsds r`nh fuhtdvnrdnah`
k` v`mtcr`s `g 1 c fîs kdf`gsdcg`s. @s ug `gjcqu` k` hn b`cf`træn kdj`r`gmdnh mcfc
mcglugtc k` jýrfuhns y tämgdmns pnrn schumdcgnr prcah`fns fuy ütdh`s pnrn hn dgb`gd`ræn y
hn jæsdmn. Mcgsdk`rnfcs hcs mnfpcs v`mtcrdnh`s, qu` nscmdng ug v`mtcr n mnkn pugtc `g `h
`spnmdc, y mnfpcs `smnhnr`s, qu` nscmdng ug `smnhnr n mnkn pugtc `g `h `spnmdc. Ycr
`l`fphc, hn t`fp`rnturn k` ugn pdsmdgn `s ug mnfpc `smnhnr< n mnkn pugtc nscmdnfcs ug
vnhcr `smnhnr k` t`fp`rnturn. @h jhulc k`h nbun `g hn fdsfn pdsmdgn `s ug mnfpc v`mtcrdnh< n
mnkn pugtc nscmdnfcs ug v`mtcr k` v`hcmdknk.

Muntrc cp`rnmdcg`s scg dfpcrtngt`s `g `h mîhmuhc v`mtcrdnh<

Brnkd`gt`< fdk` hn tnsn y hn kdr`mmdýg k`h mnfadc `g ug mnfpc `smnhnr, `h brnkd`gt` k` ug

mnfpc `smnhnr `s ug mnfpc v`mtcrdnh.

Qctcr c rctnmdcgnh< fdk` hn t`gk`gmdn k` ug mnfpc v`mtcrdnh n rctnr nhr`k`kcr k` ug pugtc?

`h rctcr k` ug mnfpc v`mtcrdnh `s ctrc mnfpc v`mtcrdnh.

Kdv`rb`gmdn< fdk` hn t`gk`gmdn k` ug mnfpc v`mtcrdnh n crdbdgnrs` c mcgv`rb`r enmdn md`rtcs

pugtcs? hn kdv`rb`gmdn k` ug mnfpc v`mtcrdnh `s ug mnfpc `smnhnr.

Hnphnmdngc< r`hnmdcgn `h "prcf`kdc"

"prcf`kdc" k` ugn prcpd`knk `g ug pugtc k`h `spnmdc mcg ctrn
fnbgdtuk, `s ug cp`rnkcr kdj`r`gmdnh k` s`bugkc crk`g. Hn fnycræn k` hcs r`suhtnkcs

ngnhætdmcs s` `gtd`gk`g fîs jîmdhf`gt` usngkc hn fnqudgnrdn k` hn b`cf`træn kdj`r`gmdnh, k`

hn munh `h mîhmuhc v`mtcrdnh jcrfn ug suamcglugtc.
Mnhmuhc v`mtcrdnh
Lung Ngkräs Gnrvn`z Mcgtr`rns M.M. >990:9;;;= 1>/941919
Z`mtcr.

@g fnt`fîtdmns s` k`jdg` v`mtcr mcfc ug `h`f`gtc k` ug `spnmdc v`mtcrdnh. @stn gcmdýg `s

fîs nastrnmtn y pnrn fumecs `spnmdcs v`mtcrdnh`s
v `mtcrdnh`s gc `s pcsdah` r`pr`s`gtnr sus v`mtcr`s
f`kdngt` `h fýkuhc y hn kdr`mmdýg.
k dr`mmdýg. @g pnrtdmuhnr hcs `spnmdcs k` kdf`gsdýg dgjdgdtn sdg
prckumtc `smnhnr gc scg r`pr`s`gtnah`s k` `s` fckc. Hcs v`mtcr`s `g ug `spnmdc `umhæk`c s`
pu`k`g r`pr`s`gtnr b`cfätrdmnf`gt` mcfc s`bf`gtcs k` r`mtn Q, Q , `g `h phngc Q1
(adkdf`gsdcgnh), c `g `h `spnmdc Q= (trdkdf`gsdcgnh).

[dpcs k` v`mtcr`s<

Z`mtcr`s `qudpch`gt`s< Kcs v`mtcr`s scg `qudpch`gt`s mungkc td`g`g dbunh fýkuhc,
kdr`mmdýg y s`gtdkc.

Z`mtcr`s hdar`s< @h mcglugtc k` tckcs hcs v`mtcr`s `qudpch`gt`s

`q udpch`gt`s `gtr` sæ s` hhnfn v`mtcr
hdar`, `s k`mdr, hcs v`mtcr`s hdar`s td`g`g `h fdsfc fýkuhc, kdr`mmdýg y s`gtdkc.

Z`mtcr`s jdlcs< Pg v`mtcr jdlc `s ug r`pr`s`gtngt` k`h v`mtcr

v `mtcr hdar`. @s k`mdr, hcs v`mtcr`s
jdlcs td`g`g `h fdsfc fýkuhc, kdr`mmdýg, s`gtdkc y crdb`g.

Z`mtcr`s hdbnkcs< Hcs v`mtcr`s hdbnkcs scg v`mtcr`s `qudpch`gt`s qu` nmtüng `g hn fdsfn
r`mtn, `s k`mdr, hcs v`mtcr`s jdlcs td`g`g `h fdsfc fýkuhc, kdr`mmdýg, s`gtdkc y s` `gmu`gtrng
`g hn fdsfn r`mtn.

Z`mtcr`s cpu`stcs< Hcs v`mtcr`s cpu`stcs td`g`g `h fdsfc fýkuhc, kdr`mmdýg, y

kdstdgtc s`gtdkc.

Z`mtcr`s ugdtnrdcs< Hcs v`mtcr`s ugdtnrdcs td`g`g k` fýkuhc

fýkuhc,, hn ugdknk.
ugdknk. Ynrn cat`g`r ug
v`mtcr ugdtnrdc, k` hn fdsfn kdr`mmdýg y s`gtdkc qu` `h v`mtcr knkc s` kdvdk` äst` pcr
su fýkuhc.

Z`mtcr`s mcgmurr`gt`s< Hcs v`mtcr`s mcgmurr`gt`s td`g`g `h fdsfc crdb`g.

Z`mtcr k` pcsdmdýg< @h v`mtcr CY qu` ug` `h crdb`g k` mccrk`gnkns C mcg ug pugtc Y s`

hhnfn v`mtcr k` pcsdmdýg k`h pugtc Y.

Z`mtcr`s hdg`nhf`gt` dgk`p`gkd`gt`s< Znrdcs v`mtcr`s hdar`s k`h phngc scg hdg`nhf`gt`
dgk`p`gkd`gt`s sd `xdst` ugn mcfadgnmdýg hdg`nh k` `hhcs qu` s`n dbunh nh v`mtcr m`rc, sdg
qu` s`ng m`rc tckcs hcs mc`jdmd`gt`s k` hn mcfadgnmdýg hdg`nh.

Z`mtcr`s hdg`nhf`gt` k`p`gkd`gt`s< Znrdcs v`mtcr`s hdar`s scg hdg`nhf`gt`

dgk`p`gkd`gt`s sd gdgbugc k` `hhcs s` pu`k` `xpr`snr mcfc mcfadgnmdýg hdg`nh k` hcs ctrcs.

Z`mtcr`s crtcbcgnh`s< Kcs v`mtcr`s scg crtcbcgnh`s c p`rp`gkdmuhnr`s sd su prckumtc

`smnhnr `s m`rc.

Z`mtcr`s crtcgcrfnh`s< Pg mcglugtc k` v`mtcr`s `s crtcgcrfnh, sd `s ug mcglugtc crtcbcgnh

y hn gcrfn k` mnkn ugc k` sus v`mtcr`s `s dbunh n >.
Mnhmuhc v`mtcrdnh
Lung Ngkräs Gnrvn`z Mcgtr`rns M.M. >990:9;;;= 1>/941919
Brnkd`gt`<

K`spuäs k` npr`gk`r qu` hns jugmdcg`s mcg `gtrnkns fuhtdkdf`gsdcgnh`s td`g`g k`rdvnkns
pnrmdnh`s,, t` pu`k`s pr`bugtnr muîh `s hn k`rdvnkn mcfph`tn k` ugn jugmdýg k` `sns. @g `h
pnrmdnh`s
mnsc k` hns jugmdcg`s `smnhnr`s fuhtdvnrdnah`s, c s`n nqu`hhns qu` td`g`g ugn `gtrnkn
fuhtdkdf`gsdcgnh p`rc ugn snhdkn ugdkdf`gsdcgnh, hn r`spu`stn `s `h brnkd`gt`.
@h brnkd`gt` k` ugn jugmdýg j, qu` s` k`gctn mcfc ∂j, `s hn mch`mmdýg k` tckns hns k`rdvnkns
pnrmdnh`s `g jcrfn k` v`mtcr.
Qctnmdcgnh<

@g `h mîhmuhc v`mtcrdnh,
v`mtcrdnh, `h rctnmdcgnh c rctcr `s ug cp`rnkcr v`mtcrdnh
scar` mnfpcs v`mtcrdnh`s k`jdgdkcs `g ug nad`rtc k` Q= qu` fu`strn hn t`gk`gmdn k` ug
mnfpc v`mtcrdnh n dgkumdr rctnmdýg nhr`k`kcr k` ug pugtc.

Fnt`fîtdmnf`gt`, `stn dk`n s` `xpr`sn mcfc `h hæfdt` k` hn mdrmuhnmdýg k`h mnfpc v`mtcrdnh,
mungkc hn murvn scar` hn qu` s` dgt`brn s` r`kum` n ug pugtc<

hdf >
.rct J 6P . J 6
P .rct
Λ] ↑ 9

Λ]
∧ J . kr
m

Nquæ, Λ] `s `h îr`n k` hn sup`rjdmd` npcynkn `g hn murvn M, qu` s` r`kum` n ug pugtc. @h

r`suhtnkc k` `st` hæfdt` gc `s `h rctnmdcgnh mcfph`tc (qu` `s ug v`mtcr), sdgc schc su
mcfpcg`gt` s`büg hn kdr`mmdýg gcrfnh Λ] y crd`gtnkn s`büg hn r`bhn k` hn fngc k`r`men.
Ynrn cat`g`r `h rctnmdcgnh mcfph`tc k`a`rîg
k `a`rîg mnhmuhnrs` tr`s hæfdt`s, mcgsdk`rngkc tr`s
murvns sdtunkns `g phngcs p`rp`gkdmuhnr`s.

Kdv`rb`gmdn<

Hn kdv`rb`gmdn fdk` hn kdj`r`gmdn `gtr`

`g tr` `h jhulc snhd`gt` y `h jhulc `gtrngt` k` ug mnfpc
v`mtcrdnh scar` hn sup`rjdmd` qu` rck`n n ug vchuf`g k` mcgtrch, pcr tngtc, sd `h mnfpc td`g`
"ju`gt`s" hn kdv`rb`gmdn s`rî pcsdtdvn, y sd td`g` "sufdk`rcs", hn kdv`rb`gmdn s`rî g`bntdvn.
Hn kdv`rb`gmdn fdk` hn rnpdk`z g`tn mcg hn qu` s` mcgkum` hn fnt`rdn nh `xt`rdcr k` mnkn
pugtc, y `g `h mnsc k` s`r hn kdv`rb`gmdn dkägtdmnf`gt` dbunh n m`rc, k`smrda` nh
jhulc dgmcfpr`sdah` k`h jhudkc. Hhnfnkc tnfadäg mnfpc sch`gcdknh
sch`gcdknh..

Hn kdv`rb`gmdn k` ug mnfpc v`mtcrdnh `g ug pugtc `s ug mnfpc `smnhnr, y s` k`jdg` mcfc `h

jhulc k`h mnfpc v`mtcrdnh pcr ugdknk k` vchuf`g mcgjcrf` `h vchuf`g nhr`k`kcr k`h pugtc
td`gk` n m`rc<

hdf >
³ J 6∂ . J 6
⃒
ΛZ ↑ 9

ΛZ
∧ J.k s
⃒

m
⃒

kcgk` ] `s ugn sup`rjdmd` m`rrnkn qu` s` r`kum` n ug pugtc `g `h hæfdt`. @h sæfachc ∂

r`pr`s`gtn nh cp`rnkcr gnahn (@g b`cf`træn
b`c f`træn kdj`r`gmdnh, gnahn (tnfadäg hhnfnkc ‘k`h‖) `s ug
cp`rnkcr kdj`r`gmdnh v`mtcrdnh r`pr`s`gtnkc pcr `h sæfachc ∂ ).
Mnhmuhc v`mtcrdnh
Lung Ngkräs Gnrvn`z Mcgtr`rns M.M. >990:9;;;= 1>/941919

Hnphnmdngc v`mtcrdnh<

@g fnt`fîtdmns y jæsdmn, `h cp`rnkcr Hnphnmdngc v`mtcrdnh ∂ 1, gcfarnkc nsæ `g ecgcr n

Yd`rr`-]dfcg Hnphnm`, `s ug cp`rnkcr kdj`r`gmdnh k`jdgdkc
k `jdgdkc scar` ug mnfpc v`mtcrdnh. @h
Hnphnmdngc v`mtcrdnh `s sdfdhnr nh Hnphnmdngc `smnhnr. Fd`gtrns qu` `h Hnphnmdngc `smnhnr s`

nphdmn scar` mnfpcs `smnhnr`s y k`vu`hv` ugn mngtdknk `smnhnr, `h Hnphnmdngc v`mtcrdnh s`
nphdmn scar` mnfpcs v`mtcrdnh`s y kn mcfc r`suhtnkc ctrn mngtdknk v`mtcrdnh. @g
mccrk`gnkns mnrt`sdngns, `h mnfpc v`mtcrdnh qu` k`vu`hv` kdmen cp`rnmdýg `s dbunh nh v`mtcr
k` cp`rnkcr`s Hnphnmdngcs `smnhnr`s nphdmnkcs scar` mnkn mcfpcg`gt` k`h mnfpc v`mtcrdnh
nh qu` e`fcs nphdmnkc `h Hnphnmdngc v`mtcrdnh.

@h Hnphnmdngc v`mtcrdnh k` ug mnfpc v`mtcrdnh N s` k`jdg` mcfc<

N 6∂ ( ∂ . N )∑ ∂ x ( ∂ xN )
1
∂

@g mccrk`gnkns mnrt`sdngns, `h r`suhtnkc s` `xpr`sn k` ugn jcrfn fumec fns s`gmdhhn<

1 1 1 1
∂ N 6( ∂ N x , ∂ N y , ∂ N z )

Kcgk` N x , N y , N z scg hns mcfpcg`gt`s `sp`mdnh`s k`h v`mtcr N. @stc pu`k` s`r vdstc mcfc
ug mnsc `sp`mdnh k` hn jýrfuhn k` Hnbrngb`.

Nphdmnmdcg`s k`h mîhmuhc v`mtcrdnh `g hn dgb`gd`ræn mdvdh.

K`gtrc k` hns nphdmnmdcg`s k` jugmdcg`s v`mtcrdnh`s n hn dgb`gd`ræn mdvdh, `s pcsdah`

`gmcgtrnr guf`rcscs `l`fphcs `g hn dgb`gd`ræn mdvdh, ugn k` hns prdgmdpnh`s nphdmnmdcg`s k`h
mîhmuhc v`mtcrdnh s` `gmu`gtrn `g hn rnfn k`h kds`þc k` væns y mnrr`t`rns, fîs
`sp`mæjdmnf`gt`, `g hn murvnturn k` `stns mcgstrummdcg`s. @s au`gc ` dfpcrtngt` sna`r y
t`g`r `g mu`gtn qu` hns fnt`fîtdmns scg ugn mr`nmdýg k` hn eufngdknk y pcr hc tngtc sus
uscs `stîg mcfph`tnf`gt` kdrdbdkcs nh prcv`mec k` hn eufngdknk. N fng`rn k` `l`fphc,
pck`fcs r`mnhmnr hn dfpcrtngmdn qu` tuvc hn fnt`fîtdmn `g hn mdvdhdznmdýg `bdpmdn pnrn hn
mcgstrummdýg k` dgf`gscs ` dfpcg`gt`s fcguf`gtcs. @g `h mcgtdg`gt` nf`rdmngc,
`sp`mdnhf`gt` `g hns muhturns pr`edspîgdmns utdhdznrcg hn b`cf`træn `g brng mngtdknk.

@h mîhmuhc v`mtcrdnh pu`k` hh`bnr n s`r fuy ntrnmtdvc pnrn ug `stukdngt` nh munh s` h`
pr`s`gt`g ugn s`rd` k` prcah`fns r`hnmdcgnkcs mcg su mctdkdngdknk. Yck`fcs `gmcgtrnr
nphdmnmdcg`s k` jugmdcg`s v`mtcrdnh`s `g hns fcgtnþns, mufar`s, hnbcs y `g b`g`rnh `g tckn
hn pnrt` k` hn crc-brnjæn qu` sdrvdý k` fumen nyukn n tckns hns mdvdhdznmdcg`s pnrn tcfnr
k`mdsdcg`s mrætdmns n hn ecrn k` mcgstrudr sus mr`nmdcg`s.

Hcs v`mtcr`s k`gtrc k` hn dgb`gd`ræn mdvdh s` nphdmng, pcr `l`fphc, nh kds`þnr ug t`mec k`
nrfnkurn, hn ans` k` ugn mchufgn `s g`m`snrdc hn k`smcfpcsdmdýg k` v`mtcr`s pnrn mcgcm`r
`h fcf`gtc. Jnhtn f`gmdcgnr mîhmuhc ngtdsæsfdmc y ugn vnrd`knk k` nphdmnmdcg`s. ]dg
k`smcfpcsdmdýg k` v`mtcr`s gc eny `stîtdmn y sdg `hhn gc eny dgb`gd`ræn mdvdh.
Mnhmuhc v`mtcrdnh
Lung Ngkräs Gnrvn`z Mcgtr`rns M.M. >990:9;;;= 1>/941919

@g mcgmhusdýg, s` pukc `xpcg`r hn k`jdgdmdýg k`h mîhmuhc v`mtcrdnh y tckc hc qu` `st` nanrmn,
y mcfc `st` mîhmuhc td`g`g ugn brng dfpcrtngmdn `g hn dgjrn`strumturn k`h fugkc fck`rgc.
Mcfc mcgmhusdýg jdgnh, enm`r edgmnpdä `g `h t`fn f` kdc n mcgcm`r scar` hc qu` fîs
nk`hngt` f` `sp`rn `g fd mnrr`rn, tnfadäg f` `grdqu`mdý `g mungtc n v`r hns mcsns k` ctrn
p`rsp`mtdvn, `g t`g`r ug au`g `gt`gkdfd`gtc dgt`rkdsmdphdgnrdc y r`hnmdcgnr tckn hn t`fîtdmn
qu` nanrmn `h mîhmuhc v`mtcrdnh pnrn qu` nh jdgnh s` mcg
mcgm`gtr`g
m`gtr`g kdv`rsns e`rrnfd`gtns qu` f`
nyuknrng n schumdcgnr munhqud`r prcah`fn qu` s` f` pr`s`gt` kurngt` fd vdkn prcj`sdcgnh.