Chap Iv

CHAPTER 4: CONDUCTORS, DIELECTRICS AND CAPACITORS.
4.1 INTRODUCTION.
CURRENT.
 Flow of charges constitutes an electric current. It can be measured by
measuring how many charges are passing through’ a specified surface or a
point in a material per second.
 The rate of flow of charge at a specified point or across a specified surface per
unit time is called an electric current. It is measured in Ampere, which is
coulombs per second (C⁄S).
dQ
i.e I= dt
(C⁄s) i.e Amps
 A current of 1 amp is said to be flowing across the surface when a charge of

one coulomb is passing across the surface in one second.
CURRENT DENSITY.
 It is defined as the current passing through the unit surface area when the
surface is held normal to the direction of current.
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 It is a vector quantity and denoted as ⃗J. It is measured in amperes per square
meters (A/m²).
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN I AND J.

 Consider a surface S and I is the current passing through the surface. The
direction of current is normal to the surface S and hence the direction of 𝐽⃗ is
also the normal to the surface S. Consider an incremental area ds as shown in
the figure below and 𝑎 𝑛 is the unit vector normal to the incremental surface ds
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗=ds 𝑎
𝑑𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑛
𝐽⃗=J 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑛
Then the differential current dI passing through the differential surface ds is given
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
by the dot product of the current density vector 𝐽⃗ and 𝑑𝑠
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⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ [dot product]
∴ 𝑑𝐼 = 𝐽⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are at right angles (θ=0 degrees) then

When 𝐽⃗ and 𝑑𝑠
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =| 𝐽⃗ ||𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝐼 = 𝐽⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| cos 0°
dI =Jds
And I = ∮𝑠 Jds J – current density in (A⁄m²).
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ then the total current is obtained by integrating 𝐽⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠

But if 𝐽⃗ is not normal to 𝑑𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
I = ∮𝑠 𝐽⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠
Refering to chapter 1: The surface areas in cylindircal coordinates are:
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Example 1.
Given the vector current density
𝐽⃗ = 10𝑟 2 𝑧𝑎⃗𝑟 − 4𝑟 cos 2 𝜑 𝑎⃗𝜑 𝑚𝐴/𝑚2
a) find the current density at 𝑃(𝑟 = 3, 𝜑 = 30°, 𝑧 = 2 )
b) determine the total current flowing outward through the circular band 𝑟 = 3, 0 <
𝜑 < 2𝜋, 2 < 𝑧 < 2.8
Solution
a) In order to find the current density at a specific point, we can simply replace the
coordinates in the current density equation. Therefore
𝐽⃗(𝑃(𝑟 = 3, 𝜑 = 30°, 𝑧 = 2 )) = 10. 32 . 2. 𝑎⃗𝑟 − 4.3. (𝑐𝑜𝑠 (30°)2 ). 𝑎⃗𝜑
𝐽⃗(𝑃) = 180. 𝑎⃗𝑟 − 9. 𝑎⃗𝜑 𝑚𝐴/𝑚2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
b) The total current flowing outward can be calculated by using the relation 𝐼 = ∫ 𝐽⃗. 𝑑𝑠
where integral is calculated through the circular band given in the question. We
can write the integral below
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𝐼 = ∫{(10𝑟 2 𝑧𝑎⃗𝑟 − 4𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜑 𝑎⃗𝜑 ). (𝑟𝑑𝜑𝑑𝑧𝑎⃗𝑟 )}
Due to unit vector multiplication
𝐼 = ∫{10𝑟 3 𝑧. (𝑑𝜑𝑑𝑧)}
Then 𝐼 = 10 ∫ 𝑟 3 𝑧. 𝑑𝑧. 𝑑𝜑
Where 𝑟 = 3, 0 < 𝜑 < 2𝜋, 2 < 𝑧 < 2.8. Therefore

2.8 2𝜋 2.82 22
𝐼 = 10. 33 ∫2 𝑧𝑑𝑧. ∫0 𝑑𝜑 = 270 ( 2
− 2
) (2𝜋 − 0) = 3257.2 𝑚/𝐴
Example 2:
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4.2 DIELECTRIC MATERIALS.
 It is seen that the conductors have large number of free electrons while
insulators and dielectric materials do not have free charges.
 The charges in dielectrics are bound by the finite forces and hence called
bound charges. As they are bound and not free, they cannot contribute to the
conduction process.
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 But if subjected to an Electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ , they shift their positive positions of
bound charges, allows the dielectric to store the energy.
 The shifts in positive and negative charges are opposite directions and under
the influence of an applied electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ , such charges act like small electric
dipoles.
 These electric dipoles produce an electric field which opposes the extremely
applied electric field. This process, due to which separation of bound
charges results to produce electric dipoles under the influence of electric
⃗⃗, is called polarization.
field 𝑬
POLARIZATION.
 Consider an atom of a dielectric.
 This consists of a nucleus with positive charge and negative charge in the form
of revolving electrons in the orbits.
 The negative charge is thus considered to be in the form of cloud of electrons
as shown in the figure.
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 Note that 𝐸⃗⃗ applied is zero. The number of positive charges is same as negative
charges and hence atom is electrically neutral.
 Due to symmetry, both positive and negative charges can be assumed to be
point charges of equal amount, coinciding at the center. Hence there cannot
exist an electric dipole. This is called unpolarized atom.
 When electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ is applied, the symmetrical distribution of charges gets
disturbed. The positive and charge experience a force F=Q𝐸⃗⃗ while the negative
charge experience a force F=-Q𝐸⃗⃗ in the opposite direction.
 Now there is separation between the nucleus and the center of the electron
cloud as show in the figure below. Such an atom is called POLARIZED ATOM.
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MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION FOR POLARIZATION.
When the dipole is formed due to polarization there exists an electric dipole
moment P
𝑃⃗⃗ =Q 𝑑⃗ . …. (1)
Where Q= Magnitude of one of the two charges
𝑑⃗ = Distance vector from negative to positive charge
Let
n to be no. of dipoles per unit volume.
∆𝑉 to be the total volume of the dielectric
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N to be the total dipole= n ∆𝑉.
Then the total dipole moment is to be obtained by using superposition theorem.
𝑃⃗⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =𝐐1 𝑑⃗1 + 𝐐2 𝑑⃗2 +…+𝐐n 𝑑⃗n

𝑛∆𝑉
𝑃⃗⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∑ 𝐐i 𝑑⃗i ……….2
𝑖=1
⃗⃗⃗ is defined as the total dipole moment per unit volume

Then the polarization 𝑷
𝑛∆𝑉
∑ 𝐐𝐢 𝑑⃗𝐢
∴ 𝑃⃗⃗ = lim 𝑖=1
𝐶/𝑚2 …3
𝛥𝑉→∞ ΔV
It can be seen that the units of polarization are same as that of flux density. Thus
polarization increases the flux density in a dielectric medium. Hence we can write,
flux density in a dielectric as
⃗⃗=𝛆0 𝐸⃗⃗ + 𝑃⃗⃗ …(4)

𝐷
For isotropic and linear medium 𝑃⃗⃗ and 𝐸⃗⃗ are parallel and they are related as
𝑃⃗⃗ = 𝜒𝑒 𝜀0 𝐸⃗⃗… (5)
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𝜒𝑒 − electric susceptibility
Substituting (5) in (4)
⃗⃗ = 𝜀0 𝐸⃗⃗ + 𝜒𝑒 𝜀0 𝐸⃗⃗
𝐷
⃗⃗ = 𝜀0 (1 + 𝜒𝑒 )𝐸⃗⃗… (6)
𝐷
⃗⃗ = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐸⃗⃗… (7)
𝐷
Comparing (6) and (7)
𝜀𝑟 = 1 + 𝜒𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗
This is the relative permittivity or dielectric constant
Properties of Dielectric materials
i. The dielectric does not contain any free charges

ii. Due to polarization the dielectrics can store energy
iii. The electric field outside and inside the dielectrics get modified due to the
induced electric dipoles
iv. The induced dipoles produce their own electric field and align in the direction
of the applied electric field.
Example
A certain homogenous slab of lossless dielectric material is characterized by an

electric susceptibility of 0.12 and carries a uniform electric flux density within it of
1.6 nC/m2. Find: (a) E; (b) P;(c) the average dipole moment if there are 2 x 1019
dipoles per cubic meter;
Solution
Work to do:
4.3 CONCEPT OF CAPACITANCE
 Consider two conducting materials M₁ and M₂ which are placed in a dielectric
medium having permittivity 𝜀. The material M₁ carries a positive charge Q while
the material M₂ carries a negative charge – 𝑄 (equal in magnitude).
 There are no other charges present and the total charge of the system is zero.
 In conductors, charge cannot reside within the conductor and it resides only
on the surface. Thus for M₁ and M₂ charges +𝑄 and −Q resides on the surfaces
of M₁ and M₂ respectively. This is shown in the figure below.
Such a system which has two conducting surfaces carrying equal and opposite
charges separated by a dielectric is called capacitive systems giving rise to a
capacitance.
The electric field is normal to the conductor surface and the electric flux is directed
from M₁ and M₂ in such a system. There exists a potential difference between the two
surfaces M₁ and M₂. Let this potential is V₁₂.
The ratio of magnitudes of the total charge on any one of the two conductors and
potential difference between the conductors is called the capacitance. It is denoted
by ‘C’.
𝑄
C=𝑉
12
𝑄
In general C= where Q= charge in coulombs
𝑉
V= potential difference in volts.
The capacitance is measured in farads (F) and

1𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
1Farad= 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡.
As charge Q resides only on the surface of the conductor it can be obtained from
the Gauss’s law as,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠
Q= ∮𝑠 𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ ε𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑠 𝑠
While V is the work done in moving unit positive charge from −𝑣𝑒 to +𝑣𝑒 surface
and can be obtained as,
+
V=− ∫𝐿 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = − ∫− 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙
Hence capacitance can be expressed as
𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝑠 ε𝐸⃗⃗ ∙𝑑𝑠
C= = +
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
F
𝑉 − ∫− 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙
4.3.1 PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITORS.

A parallel plate capacitor is shown in the figure below. It consists of two parallel
metallic plates separated by distance ‘d’. The space between the plates is filled with
a dielectric of permittivity 𝜀.
The lower plate 1 carries the positive charge and is distributed over it with a charge
density +𝜌ₛ. The upper plate. Plate 2 carries the negative charge and is distributed
over its surface with a charge density of−𝜌ₛ. The plate 1 is placed in z=0 i.e x-y plane
hence normal to it is z- direction. While upper plate 2 is in z=d parallel to the x-y
plane.
The capacitance is given by,

𝜀0 𝜀𝑟𝐴
C= F
𝑑
It can be seen that the value of capacitance depends on
(i) The permittivity of the dielectric used.

(ii) The area of cross section of the plates.
(iii) The distance of separation of plates.
4.3.2 CAPACITANCE OF A CO-AXIAL CABLE.
Consider a co-axial cable or co-axial capacitor as shown in the figure below.
The two concentric conductors are separated by dielectric of permittivity 𝜀. The length
of the cable is L meters. The inner conductor carries a charge density + 𝜌𝑙 c/m on its
surface then equal and opposite charge density −𝜌𝑙 c/m exists on the outer
conductor.
∴ 𝑄 = 𝜌𝑙 × 𝑙 … … 1
Assuming cylindrical co-ordinate system, 𝐸⃗⃗ will be radial from inner to outer and for
infinite line charge it is given by
𝜌𝑙
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑎 … … … . .2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
2𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝑟
𝐸⃗⃗ is directed from inner conductor to outer conductor. The potential difference is
work done in moving a unit charge against 𝐸⃗⃗ i.e r=b to r=a
To find potential difference , consider ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑙 in radial direction which is dr𝑎𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ =dr𝑎
∴ 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 … … … .3
+
∴ 𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙
−
+ 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙
=− ∫− ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 = −
𝑎𝑟 ∙ 𝑑𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ [ℓ𝑛𝑟]𝑎𝑏
2𝜋𝜀𝑟 2𝜋𝜀
𝜌𝑙 𝑎
=− ℓ𝑛 [ ]
2𝜋𝜀 𝑏
𝑙 𝜌 𝑎
∴V=− 2𝜋𝜀 ℓ𝑛(𝑏)
𝑄 𝜌𝑙 𝑙 2𝜋𝜀𝑙
∴𝐶=𝑉= 𝜌𝑙 𝑏 = 𝑏 F
ℓ𝑛(𝑎) ℓ𝑛(𝑎)
2𝜋𝜀
2𝜋𝜀𝑙
C= 𝑏 F……….4
ℓ𝑛(𝑎)
4.3.4 SPHERICAL CAPACITOR.
Consider a spherical capacitor formed at two concentric spherical conducting shells
of radius ‘a’ and ‘b’. The capacitor is shown in the figure below.
The radius of the outer sphere is ‘b’ while that of the inner is ‘a’. thus b>a . The
region between the two spheres is filled with a dielectric of permittivity 𝜀.
The inner sphere is given a positive charge (+Q) while for the outer sphere it is (−Q).
⃗⃗ is
Considering Gaussian surface as a sphere of radius r, it can be obtained that 𝐄
in radial direction and given by
Q
⃗⃗ =
𝐄 𝑎𝑟 V/m….1 [elementary equation].
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
4πεr²
The potential difference is work done in moving a unit charge against the direction
of 𝐸⃗⃗ i.e from r=b to r=a
+ 𝑟=𝑎 Q
∴ V=− ∫− 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑟 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 =− ∫𝑟=𝑏 4πεr² ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 ……..2
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 =dr. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 …..3
Sub 3 in 2 we get
𝑟=𝑎 Q 𝑎 Q Q 1 𝑎
V=− ∫𝑟=𝑏 4πεr2
𝑎𝑟 . 𝑑𝑟 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑟 = − ∫𝑏 4πεr²
𝑑𝑟= − 4πε
[− ]
r 𝑏
Q 1 1
V= 4πε
[ a
− b
] volts….4
Q Q
∴𝐶= == Q 1 1
𝑉 [ − b]
4πε a
4πε
C= 1 1 F……..5
[ − b]
a
4.3.4 CAPACITANCE OF SINGLE ISOLATED SPHERE.
Consider a single isolated sphere of radius ‘a’ given a charge of +Q. It forms a
capacitance with an outer plate which is infinitely large hence b =∞.
The capacitance of such a single isolated spherical conductor can be obtained by
substituting b =∞
In above equation 5.
4πε 1
∴ C= 1 1 but [ ]=0
[ − ∞] ∞
a
C= 4πεa Farads.
(stray capacitance of an isolated body).
4.4.5 ISOLATED SPHERE COATED WITH DIELECTRIC.

Consider a single isolated sphere coated with a dielectric having permittivity 𝜀₁, up
to radius r₁. The radius of inner sphere is ‘a’ as shown in fig below:
It is placed in a free space so outside sphere 𝜀 =𝜀˳. It carries a charge of +Q
so for a< 𝑟 < 𝑟₁ 𝜀 = 𝜀₁
For r> 𝑟₁ , 𝜀 = 𝜀˳
The potential difference is work done in bringing a unit positive charge from outer
⃗⃗. This is to be splitted into two as
sphere r =∞ to inner sphere r = a against 𝐄
+ 𝑟=𝑎
V= − ∫− 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 =− ∫𝑟=∞ 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙
𝑟=𝑟1 𝑟=𝑎
=− ∫𝑟2 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 − ∫𝑟=𝑟1 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 ……..1
Now for a< 𝑟 < 𝑟1 for 𝑟1 < 𝒓 < ∞

𝑄 𝑄
𝐸⃗⃗1 = 4𝜋 𝜀 𝑟²
𝑎⃗r 𝐸⃗⃗2 = 4𝜋 𝜀 𝑟²
𝑎⃗r
1 0
∴ 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠

𝑟1 𝑄 𝑟=𝑎 𝑄
V= − ∫∞ 4𝜋 𝜀𝟎 𝑟²
𝑎⃗𝐫 ∙ 𝑎⃗𝐫 ∙ 𝑑⃗𝐫 − ∫𝑟1 4𝜋 𝜀 𝑎⃗𝐫 ∙ 𝑎⃗𝐫 ∙ 𝑑⃗𝐫
𝟏 𝑟²
𝑄 1 𝑟1 1 1 𝑟=𝑎 1
=− [ ∫∞ 𝑑𝐫 + ∫ 𝑑𝐫 ]
4𝜋 𝜀˳ 𝑟² 𝜀1 𝑟1 𝑟²
𝑄 1 1 1 1 𝑎
=− [ [− ] 𝑟1 + [− ] ]
4𝜋 𝜀˳ 𝑟 ∞ 𝜀1 𝑟 𝑟1
𝑄 1 1 1 1 −1 1
V =− [ (− + )+ ( + )]
4𝜋 𝜀˳ 𝑟1 ∞ 𝜀1 𝑎 𝑟1
𝑄 1 1 1 1 1 1
V= [ ( )+ ( ) − ( )]
4𝜋 𝜀˳ 𝑟1 𝜀1 𝑎 𝜀1 𝑟1
𝑄 1 1 1 1
V= [ ( − )+ ]
4𝜋 𝜀1 𝑎 𝑟1 𝜀˳𝑟1
𝑄 𝑄
∴𝐶= =𝑄 1 1 1 1
𝑉 [
( − )+ ]
4𝜋 𝜀1 𝑎 𝑟1 𝜀˳𝑟1
1 1 1 1
4𝜋 1 [ ( − )+ ]
𝜀1 𝑎 𝑟1 𝜀˳𝑟1
C= 1 1 1 1 ⇉ = .
[ ( − )+ ] 𝐶 4𝜋
𝜀1 𝑎 𝑟1 𝜀˳𝑟1
1 1
1 − 1
∴ =
𝑎 𝑟1
+
𝐶 4𝜋𝜀1 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1
4𝜋𝜀1
Let C1 = 1 1 and C2 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1
−
𝑎 𝑟1
1 1 1
∴ = +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2
1
C= 1 1
+
𝐶1 𝐶2
4.4 POISSON’S AND LAPLACE’S EQUATIONS.

From the Gauss’s law in the point form, Poisson’s equation can be derived
Consider the Gauss’s law in the point form as
⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣 … … . .1
∇∙𝐷
⃗⃗ is the flux density

𝐷 𝜌𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦.
⃗⃗ =𝜀 𝐸⃗⃗………2
w.r.t 𝐷
sub 2 in 1 we get
∇ ∙ 𝜀 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣 ………….3
From the gradient relationship
𝐸⃗⃗ = −∇V …………….4
Substitute 4 n 3 we get
∇ ∙ 𝜀 (−∇𝑉) = 𝜌𝑣
−𝜀 [∇ ∙ ∇V] = 𝜌𝑣
𝜌
∇ ∙ ∇𝑉 = − 𝑣 ………….5
𝜀
But ∇ ∙ ∇= ∇2
𝜌
∴ 5 ⟹ ∇2 𝑉 = − 𝜀𝑣 ……….6
Equation 6 is called poisson’s equation
If in certain region, 𝜌𝑣 =0, which is true for dielectric medium then poisson’s
equation takes a form
∇2 𝑣 = 0 (for a charge free region).
This is a special case of poison’s Equation called as Laplace equation.
∇2 is called Laplacian of V
Laplace equation in Cartesian
∂2 V ∂2 V ∂2 V
+ + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Laplace equation in cylindrical
1∂ ∂V 1 𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉
(𝑟 ) + 2 2+ 2 =0
𝑟 ∂r ∂r 𝑟 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑧
Laplace equation in spherical
1 ∂ 2∂V 1 ∂ ∂V 1 𝜕2𝑉
(𝑟 ) + 2 (sin 𝜃 ) + 2 2 =0
𝑟 2 ∂r ∂r 𝑟 sin 𝜃 ∂𝜃 ∂𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑2
TUTORIAL PROBLEMS.
1. Verify that the potential field given below satisfies the Laplace’s equation V=
2𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
Given the field is in Cartesian system
𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2 𝜕2𝑉
∴ ∇2 =𝜕𝑥 2 +𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕𝑍2
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
= 𝜕𝑥
[ 2 2
2 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧
2]
+ 𝜕𝑦 2
[ 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 [ 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ]
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= 𝜕𝑥
[4𝑥 ] +
𝜕𝑦
[−6𝑦] +
𝜕𝑧
[2𝑧]
⟹4−6+2=0
∇2 𝑉 = 0 Thus the field satisfies the laplace’s equation.
2. Determine whether the following potentials satisfy the Laplace or not.

i. 𝑉 = 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 + 𝑧2
ii. 𝑉 = 𝑟 cos 𝜑 + 𝑧
iii. 𝑉 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝜑
Solution
i. For Cartesian
𝛛𝟐 𝐕 𝛛𝟐 𝐕 𝛛𝟐 𝐕
𝟐
𝛁 𝑽= 𝟐+ 𝟐+ 𝟐
𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐳
𝛛𝟐 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 ) 𝛛𝟐 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 ) 𝛛𝟐 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 )
= + +
𝛛𝐱 𝟐 𝛛𝐲 𝟐 𝛛𝐳 𝟐
=𝟐−𝟐+𝟐
𝛁𝟐𝑽 = 𝟐 ≠ 𝟎
Therefore, given potential doesn’t satisfy the Laplace equations.
1 ∂ ∂V 1 𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉
ii. ∇2 𝑉 = 𝑟 ∂r (𝑟 ∂r
) + 𝑟2 𝜕𝜑2 + 𝜕𝑧 2
𝟏 𝛛 𝛛 (𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 + 𝒛) 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 (𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 + 𝒛) 𝝏𝟐 (𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 + 𝒛)

= (𝒓 ) + 𝟐 +
𝒓 𝛛𝐫 𝛛𝐫 𝒓 𝝏𝝋𝟐 𝝏𝒛𝟐
𝟏 𝛛 𝟏
= (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋) + 𝟐 (−𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋) + 𝟎
𝒓 𝛛𝐫 𝒓
𝟏 𝟏
= (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋) − (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋)
𝒓 𝒓
𝛁𝟐𝑽 = 𝟎
Therefore, given potential satisfies the Laplace equations.
1 ∂ ∂V 1 1 ∂ ∂V 1 1 𝜕2𝑉
iii. ∇2 𝑉 = (𝑟 2 ) + (sin 𝜃 )+
𝑟 2 ∂r ∂r 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 ∂θ ∂θ 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 𝜕𝜑2
1 ∂ 2
∂ 1 1 ∂ ∂
= (𝑟 ( 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝜑 ) ) + (sin 𝜃 (𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝜑))
𝑟 2 ∂r ∂r 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 ∂θ ∂θ
1 1 𝜕2
+ 2 2 (𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝜑)
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑2
1 ∂ 2 1 1 ∂ 2 )
1 1
= ( 𝑟 cos 𝜃 ) + ( −𝑟 sin 𝜃 + (0 )
𝑟 2 ∂r 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 ∂θ 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃
1 (−𝑟) ∂ 1 − cos 2𝜃
= ( 2 × 2𝑟 cos 𝜃) + 2 ( )
𝑟 𝑟 sin 𝜃 ∂θ 2
(From algebra 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝜽 = 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽)
2 cos 𝜃 2 cos 𝜃
= −
𝑟 𝑟
∇2 𝑉 = 0
Therefore, given potential satisfies the Laplace’s equation.
3. Find the capacitance of a conducting sphere of 2cm in diameter , covered with

a layer of polyethene with 𝜀𝑟 = 2.26 and 3cm thick.
𝑑
a=radius of sphere = 2 = 1𝑐𝑚 = 1 × 10−2
𝑟1 = 𝑎 + 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 1 + 3 = 4𝑐𝑚 = 4 × 10−2

4𝜋
∴𝐶= 1 1 1 1 F
( − )+𝜀 𝑟
𝜀1 𝑎 𝑟1 0 1
4𝜋
=
1 1 1 1
( −
2.26 1 × 10−2 4 × 10−2 ) +
8.854 × 10−12 × 4 × 10−2
C=1.9121PF.
4.5 METHOD OF IMAGES

One important characteristic of the dipole field that we developed in Chapter 3 is the
infinite plane at zero potential that exists midway between the two charges. Such a
plane may be represented by a vanishingly thin conducting plane that is infinite in
extent. The conductor is an equipotential surface at a potential V = 0, and the electric
field intensity is therefore normal to the surface. Thus, if we replace the dipole
configuration shown in Figure 5.6a with the single charge and conducting plane
shown in Figure 5.6b, the fields in the upper half of each figure are the same. Below
the conducting plane, all fields are zero, as we have not provided any charges in that
region. Of course, we might also substitute a single negative charge below a
conducting plane for the dipole arrangement and obtain equivalence for the fields in
the lower half of each region.
If we approach this equivalence from the opposite point of view, we begin with a single
charge above a perfectly conducting plane and then see that we may maintain the
same fields above the plane by removing the plane and locating a negative charge at
a symmetrical location below the plane. This charge is called the image of the original
charge, and it is the negative of that value.
If we can do this once, linearity allows us to do it again and again, and thus any
charge configuration above an infinite ground plane may be replaced by an
arrangement composed of the given charge configuration, its image, and no
conducting plane. This is suggested by the two illustrations of Figure 5.7. In many
cases, the potential field of the new system is much easier to find since it does not
contain the conducting plane with its unknown surface charge distribution.
Example 1
Using the method of images, determine the surface charge density at P (2, 5, 0) on
the conducting plane z = 0 if there is a line charge of 30 nC/m located at x = 0, z =
3.
Solution
as shown in Figure 5.8a. We remove the plane and install an image line charge of -
30 nC/m at x = 0, z = -3, as illustrated in Figure 5.8b. The field at P may now be
obtained by superposition of the known fields of the line charges
Example 2
Let the surface x = 4 be a perfectly conducting in free space. A uniform infinite line
charge of 40 nC/m lies along the line x = 6, y = 3.
a) Let V = 0 at the conducting plane, using method of images find V at P (7, -

1,5).
⃗⃗ at P.
b) Applying method of images, determine E
Solution
 It is really good if we refer to answer first in (b) because it is difficult to solve a

voltage with lack of given variables like the charge Q and the electric field E. In
(b), a method of image is required. We are going to mirror the infinite line charge
ρL including the distance (or radial vector) R without the conducting plane.
 For more details, see Section 5.5 of the Course book. The book is explained that
the radial vector from positive (or negative if ever) line charge to point P is
symmetric where the plane is located. For example, if the line charge (not the
plane) is at z = 3 and the plane is at z = 0, then we put an image line charge at
z = –3 which the plane is removed.
 How did we obtain them? Well, draw a two-dimensional rectangular coordinates.
Locate P at x = 7 and y = –1. Notice that no z axis is included because the
conducting plane activates on x axis and the line charge activates on x and y
axes. The plane is at x = 4 while the line charge is x = 6 and y = 3. Therefore, the
image line charge is symmetrically at x = 2 and y = 3. We draw the plane, line
charge and image line charge with horizontal line.
 We can now find the radial vector R.
⃗⃗⃗+, the line charge is one unit away from P (x = 7), so 7 – 6 = 1; the line
For 𝐑
charge is four units away from P (y = 3), so –1 – 3 = –4. The image line charge
reacts on negative distance because we deal with directions no matter where
plane is placed.
⃗⃗⃗_ , the image line charge is five units away from P (x = 7), so – (7 – 2) = –5;
For 𝐑
the image line charge is four units away from P (y = 3) is – (–1 – 3) = 4.
 Finding their magnitudes, 𝐑
⃗⃗⃗+ = 17 = 4.123 and 𝐑
⃗⃗⃗_ = 41 = 6.403. Knowing each
electric fields
Work to do:
Let the surface y = 0 be a perfect conductor in free space. Two uniform infinite line
charges of 30 nC/m each are located at x = 0, y = 1, and x = 0, y = 2.
a) Let V = 0 at the plane y = 0, using method of images find V at P (1, 2, 0).
⃗⃗ at P.
b) Applying method of images, determine E
4.6 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Assignment
From Engineering Electromagnetics by William Hayt,

attempt the following questions:
1. D5.6, D5.8, D5.10

2. End of chapter questions: 5.21, 5.28, 5.31, 6.12

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CHAPTER 4: CONDUCTORS, DIELECTRICS AND CAPACITORS.

 A current of 1 amp is said to be flowing across the surface when a charge of

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN I AND J.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are at right angles (θ=0 degrees) then

And I = ∮𝑠 Jds J – current density in (A⁄m²).

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ then the total current is obtained by integrating 𝐽⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠

Refering to chapter 1: The surface areas in cylindircal coordinates are:

Given the vector current density

𝐽⃗ = 10𝑟 2 𝑧𝑎⃗𝑟 − 4𝑟 cos 2 𝜑 𝑎⃗𝜑 𝑚𝐴/𝑚2

a) find the current density at 𝑃(𝑟 = 3, 𝜑 = 30°, 𝑧 = 2 )

𝐽⃗(𝑃(𝑟 = 3, 𝜑 = 30°, 𝑧 = 2 )) = 10. 32 . 2. 𝑎⃗𝑟 − 4.3. (𝑐𝑜𝑠 (30°)2 ). 𝑎⃗𝜑

𝐽⃗(𝑃) = 180. 𝑎⃗𝑟 − 9. 𝑎⃗𝜑 𝑚𝐴/𝑚2

Due to unit vector multiplication

Where 𝑟 = 3, 0 < 𝜑 < 2𝜋, 2 < 𝑧 < 2.8. Therefore

Where Q= Magnitude of one of the two charges

𝑑⃗ = Distance vector from negative to positive charge

n to be no. of dipoles per unit volume.

∆𝑉 to be the total volume of the dielectric

Then the total dipole moment is to be obtained by using superposition theorem.

𝑃⃗⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =𝐐1 𝑑⃗1 + 𝐐2 𝑑⃗2 +…+𝐐n 𝑑⃗n

⃗⃗⃗ is defined as the total dipole moment per unit volume

⃗⃗=𝛆0 𝐸⃗⃗ + 𝑃⃗⃗ …(4)

𝑃⃗⃗ = 𝜒𝑒 𝜀0 𝐸⃗⃗… (5)

Substituting (5) in (4)

Comparing (6) and (7)

This is the relative permittivity or dielectric constant

Properties of Dielectric materials

i. The dielectric does not contain any free charges

A certain homogenous slab of lossless dielectric material is characterized by an

V= potential difference in volts.

The capacitance is measured in farads (F) and

Hence capacitance can be expressed as

4.3.1 PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITORS.

The capacitance is given by,

It can be seen that the value of capacitance depends on

(i) The permittivity of the dielectric used.

To find potential difference , consider ⃗⃗⃗⃗

4.3.4 CAPACITANCE OF SINGLE ISOLATED SPHERE.

(stray capacitance of an isolated body).

4.4.5 ISOLATED SPHERE COATED WITH DIELECTRIC.

It is placed in a free space so outside sphere 𝜀 =𝜀˳. It carries a charge of +Q

so for a< 𝑟 < 𝑟₁ 𝜀 = 𝜀₁

Now for a< 𝑟 < 𝑟1 for 𝑟1 < 𝒓 < ∞

∴ 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠

4.4 POISSON’S AND LAPLACE’S EQUATIONS.

Consider the Gauss’s law in the point form as

⃗⃗ is the flux density

𝐸⃗⃗ = −∇V …………….4

Equation 6 is called poisson’s equation

∇2 𝑣 = 0 (for a charge free region).

This is a special case of poison’s Equation called as Laplace equation.

Laplace equation in Cartesian

Laplace equation in cylindrical

Laplace equation in spherical

∇2 𝑉 = 0 Thus the field satisfies the laplace’s equation.

2. Determine whether the following potentials satisfy the Laplace or not.

Therefore, given potential doesn’t satisfy the Laplace equations.

𝟏 𝛛 𝛛 (𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 + 𝒛) 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 (𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 + 𝒛) 𝝏𝟐 (𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 + 𝒛)

Therefore, given potential satisfies the Laplace equations.