Electric Current.: Today's Agenda

Today’s agenda:
Electric Current.
You must know the definition of current, and be able to use it in solving problems.
Current Density.
You must understand the difference between current and current density, and be able to
use current density in solving problems.
Resistivity and Ohm’s Law

You must know the definition of resistivity and understand Ohm’s Law.
Resistivity vs. Resistance.

You must understand the relationship between resistance and resistivity, and be able to
use resistance in solving circuit problems.
Temperature Dependence of Resistivity.

You must be able to use the temperature coefficient of resistivity to solve problems
involving changing temperatures.
Definition of Electric Current
average current:
amount of charge ∆Q that passes through area during time ∆t
ΔQ
Iav =
Δt
instantaneous current:
dQ
I=
dt
C
unit of current: ampere (A): A= .
s
typical currents:
• 100 W light bulb: roughly 1A
• car starter motor: roughly 200A
• TV, computer, phone: nA to mA “m” for milli = 10-3
current is a scalar (not a vector)

• has a sign associated with it
• conventional current is flow of positive charge
positive charge flows right or

negative charge flows left
in most conductors, charge carriers are negative electrons
+-
current electrons
an electron flowing from – to + gives rise to the same

“conventional current” as a proton flowing from + to -
If your calculation produces a negative value for the current, that means the
conventional current actually flows opposite to the direction indicated by the arrow.
Example: 3.8x1021 electrons pass through an area in a wire in
4 minutes. What was the average current?
∆Q Ne
=
Iav =
∆t ∆t
Iav =
( 3.8 × 10 21
)(1.6 × 10 −19
) A
( 4 × 60 )
Iav = 2.53A
Today’s agenda:
Electric Current.
Current Density.
Resistivity and Ohm’s Law.



Example: 3.8x1021 electrons pass through an area in a wire in
4 minutes. What was the average current?
∆Q Ne
=
Iav =
∆t ∆t
Iav =
( 3.8 × 10 21
)(1.6 × 10 −19
) A
( 4 × 60 )
Iav = 2.53A
• current density is a vector
(direction is direction of velocity of positive charge carriers)

dA

J
 
• current density J flowing through infinitesimal
  area dA
produces infinitesimal current dI= J ⋅ dA
• total current passing through A is

 
=I ∫
surface
J ⋅ dA No OSE’s on this page.
Simpler, less-general
OSE on next page.
.
J
cross section A of wire
if J is uniform and parallel to dA:

  I
I= ∫
surface
J ⋅ dA = J ∫
surface
dA = JA ⇒ J =
A
Microscopic view of electric current
• carrier density n (number of

charge carriers per volume)
• carriers move with speed v
number of charges that pass through surface A in time ∆t:

number
× volume =
n v∆t A
volume
amount of charge passing through A in time ∆t: ∆Q= q nv∆t A
∆Q
divide by ∆t to get the current… =I = nqv A
∆t
…and by A to get the current density: J = nqv .
To account for the vector nature of the current density,
 
J = nqv Not quite
“official” yet.
and if the charge carriers are electrons, q=-e so that

 
Je = −n e v. Not quite
“official” yet.
The – sign demonstrates that the velocity of the electrons is

antiparallel to the conventional current direction.
Currents in Materials
Metals are conductors because they have “free” electrons,

which are not bound to metal atoms.
In a cubic meter of a typical conductor there roughly 1028 free
electrons, moving with typical speeds of 1,000,000 m/s…
…but the electrons move in random directions, and there is no

net flow of charge, until you apply an electric field.
The velocity that should be used in the equation for current
density  
J = n q v.
is not the charge carrier’s instantaneous velocity

Instead, use the net or drift velocity v d (left over after the
random motions is averaged out)
 
J = n q vd .
if J is parallel to A:
I
I = nqv d A vd =
nqA
Example: the 12-gauge copper wire in a home has a cross-
sectional area of 3.31x10-6 m2 and carries a current of 10 A.
The conduction electron density in copper is 8.49x1028
electrons/m3. Calculate the drift speed of the electrons.
I
vd =
nqA
I
vd =
neA
10 C/s
vd =
(8.49 ×1028 m -3 )(1.60 ×10−19 C)(3.31×10−6 m 2 )
v d 2.22 ×10−4 m/s

=
Today’s agenda:
Electric Current.
Current Density.
Resistivity and Ohm’s Law.



Resistivity
Why does electric current flow?

• electric field creates force acting on charge carriers
• in many materials:
current density (approximately) proportional to electric field
  1 Ohm’s law
J =σE = E
ρ (misnamed, not a law of nature)
• σ is electrical conductivity
• ρ is electrical resistivity
Ohm
• σ and ρ are material properties
V/m V Caution!
• unit of ρ: 2
= m = Ωm ρ is not volume density!
A/m A σ is not surface density!
Ohmic vs non-Ohmic materials
J
• materials that follow Ohm’s Law are called slope=1/ρ
“ohmic” materials
• resistivity ρ is constant
• linear J vs. E graph E
J
• materials that do not follow Ohm’s Law
are called “non-Ohmic” materials
• nonlinear J vs. E graph
E
Resistivity
• resistivities vary enormously

• roughly 10-8 Ω·m for copper
• roughly 1015 Ω·m for hard rubber
• incredible range of 23 orders of magnitude
Example: the 12-gauge copper wire in a home has a cross-
sectional area of 3.31x10-6 m2 and carries a current of 10 A.
Calculate the magnitude of the electric field in the wire.
I
ρ of copper
E =ρJ =ρ
A
(1.72 ×10−8 Ω ⋅ m) (10 A )

E=
(3.31×10−6 m 2 )
E 5.20 ×10−2 V/m

=
Homework hint you can look up the resistivity of a material in a table in your text.
Homework hint (not needed in this particular example): in this chapter it is safe to use ∆V=Ed.
Today’s agenda:
Electric Current.
Current Density.
Resistivity and Ohm’s Law



Resistance
current in a wire: ρ
A
• length L, cross section A
• material of resistivity ρ L
start from E = ρJ
I ρL
V=
EL =
ρJL =
ρ L=IR R=
A A
resistance of the wire,
V
Ohm’ law (device version) unit = Ω (Ohm)
A
V = IR
Resistance
• resistance of wire (or other device) measures how easily
charge flows through it
ρL
R=
A
• the longer a wire, the harder it is to push electrons through it
• the greater the cross-sectional area, the “easier” it is to push
electrons through it
• the greater the resistivity, the “harder” it is for the electrons
to move in the material
Distinguish:
Resistivity = material’s property
Resistance = device property
Example (will not be worked in class): Suppose you want to
connect your stereo to remote speakers.
(a) If each wire must be 20 m long, what diameter copper wire
should you use to make the resistance 0.10 Ω per wire.
R = ρL / A
A = ρL / R
A = π (d/2)2 geometry!
π (d/2)2 = ρL / R
(d/2)2 = ρL / πR
d/2= ( ρL / πR )½ don’t skip steps!
d = 2 ( ρL / πR )½
d = 2 [ (1.68x10-8) (20) / π (0.1) ]½ m
d = 0.0021 m = 2.1 mm
(b) If the current to each speaker is 4.0 A, what is the voltage

drop across each wire?
V=IR
V = (4.0) (0.10) V
V = 0.4 V
Resistors in circuits
• symbol we use for a “resistor:”
• in principle, every circuit component has some resistance

• all wires have resistance
• for efficiency, we want wires to have low resistance
• in idealized problems, consider wire resistance to be zero
• lamps, batteries, and other devices in circuits also have
resistance
Resistors are often intentionally used in
circuits. The picture shows a strip of five
resistors (you tear off the paper and
solder the resistors into circuits).
The little bands of color on the resistors have meaning. Here

are a couple of handy web links:
1. http://www.dannyg.com/examples/res2/resistor.htm
2. http://www.digikey.com/en/resources/conversion-
calculators/conversion-calculator-resistor-color-code-4-band
Today’s agenda:
Potential Changes Around a Circuit.

You must be able to calculate potential changes around a closed loop.
Electromotive force (EMF), Terminal Voltage, and Internal

Resistance.
You must be able to incorporate all of the above quantities in your circuit calculations.
Electric Power.
You must be able to calculate the electric power dissipated in circuit components.
Examples.
Kirchhoff’s loop rule
Recall (lecture 7):

voltage drops across circuit components connected in series add
Vab
C1 C2 C3
a b Vab = V1 + V2 + V3
V1 V2 V3
Generalization: Loop rule

• around any closed loop: ∑V =0
i
i
strictly: ∑ ΔV = 0
i
i
• reflects energy conservation (around any closed path, Uf=Ui)

Ohmic vs non-Ohmic materials
J
• materials that follow Ohm’s Law are called slope=1/ρ
“ohmic” materials
• resistivity ρ is constant
• linear J vs. E graph E
J
• materials that do not follow Ohm’s Law
are called “non-Ohmic” materials
• nonlinear J vs. E graph
E
Example: Loop rule in circuit of 3 resistors and 2 batteries
R1 R2 R3
a b
V1 V2 V3
- + + -
I VB VA
1. Assign current direction

2. Pick travel direction: clockwise
3. Add voltages
- V1 - V2 - V3 + VA - VB = 0
- IR1 - IR2 - IR3 + VA - VB = 0

Recommendation: choose your path around the circuit in the same direction as your guessed current.
Example: calculate I, Vab, and Vba for the circuit shown.
To be worked at the blackboard in lecture.
5Ω
b
10 Ω
+ -
a
I 9V
+9 – 5 I – 10 I = 0
15 I = +9
I = +9/15 = 0.6 A
5Ω
b
10 Ω
+ -
a
I = 0.6 A 9V
Va + 9 – 5 (0.6) = Vb
Vab = Va – Vb = – 9 + 5 (0.6) = -6 V
5Ω
b
10 Ω
+ -
a
I = 0.6 A 9V
Vb – 10 (0.6) = Va
Vba = Vb – Va = + 10 (0.6) = +6 V
5Ω
b
10 Ω
+ -
a
I = 0.6 A 9V
Note: Vba = +6 V = - Vab , as expected

Resistance
current in a wire: ρ
A
• length L, cross section A
• material of resistivity ρ L
start from E = ρJ
I ρL
V=
EL =
ρJL =
ρ L=IR R=
A A
resistance of the wire,
V
Ohm’ law (device version) unit = Ω (Ohm)
A
V = IR
Example (will not be worked in class): Suppose you want to
connect your stereo to remote speakers.
(a) If each wire must be 20 m long, what diameter copper wire
should you use to make the resistance 0.10 Ω per wire.
R = ρL / A
A = ρL / R
A = π (d/2)2 geometry!
π (d/2)2 = ρL / R
(d/2)2 = ρL / πR
d/2= ( ρL / πR )½ don’t skip steps!
d = 2 ( ρL / πR )½
5Ω
b
10 Ω
- + +-
a
I = 0.2 A 6V 9V
Va + 9 – 6 – 5 (0.2) = Vb
Vab = Va – Vb = – 9 + 6 + 5 (0.2) = – 2 V
The smart way: Vba = - Vab = +2 V
5Ω
b
10 Ω
- + +-
a
I = 0.2 A 6V 9V
Vb – 10 (0.2) = Va
Vba = Vb – Va = + 10 (0.2) = + 2 V
What if you guess the wrong current direction?
5Ω
b
10 Ω
- + +-
a
I 6V 9V
– 10 I – 5 I +6 – 9 = 0
15 I = – 3
I = – 0.2 A oops, guessed wrong direction, no big deal!

DC Currents
• in Physics 2135, (almost) all currents are “direct current.”
• d.c. currents flow in one direction, from + to -.
• we will not encounter ac (alternating currents) much
• analysis of ac current is more complex

• household current is ac, assuming dc will be “close enough”
to give you “a feel” for the physics.
Today’s agenda:

Electromotive force (Emf), Terminal Voltage, and

Internal Resistance.
Electric Power.
You must be able to calculate the electric power dissipated in circuit components, and
incorporate electric power in work-energy problems.
Examples.
Ideal versus real voltage sources
• ideal battery (or other voltage source):

voltage does not depend on the current flowing
• real battery: voltage does depend on current,
typically voltage decreases with increasing current (load)
How to model a real battery?

• real battery consists of ideal battery + internal resistance
Voltage of ideal battery is called
electromotive force (emf) ε
+ -
a b
r ε
internal resistance r
EMF and terminal voltage
The electromotive force (emf) of a voltage source is the

potential difference it produces when no current is flowing.
emf is not a force!
Can the emf be measured?

• hook up a voltmeter: ε (emf)
• as soon as you connect the + -

voltmeter, current flows
a b
• you can only measure terminal
voltage Vab, but not emf ε
I
An ideal voltmeter would be able to The “battery” is everything

measure ε. inside the green box.
To model a battery, simply include an extra resistor to represent
the internal resistance, and label the voltage source* as an emf
instead of V (units are still volts):
a + - b
r ε
If the internal resistance is negligible, simply don’t include it!
If you are asked to calculate the terminal voltage, it is just Vab = Va – Vb, calculated using the
techniques I am showing you today.
(Terminal voltage is usually expressed as a positive number, so it is better to take the absolute
value of Vab.)
*Remember, all sources of emf—not just batteries—have an internal resistance.

Example: a battery is known to have an emf of 9 volts. If a 1
ohm resistor is connected to the battery, the terminal voltage is
measured to be 3 volts. What is the internal resistance of the
battery?
R=1 Ω
Loop rule:
ε - Ir - IR = 0 I emf
+ -
a b
terminal voltage r ε
Vab = Va - Vb = IR
terminal voltage Vab

Today’s agenda:

Electromotive force (EMF), Terminal Voltage, and Internal

Resistance.
Electric Power.
You must be able to calculate the electric power dissipated in circuit components.
Examples.
Kirchhoff’s loop rule
Recall (lecture 7):

voltage drops across circuit components connected in series add
Vab
C1 C2 C3
a b Vab = V1 + V2 + V3
V1 V2 V3
Generalization: Loop rule

• around any closed loop: ∑V =0
i
i
strictly: ∑ ΔV = 0
i
i
• reflects energy conservation (around any closed path, Uf=Ui)

Electric Power
dWF
• power in terms of work done by a force: PF =
dt
• work done by electric force moving charge q through
potential difference ∆V
Wi→f = U i − U f = q(Vi − Vf ).
• for infinitesimal charge dq
=
dWi →f dq (Vi − Vf ).
• instantaneous power:
dWi→f dq (Vi − Vf ) dq∆V

=P = = .
dt dt dt
dW dq
=
P = = V IV.
dt dt
P = IV
• P<0 means loss of electric energy

• P>0 means gain of electric energy
• For resistors: using Ohm’s “law” V=IR, we can write
P = I2R = V2/R.
Example: an electric heater draws 15.0 A on a 120 V line. How
much power does it use and how much does it cost per 30 day
month if it operates 3.0 h per day and the electric company
charges 10.5 cents per kWh. For simplicity assume dc current.
Household current is ac rather than dc. Our calculation will be a

reasonable approximation to reality.
An electric heater draws 15.0 A on a 120 V line. How much
power does it use.
P = IV
=P (15
= A )(120 V ) 1800 W = 1.8 kW
How much does it cost per 30 day month if it operates 3.0 h

per day and the electric company charges 10.5 cents per kWh.
 3 h   $0.105 
cos t = (1.8 kW )( 30 days )   
 day   kWh 
cos t = $17.00
How much energy is a kilowatt hour (kWh)?
(1 kW )(1 h ) = (1000 W )( 3600 s )
 J
= 1000  ( 3600 s )
 s
= 3.6 ×106 J
So a kWh is a “funny” unit of energy. K (kilo) and h (hours) are

lowercase, and W (James Watt) is uppercase.
How much energy did the electric heater use?
Wdone by force Energy Transformed

=
Paverage =
time time
Energy Transformed = ( Paverage ) ( time )
 J  3 h used   3600 s 
Energy Transformed = 1800  ( 30 days )   
 s   day  h 
Energy Transformed = 583, 200, 000 Joules used

Example: A 12 V battery with 2 Ω internal resistance is
connected to a 4 Ω resistor. Calculate (a) the rate at which
chemical energy is converted to electrical energy in the battery,
(b) the power dissipated internally in the battery, and (c) the
power output of the battery.
R=4Ω
+-
I r=2Ω ε = 12 V
Calculate (a) the rate at which chemical energy is converted to
electrical energy in the battery.
I R=4Ω
+-
r=2Ω ε = 12 V
∑V = 0 around any closed circuit loop
Start at negative terminal of battery…

ε - I R2Ω - I R4Ω = 0
I = ε / (R2Ω + R4Ω) = 12 V / 6 Ω = 2 A
Energy is converted at the rate Pconverted=Iε=(2 A)(12 V)=24W.

Calculate (b) the power dissipated internally in the battery.
R=4Ω
+-
r=2Ω ε = 12 V
I=2A
Pdissipated = I2r = (2 A)2 (2 Ω) = 8 W.
Calculate (c) the power output of the battery.
Poutput = Pconverted - Pdissipated = 24 W - 8 W = 16W.

Example: Loop rule in circuit of 3 resistors and 2 batteries
R1 R2 R3
a b
V1 V2 V3
- + + -
I VB VA
1. Assign current direction

2. Pick travel direction: clockwise
3. Add voltages
- V1 - V2 - V3 + VA - VB = 0
- IR1 - IR2 - IR3 + VA - VB = 0

Recommendation: choose your path around the circuit in the same direction as your guessed current.

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Today’s agenda:

Resistivity and Ohm’s Law

Resistivity vs. Resistance.

Temperature Dependence of Resistivity.

current is a scalar (not a vector)

positive charge flows right or

an electron flowing from – to + gives rise to the same

Resistivity and Ohm’s Law.

Resistivity vs. Resistance.

Temperature Dependence of Resistivity.

• total current passing through A is

cross section A of wire

if J is uniform and parallel to dA:

• carrier density n (number of

number of charges that pass through surface A in time ∆t:

and if the charge carriers are electrons, q=-e so that

The – sign demonstrates that the velocity of the electrons is

Metals are conductors because they have “free” electrons,

…but the electrons move in random directions, and there is no

v d 2.22 ×10−4 m/s

Resistivity and Ohm’s Law.

Resistivity vs. Resistance.

Temperature Dependence of Resistivity.

Why does electric current flow?

• resistivities vary enormously

(1.72 ×10−8 Ω ⋅ m) (10 A )

E 5.20 ×10−2 V/m

Resistivity and Ohm’s Law

Resistivity vs. Resistance.

Temperature Dependence of Resistivity.

(b) If the current to each speaker is 4.0 A, what is the voltage

• symbol we use for a “resistor:”

• in principle, every circuit component has some resistance

The little bands of color on the resistors have meaning. Here

Potential Changes Around a Circuit.

Electromotive force (EMF), Terminal Voltage, and Internal

Recall (lecture 7):

Generalization: Loop rule

• reflects energy conservation (around any closed path, Uf=Ui)

1. Assign current direction

- IR1 - IR2 - IR3 + VA - VB = 0

To be worked at the blackboard in lecture.

Note: Vba = +6 V = - Vab , as expected

The smart way: Vba = - Vab = +2 V

What if you guess the wrong current direction?

I = – 0.2 A oops, guessed wrong direction, no big deal!

• we will not encounter ac (alternating currents) much

• analysis of ac current is more complex

Potential Changes Around a Circuit.

Electromotive force (Emf), Terminal Voltage, and

• ideal battery (or other voltage source):

How to model a real battery?

The electromotive force (emf) of a voltage source is the

Can the emf be measured?

• as soon as you connect the + -

An ideal voltmeter would be able to The “battery” is everything

If the internal resistance is negligible, simply don’t include it!

*Remember, all sources of emf—not just batteries—have an internal resistance.

terminal voltage Vab