Suorineni-Dilution I
Suorineni-Dilution I
Suorineni-Dilution I
ABSTRACT
The Mathews et al (1981) stability graph was developed to provide guidance in the determination
of stope sizes to control dilution in bulk mining of large orebodies. Longhole and sublevel open
stoping (LHOS and SLOS) are the lower end in scale of underground mass mining with panel and
block caving (PBC) at the higher end. Currently, the stability states of stopes in the stability graph
are described qualitatively as stable, unstable or cave. The alternative quantitative option to the
qualitative stability graph is the Equivalent Linear Overbreak Slough (ELOS) stability graph. The
ELOS stability graph only applies to narrow vein orebodies. It is easy for the Mathews et al (1981)
and the ELOS stability graphs to be applied outside the limits of their databases. What is currently
referred to as ‘stable’ in the present stability graphs has diverse interpretations at different mines
depending on their acceptable dilution values. In 2014, a research program was conceptually
conceived at the UNSW Australia School of Mining Engineering to develop a quantitative
dilution-based stability graph independent of orebody width to address some industry concerns
on the use of the stability graphs. A dilution-based stability graph provides the mining engineer
the flexibility to determine open stope sizes based on what dilution amounts are acceptable. The
graph also unifies both the Mathews et al (1981) and ELOS stability graphs for wide and narrow
vein orebodies, thus, eliminating their potential misapplications. To date, the concept is proven
with case studies from metalliferous underground mining operations located across Australia.
This paper presents the dilution-based stability graph concept, the initial results and future plans
to account for other critical factors and increase confidence in its application with the addition of
more data outside Australia.
INTRODUCTION
The history behind open stope mining in North America is Open stope mining is a bulk or mass mining method.
given in Tatman (2001) and summarised here. Between 1970 Hustrulid (2000) arbitrarily defined large underground mines
and the late 1980 there was a rapid decline in underground as those producing greater than 5000 t/d with the following
mining in North America in favour of open pit mining, as mining methods:
open pit mining made near surface low-grade ore deposits • panel/block caving
economic. In the early 1990s underground mining rejuvenated • sublevel caving
in part due to environmental concerns emanating from the • longhole/sublevel stopping.
destruction caused by open pit mining and the consequent Brown (2004) puts large underground producing mines as
community and government pressures. The consequence those producing about 10 000 t/d or higher.
of the mining industry shift from underground to open pit
In the move from open pits to underground mining, practices
mining was loss of most expertise in underground mining
that proved effective in open pit mining were transferred
to open pit mining. Hence, the about turn from open pit to directly to the new underground mines (Tatman, 2001).
underground mining in the early 1990s implied employing Obviously, not all of the practices transferred from open pits
miners with little underground mining experience but with to underground proofed effective in these environments and
expertise in open pit mining. These employees were used there was a need to effectively manage the resulting adverse
to large volume mining in open pits and unconscientiously effects such as unplanned dilution.
transferred that experience to underground mining.
The development of the stability graph coincided with the
The mining of large tonnages with underground mining period when most mines preferred open pits and marked
methods is now rightly termed bulk mining methods. The the beginning of the transition from open pit mining to
mass mining conference series refer to these bulk mining underground mining with the tendency to employ experience
methods as mass mining methods. from the open pit mining underground. A critical factor
1. MAusIMM, Professor and Chair of Mine Geotechnical Engineering, UNSW Australia, Kensington NSW 2052. Email: f.suorineni@unsw.edu.au
2. SAusIMM, Student, UNSW Australia, Kensington NSW 2052. Email: alexander.papaioanou@gmail.com
3. SAusIMM, Student, UNSW Australia, Kensington NSW 2052. Email: lewis.baird@student.unsw.edu.au
4. SAusIMM, Student, UNSW Australia, Kensington NSW 2052. Email: domhines92@gmail.com
SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION ON MASS MINING / SYDNEY, NSW, 9–11 MAY 2016 511
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governing the effective use of open pit mining expertise original charts for determining these factors can be found in
underground is the management of dilution. Increasing Potvin (1988). Mathews et al (1981) noted that while the small
production capacity with the objective of lowering costs to database was adequate in proving the concept of the stability
increase profits is only true if dilution is properly managed to graph it was not sufficient to calibrate the method including
an acceptable level. factors A, B and C.
Potvin (1988) increased the original database from 26 case
The stability graph histories to 175 case histories from 34 mines and calibrated
The stability graph is the outcome of a study that was the original chart and factors A, B and C. When the Potvin
commissioned by the Department of Energy, Mines and (1988) calibrated factors A, B and C are used in computing the
Resources in Canada in 1980 to determine information stability number N, it becomes N-prime (N’) in Equation 1.
required to predict stable spans for open stopes at mining The calibrated factors A, B and C are determined from
depths below 1000 m (Mathews et al 1981). By adopting this empirical charts in Figure 2 and the corresponding stability
strategy, dilution could be managed. Open stopes are large
graph is referred to as the modified stability graph (Figure 1)
openings produced by a non-entry mining method (Mathews
with different transition zones compared to those in the
et al 1981) called open stope mining. The term ‘non-entry’ in
original stability graph.
description of open stopes is important as it implies some
degree of instability can be allowed. Same cannot be accepted
in entry mining methods such as cut-and-fill mining. A
In open stope mining the stopes must remain open until all
the ore is extracted with acceptable dilution from wall and back
overbreak. Open stope mining continues to get more attractive
as stope sizes can be increased with continued improvements
in drilling, blasting and ground support technologies, given a
suitable orebody size and ground condition.
The stability graph (Figure 1) is an empirical method
developed for designing open stopes. The original stability
graph by Mathews et al (1981) is a plot of a stability number
N (Equation 1) against a shape factor S or hydraulic radius
HR (Equation 3):
N = Q' # A # B # C (1)
RQD Jr
Ql = # (2)
Jn Ja
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TABLE 1
Various definitions of dilution in Canadian mines (Pakalnis, 1986).
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FIG 8 – Dilution-based stability graph with boundaries between dilution categories derived from logistic regress: proof of concept (Papaioanou and Suorineni, 2015).
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FIG 9 – Dilution-based stability graph with boundaries between dilution categories derived from
Bayesian likelihood statistic discriminant analysis: proof of concept (Papaioanou and Suorineni, 2015).
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FIG 11 – Mathews stability graph for stopes affected by faults and shear zones with (A) no adjustment for faults and (B) adjustments for faults.
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FIG 12 – Quantitative dilution-based stability graph from an independent mine confirming the concept.
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indeed plausible. The concept has been applied to the data and efforts are continuing to establish confidence in the use of
from a different mine in a different geological setting in which the dilution-based stability graph.
faults play a major role in the stability of open stopes.
Experience in the use of the Mathews et al (1981) and its Conclusions
derivatives showed that the graph had a major deficiency by The following conclusions are drawn from the study:
not accounting faults when such discrete structures are close • The concept of a quantitative dilution-based stability
to stopes. In order to offset this deficiency Suorineni (1998) graph is plausible based on results on 226 case histories
introduced a fault factor F to be incorporated into N’. used for the proof of concept.
Figure 11 and Figure 12 show that the fault factor is successful • A quantitative dilution-based stability graph is robust and
in accounting for faults when these structures are close to an eliminates inappropriate use that is always likely with
open stope. However, the fault factor is seen to be ineffective either the ELOS stability graph or the Mathews stability
when the fault occurs in a stope back as shown in Figure 12. graph and its derivatives such as the extended Mathews
This deficiency has also been observed in stopes in a mine in stability graph as each of these graphs can only be applied
Chile (Vallejos, personal communication). The fact that this is to a certain orebody size. The quantitative dilution-based
so is not surprising as in the original development of the fault graph is a unified stability graph that is orebody size
factor F, faults in stope backs were not considered. Figure 14 independent.
shows the fault/stope geometry situations considered in the • The expanded proof of concept quantitative dilution-based
fault factor development and clearly shows that the presence graph further improves the dilution category boundaries
of faults in stope backs was not considered. More details on and confirms the concept.
the development of the fault factor can be found in Suorineni, • It is shown that the word ‘stable’ in the stability graph
Tannant and Kaiser (1999a, 1999b) and Suorineni et al (2001). is ambiguous as what is a stable stope depends on the
Future work will be directed at accounting for faults in stope individual mine acceptable dilution level. A quantitative
backs, as well as managing stopes completely established in dilution-based stability graph gives mining engineers the
shear zones. Another issue often overlooked is the role of flexibility to decide their stope sizes based on what they
undercutting in causing stope instability and dilution as well consider their acceptable dilution.
as the change in HR from previous stope surface failures. • Application of the fault factor to stopes adversely affected
The latter will also be considered in subsequent studies. by faults and shear zones shows that the fault factor is
Obviously, the effect of time on stope stability remains a effective for hanging walls and footwalls but ineffective
challenge and will be considered in future studies. when the faults are in stope backs.
In this paper the dilution category boundaries in the • The role of undercutting in causing stope instability and
combined data dilution graph are not objectively defined using dilution as well as the change in HR from previous stope
statistics but eyeballed. Future work will employ Bayesian surface failures needs to be further studied.
likelihood statistics and logistic regression objectively defined • Drilling accuracy and blasting practice on wall stability
these boundaries to minimise bias. and dilution are important factors to be considered in the
determination of dilution and stope sizes.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS • There remains no unique method for the calculation of
The paper has taken a fresh look at the stability graph. While dilution and this poses a challenge in the development of
this method has been useful in the selection of open stope the dilution-based stability graph.
sizes to manage stope stability, the qualitative nature of the
approach exposes it to some confusion in the mining industry. Recommendations
Hence, a quantitative explicit dilution-based stability graph is The following recommendations stand out from the research:
introduced to counter some of the difficulties and minimise • Use of the quantitative dilution-based stability graph
the confusion in the use of the method. More work lies ahead is recommended based on its merits over the Mathews
stability graph and its derivatives.
• The use of discriminant statistics to define the dilution
category boundaries in the expanded dilution-based
stability graph to remove any subjectivity from eyeballing
is recommended in the future.
• It is recommended that additional data be collected
and the dilution boundaries fine-tuned to improve the
predictive reliability of the graphs. It is also recommended
to continue the research using the Bayesian likelihood
discriminant method because of its capacity to account for
data category in-balances.
• The use of the fault factor in determining the stability
number N’ when a stope is close to the influence of a fault
or shear zone is highly recommended.
• Future work will focus on expanding the database for
the quantitative dilution-based stability graph and the
extension of the fault factor approach to cover faults in
stope backs.
• Finding a unique definition for dilution is recommended
but remains a challenge. This challenge must be born in
FIG 14 – Fault factor F logic schematic illustration (Suorineni, 1998). mined in using the dilution-based stability graph.
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• Whether it is the modified stability graph or its derivatives, Hustrulid, W, 2000. Method selection for large scale underground
accounting for the time of exposure of stope surfaces in mining, in Proceedings Third International Conference and Exhibition
dilution remains a challenge. At present, to minimise the on Mass Mining (MassMin 2000) (ed: G Chitombo), pp 29–56 (The
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).
effect of exposure time strict adherence to stope schedules
in terms of start to finish and timely use of backfill is Mathews, K E, Hoek, E, Wylle, D C and Stewart, S B V, 1981. Prediction
recommended. of stable excavation spans for mining at depths below 1000 meters
in hard rock, pp 36–110 (Golder Associates: Vancouver).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Mawdesley, C A, 2002. Predicting rock mass cavability in block
caving mines, PhD thesis (unpublished), Julius Kruttschnitt
The authors would like to thank the numerous industry
Mineral Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane.
contacts (both nationally and internationally) for their
valuable support and contributions throughout the project. Mawdesley, C A, Trueman, R and Whiten, W, 2001. Extending the
Mathews stability graph for open-stope design, Transactions
The project was funded by the School of Mining Engineering
of the Institutions of Mining and Metallurgy, Mining Technology,
Research Grant (SRG).
110(1):A27–A39.
Milne, D, 1997. Underground design and deformation based on
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