Engineering Electromagnetics 1

Lecture 8: Steady Electric Currents

Young Min Song
EECS, GIST

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 Charge in steady motion

○ A flow of charge = electric current (1A = 1 C/sec)

○ Currents in different media
 Conductor: current ‘O’
 Dielectric: current ‘X’
 Vacuum: current ‘O’ if the specific condition is satisfied

Material Resistivity, 𝜌 (Ω·m)

Superconductors 0 o Ohm’s law? 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
Metals 10−8 o R? Resistance?
• Electron scattering
Semiconductors Variable o Mechanism
Electrolytes Variable • Conduction current: continuous scattering  no
Insulators 1016 acceleration  steady drift motion  drift velocity
• Convection current: acceleration by input voltage
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 Current density
• During time ∆𝑡, each charge 𝑞 (which is negative for electrons) moves across an element of surface ∆s along
distance 𝑑 with velocity 𝑢.

Amount of charge quantity passing through ∆𝑠

= total amount of charges in the parallelepiped 𝑉
𝐮 = 𝐚𝑢 𝑢 𝑑
𝜋
𝐚𝑛 𝑉 = ℎ∆𝑠 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 ∆𝑠 = 𝑢∆𝑡 cos − 𝜃 ∆𝑠 = 𝑢 𝐚𝑢 ∙ 𝐚𝑛 ∆𝑠∆𝑡 = 𝐮 ∙ ∆𝐬 ∆𝑡
2
∆𝑠
If 𝑁 is the number of charges per unit volume, the amount
Particles carrying charge 𝑞 of charges passing through the surface:

𝑉 = ℎ∆𝑠 Sideview of 𝑉 ∆𝑄 = 𝑁𝑞𝑉 = 𝑁𝑞 𝐮 ∙ ∆𝐬 ∆𝑡

h 𝑑 = 𝑢Δ𝑡 Current is the time rate of change of charge:

𝐚𝑢 𝐚𝑛
𝜃
∆𝑄
𝜃 ∆𝐼 = = 𝑁𝑞 𝐮 ∙ ∆𝐬
s ∆𝑡
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 Current density
o Current density
• Magnitude: the amount of charges passing through unit area normal to charge flow per unit time
• Direction: direction of charge flow

The total amount of charge passing through an arbitrary surface 𝑆 per unit time

𝐼 = න𝐉 ∙ ∆𝒔 (𝐴)
𝑠

*direction of current density = direction of conventional current

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 Current density : Example 4.1
○ Assume a free charge density of -0.3 (nC/mm3) in a vacuum tube. For a current density of −𝐚𝑧 2.4 (A/mm2),
find (a) the total current passing through a hemispherical cap specified by 𝑅 = 5 (mm), 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋/2, 0 ≤
𝜙 ≤ 2𝜋; and (b) the velocity of the free charge.

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 Conduction current
○ Conduction current: the result of drift motion of charge carriers by E-field.
 For most conductor, drift velocity ∝ E-field:

𝐮𝑒 = −𝜇𝑒 𝐄 m/s 𝜇𝑒 (m2/V·sec): electron mobility

𝐉 = 𝜎𝐄: point form of Ohm’s law

𝐉 = 𝑁𝑞𝐮𝑒 = −𝑁𝑞𝜇𝑒 𝐄 = 𝜎𝐄
𝜎 = −𝑁𝑞𝜇𝑒 : conductivity (A/V·m = S/m)

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 Conduction current

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 Conduction current: Exercise 4.1
○ For a current density of 7 (A/mm2) in copper, find (a) the electric intensity, and (b) the electron drift velocity.

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 Ohm’s law
𝐉 = 𝜎𝐄
1
𝑉12 = − න 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝒍 = 𝐸𝑙
2

𝐼 𝑉12 𝑙
𝐼 = න 𝐉 ∙ 𝑑𝒔 = 𝐽𝑆 → 𝐽= =𝜎 → 𝑉12 = 𝐼 = 𝑅𝐼
𝑠 𝑆 𝑙 𝜎𝑆

Both 𝐉 and 𝐄 are in the direction The resistance, 𝑅 of a material having a strength length 𝑙, 𝑙
𝑅= (Ω)
of current flow (by convention) uniform cross section area 𝑠, and conductivity 𝜎 𝜎𝑆
How difficult the current is passing through the conductor
1 𝜎𝑆
𝐺= = (Ω−1 = 𝑆)
𝑅 𝑙

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 Conductivity: Example 4.2
Resistivity, ρ Conductivity, σ
(a) Determine the DC resistance of 1 (km) of copper wire Material
(Ω·m) at 20 °C (S/m) at 20 °C
having a 1 (mm) radius. Silver 1.59×10−8 6.30×107
(b) If an aluminum wire of the same length is to have the Copper 1.68×10−8 5.96×107
same resistance, what should its radius be? Gold 2.44×10−8 4.11×107
Aluminum 2.65×10−8 3.77×107
Lithium 9.28×10−8 1.08×107
Iron 9.70×10−8 107
Platinum 1.06×10−7 9.43×106
Lead 2.20×10−7 4.55×106
Stainless steel 6.90×10−7 1.45×106
Sea water 2.0×10−1 4.8
Silicon 6.4×102 1.56×10−3
Drinking water 2×101 to 2×103 5×10−4 to 5×10−2
Wood (damp) 103 to 104 10−4 to 10−3
Hard rubber 1013 10−14
Air 109 to 1015 ~10−15 to 10−9
Fused quartz 7.5×1017 1.3×10−18
PET 1021 10−21
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 Conductivity: Exercise 4.2
Three resistors having resistances 1 (MΩ), 2 (MΩ), and 4 (MΩ) are connected in parallel. Calculate the overall
conductance and resistance.

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 Equation of continuity
○ Principle of conservation of charge
 If a net current 𝐼 flows across the surface out of (or into) the region, the charge in the volume must
decrease (or increase) at a rate that equals the current.

𝑑𝑄 𝑑 𝜕𝜌𝑣
𝐼 = ර 𝐉 ∙ 𝑑𝒔 = − = − න 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 → −න 𝑑𝑣 = න 𝛁 ∙ 𝐉 𝑑𝑣
𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑣 𝑣 𝜕𝑡 𝑣

𝜕𝜌𝑣
Equation of continuity ∴ 𝛁 ∙ 𝐉 = − A/m3
𝜕𝑡

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 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
If the charge density is time-independent, 𝜕𝜌𝑣 = 0 → 𝛁∙𝐉 =0 Steady-state current (also, for𝜌𝑣 = 0)
𝜕𝑡

*Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)

→ න 𝛁 ∙ 𝐉 𝑑𝑣 = ර 𝐉 ∙ 𝑑𝒔 = 0
algebraic sum of all the DC current 𝑣 𝑠
flowing out of (into) a junction in
an electric circuit is zero.

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 Relaxation of charge
o Conductor inside  charge distribution: 𝜌𝑣 → 0, 𝐄 → 0
• Charges move towards the surface: how long?

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 Relaxation of charge: Exercise 4.3
○ Given that the dielectric constant and conductivity of rubber to be 3.0 and 10-15 (S/m) respectively, find (a)
the relaxation time, and (b) the time required for a charge density to decay to 1% of its initial value.

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 Electromotive force & Kirchhoff’s voltage law
In static electric field, 𝛻×𝐄 =0 (Stoke’s theorem ): ර 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝒍 = 0
E

The scalar line integral of static E-field around any closed path is zero

𝐉
For Ohmic material (satisfying Ohm’s law, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅), 𝐉 = 𝜎𝐄 ර 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝒍 = ර ∙ 𝑑𝒍 = 0
𝑐 𝑐 𝜎

“It follows that a purely electrostatic field cannot cause a current to circulate around the closed path (circuit)!”
“A steady current cannot be maintained solely by means of electrostatic forces!”
-Because charge carriers (electrons) collide with atoms and dissipate energy as heat in the circuit

• This energy loss must be compensated to keep current flow in steady using a non-conservative field source
(e.g., battery, generator)
• Theses energy sources, when connected in an electric circuit, provide a driving force to keep the current
along the circuit: impressed (mimicked) electric field 𝐄𝑖

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 Electromotive force & Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
Electrodes
*Open circuit condition
• Under the influence of chemical action (non-electrostatic force), +𝑞  electrode 1,
− 𝑞  electrode 2
• These charges on the electrodes produce an electric field 𝐄, with the direction
pointed from the electrode 1 to the electrode 2, and the electric field 𝐄 will be
stronger with the increase of the charges on the electrodes.

• The electric force caused by the charge accumulated on the electrodes eventually will resist the movement of the
charges in the battery.
• When the electric force is equal to the non-electrostatic force (impressed electrostatic force), the charges are stopped,
and the charges on the electrodes will be constant.
• Since the non-electrostatic force behaves as the force acting on the charge, the non-electrostatic force is usually considered
as that produced by an impressed electric field 𝐄 𝑖 .
• In this condition, electrostatic field 𝐄 is generated both outside and inside the battery. Inside the battery, 𝐄 must be
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the impressed electric field 𝐄𝑖 so that net force acting on the charges
must vanish.
• Electromotive force of a battery: the line integral of the impressed field intensity 𝐄𝑖 from the negative to the positive
electrode inside the battery.
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 Electromotive force & Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
Electrodes
*Open circuit condition 2 1
1 1
𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = න 𝐄𝑖 ∙ 𝑑𝒍 = − න 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝒍 𝐄 = ර 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝒍 = න 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝒍 + න 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝒍 = 0
𝑐 1 2
2 2
Inside source Outside source Inside source
2 1
→ න 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝒍 = − න 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝒍 = 𝑉
2 1 1 2
𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = න 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝒍 = − න 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝒍 = 𝑉12 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
1 2
Outside source 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 : potential difference between two electrodes

*Closed circuit condition

• When a circuit is connected between terminal 1 and 2 of the battery, completing the closed circuit.
+𝑞 on the electrode 1  electrode 2 through the circuit; −𝑞 on the electrode 2  electrode 1.
• The charges on the electrodes will be decreased, and 𝐄 < 𝐄𝑖 .
• The impressed source (chemical action) inside battery will continuously provide the positive charges to the electrode 1,
whereas the negative charges to the electrode 2, and in view of this a continuous current flow is formed (steady current).
• Although the distribution of the charges on the electrode is constant, the charges are not at rest.

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 Electromotive force & Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
Resistor 𝑅 *Kirchhoff’s voltage law
• When a resistor is connected between terminal 1 and 2 of the battery to
complete the circuit.
• the total electric field intensity (𝐄 + 𝐄𝑖 ) must be used in the point form of
Ohm's law. 𝐉
𝐉 = 𝜎 𝐄 + 𝐄𝑖 → 𝐄 + 𝐄𝑖 =
𝜎
𝐉
ර ∙ 𝑑𝒍 = ර 𝐄 + 𝐄𝑖 ∙ 𝑑𝒍 = ර 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝒍 + ර 𝐄𝑖 ∙ 𝑑𝒍
𝑐 𝜎 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
1
= ර 𝐄𝑖 ∙ 𝑑𝒍 = 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓
2
1 1𝐼
If the resistor has a conductivity 𝜎, length 𝑙, and uniform cross-section 𝑠, 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = ර 𝐉 ∙ 𝑑𝒍 = ර 𝑙 = 𝑅𝐼
𝑐 𝜎 𝑐 𝜎s

• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL): around a closed path in an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of the emf’s (voltage
rises) is equal to the algebraic sum of the voltage drops across the resistances.

෍ 𝑉𝑗 = ෍ 𝑅𝑘 𝐼𝑘 (𝑉)
𝑗 𝑘
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 Power dissipation & Joule’s law
○ Power dissipated in a conducting medium in the presence of an electrostatic field 𝐄
• Microscopically, electrons in the conducting medium moving under the influence of E-field collide with atoms or lattice sites
 Energy is thus transmitted from the E-field to the atoms in thermal vibration.

The work ∆𝑤 done by E-field in moving a charge 𝑞 over distance ∆𝑙:

∆𝑤 = 𝑞𝐄 ∙ ∆𝑙
Power (energy per unit time)
∆𝑤
𝑝 = lim = 𝑞𝐄 ∙ 𝐮 (𝐮: drift velocity)
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

The total power delivered to all the charge carriers in a volume 𝑑𝑣:

𝑑𝑃 = ෍ 𝑝𝑖 = 𝐄 ∙ ෍ 𝑁𝑖 𝑞𝑖 𝐮𝑖 𝑑𝑣 = 𝐄 ∙ 𝐉 𝑑𝑣
𝑖 𝑖

Power density under steady-current condition (power per unit volume)

𝑑𝑃
=𝐄∙𝐉 (W/m3)
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𝑑𝑣
 Power dissipation & Joule’s law
Power density under steady-current condition (power per unit volume)
𝑑𝑃
= 𝐄 ∙ 𝐉 (W/m3)
𝑑𝑣
For a given volume 𝑉, the total electric power converted into heat: James Prescott Joule
Physicist (UK)
𝑑𝑃 (1818 – 1889)
𝑃=න
𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑣 = න 𝐄 ∙ 𝐉 𝑑𝑣 (J/s = W) Joule’s Law Known for First law of
𝒗 𝒗
thermodynamics:
the law of conservation
In a conductor of a constant cross-section, 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑙 (𝑑𝑙 measured in the direction 𝐉)
of energy
𝑃 = න 𝐸 𝐽 𝑑𝑠𝑑𝑙 = න 𝐸𝑑𝑙 න 𝐽𝑑𝑠 = 𝑉𝐼 (W) 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝐼 2 𝑅
𝒗 𝐿 𝑆

as 𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼,

𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 (W)

Joule heating
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 Equations for steady current density

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 Boundary conditions for steady current density

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 Boundary condition: Exercise 4.4
○ Two blocks of conducting material are in contact at the 𝑧 = 0 plane. At a point 𝑃 in the interface, the current
density is 𝐉1 = 10(𝐚𝑦 3 + 𝐚𝑧 4) (A/m2) in medium 1 (conductivity 𝜎1 ). Determine 𝐉2 at P in medium 2 if 𝜎2 = 2𝜎1 .

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 Resistance calculations
○ Capacitance & Resistance

Resistance calculation in complex structure

(1) Choose an appropriate coordinate system for the given geometry.
(2) Assume a potential difference 𝑉0 between the conductor material.
(3) Find 𝐄 within the conductor (by solving Laplace's equation and taking 𝐄 = −𝜵𝑉).
(4) Find the total current 𝐼 = ‫𝑠𝑑 ∙ 𝐄𝜎 𝑠׬ = 𝑠𝑑 ∙ 𝐉 𝑠׬‬.
(5) Find resistance 𝑅 by taking the ratio 𝑉𝑜 /𝐼.

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 Resistance calculations: Example 4.3
○ Find the leakage resistance per unit length
(a) between the inner and outer conductors of a coaxial cable that has an inner conductor of radius 𝑎, an
outer conductor of inner radius 𝑏, and a medium with conductivity 𝜎, and
(b) of a parallel-wire transmission line consisting of wires of radius 𝑎 separated by a distance 𝐷 in a a medium
with conductivity 𝜎.

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 Resistance calculations: Example 4.4
○ A conducting material of uniform thickness ℎ and conductivity 𝜎 has the shape of a quarter of a flat circular
washer, with inner radius 𝑎 and outer radius 𝑏, as shown below. Determine the resistance between the end
faces.

washer

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 Resistance calculations: Exercise 4.5
○ The radii of the inner and outer conductance of a coaxial cable are 𝑎 and 𝑏 respectively, and the medium in-
between has a conductivity 𝜎. Find the leakage resistance between the conductors per unit length by first
assuming a leakage current 𝐼 from the inner to the outer conductor, then determining 𝐉, 𝐄, 𝑉0 , 𝑅1 = 𝑉𝑜 /𝐼.

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