CHAPTER THREE: IRRIGATION

METHODS AND DESIGNS

 3.1 IRRIGATION METHODS

 a) Surface Irrigation: Just flooding water. About 90% of the

irrigated areas in the world are by this method.

 b) Sprinkler Irrigation: Applying water under pressure. About 5

% of the irrigated areas are by this method.

 c) Drip or Trickle Irrigation: Applying water slowly to the soil

ideally at the same rate with crop consumption.

 d) Sub-Surface Irrigation: Flooding water underground and

allowing it to come up by capillarity to crop roots.
 3.2 SURFACE IRRIGATION

 Water is applied to the field in either the controlled or

uncontrolled manner.
 Controlled: Water is applied from the head ditch and
guided by corrugations, furrows, borders, or ridges.
 Uncontrolled: Wild flooding.
 Surface irrigation is entirely practised where water is
abundant. The low initial cost of development is
later offset by high labour cost of applying water.
There are deep percolation, runoff and drainage
problems
 3.2.1 Furrow Irrigation

 In furrow irrigation, only a part of the land

surface (the furrow) is wetted thus
minimizing evaporation loss.
 Furrow irrigation is adapted for row crops like
corn, banana, tobacco, and cabbage. It is
also good for grains.
 Irrigation can be by corrugation using small
irrigation streams.
 Furrow irrigation is adapted for irrigating on
various slopes except on steep ones because
of erosion and bank overflow.
 Furrow Irrigation Contd.
 There are different ways of applying water to the furrow.
 As shown in Fig. 3.1, siphons are used to divert water from the
head ditch to the furrows.
 There can also be direct gravity flow whereby water is delivered
from the head ditch to the furrows by cutting the ridge or levee
separating the head ditch and the furrows (see diagram from
Gumb's book).
 Gated pipes can also be used. Large portable pipe(up to 450
mm) with gate openings spaced to deliver water to the furrows
are used.
 Water is pumped from the water source in closed conduits.
 The openings of the gated pipe can be regulated to control the
discharge rate into the furrows.
Furrow Irrigation by Cutting
the Ridge
Furrow Irrigation with Siphons
Fig. 3.1: A Furrow System
3.2.1.1 Design Parameters of Furrow
Irrigation
 The Major Design Considerations in Surface Irrigation Include:

 Storing the Readily Available Moisture in the Root Zone, if

Possible;
 Obtaining As Uniform Water Application As Possible;
 Minimizing Soil Erosion by Applying Non-erosive Streams;
 Minimizing Runoff at the End of the Furrow by Using a Re-use
System or a Cut -Back Stream;
 Minimizing Labour Requirements by Having Good Land
Preparation,
 Good Design and Experienced Labour and
 Facilitating Use of Machinery for Land Preparation, Cultivation,
Furrowing, Harvesting Etc.
 Furrow Irrigation Contd.
 The Specific Design Parameters of Furrow
Irrigation Are Aimed at Achieving the Above
Objectives and Include:
 a) Shape and Spacing of Furrows: Heights of
ridges vary between 15 cm and 40 cm and
the distance between the ridges should be
based on the optimum crop spacing modified,
if necessary to obtain adequate lateral
wetting, and to accommodate the track of
mechanical equipment.
 The range of spacing commonly used is from
0.3 to 1.8 m with 1.0 m as the average.
 Design Parameters of Furrow
Irrigation Contd.
 b) Selection of the Advance or Initial Furrow
Stream: In permeable soils, the maximum
non-erosive flow within the furrow capacity
can be used so as to enable wetting of the
end of the furrow to begin as soon as
possible.
 The maximum non-erosive flow (Qm) is given
by: Qm = c/S where c is a constant = 0.6
when Qm is in l/s and S is slope in %.

 Example 1: For a soil slope of 0.1 %, the Qm is

 Design Parameters of Furrow
Irrigation Contd.
 The actual stream size should be determined by field
tests.
 It is desirable that this initial stream size reaches the
end of the furrow in T/4 time where T is the total time
required to apply the required irrigation depth.

 c) Cut-back Stream: This is the stream size to which

the initial stream is reduced sometime after it has
reached the lower end of the field.
 This is to reduce soil erosion.
 One or two cutbacks can be carried out and
removing some siphons or reducing the size at the
head of the furrow achieves this.
 Design Parameters of Furrow
Irrigation Contd.
 d) Field Slope: To reduce costs of land
grading, longitudinal and cross slopes should
be adapted to the natural topography.
 Small cross slopes can be tolerated.
 To reduce erosion problems during rainfall,
furrows (which channel the runoff) should
have a limited slope (see Table 3.1).
 Table 3.1 : Maximum Slopes for Various Soil Types

Soil Type Maximum slopes*

Sand 0.25
Sandy loam 0.40
Fine sandy loam 0.50
Clay 2.50
Loam 6.25 Source:
Withers & Vipond (1974)
 *A minimum slope of about 0.05 % is required
to ensure surface drainage.
 Design Parameters of Furrow
Irrigation Contd.
 e) Furrow Length: Very long lengths
lead to a lot of deep percolation
involving over-irrigation at the upper
end of the furrow and under-irrigation at
the lower end.
 Typical values are given in Table 3.2,
but actual furrow lengths should be got
from field tests.
 Design Parameters of Furrow
Irrigation Contd.
 e) Field Widths: Widths are flexible but
should not be of a size to enclose
variable soil types.
 The widths should depend on land
grading permissible.
 3.2.1.2 Evaluation of a Furrow
Irrigation System
 The objective is to determine fairly accurately
how the system is used and to suggest
possible amendments or changes.

 Equipment: Engineers Level and Staff,

 30 m Tape,
 Marker Stakes,
 Siphons of Various Sizes,
 Two Small Measuring Flumes,
 Watch with Second Hand and Spade.
 Evaluation of a Furrow Irrigation
System Contd.
 Procedure
 a) Select several (say 3 or more) uniform test furrows which
should be typical of those in the area.
 b) Measure the average furrow spacing and note the shape,
condition etc.
 c) Set the marker stakes at 30 m intervals down the furrows.
 d) Take levels at each stake and determine the average slope.
 e) Set the flumes say 30 m apart at the head of the middle
furrow.
 f) Pass constant flow streams down the furrows, using wide
range of flows. The largest flow should just cause erosion and
overtopping, the smallest might just reach the end of the furrow.
The median stream should have a discharge of about Q = 3/4
S (l/s) where S is the % slope.
 Evaluation of a Furrow Irrigation
System Contd.
 g) Record the time when flow starts and passes each marker in each
flow(advance data).
 h) Record the flow at each flume periodically until the flows become
practically constant. This may take several hours on fine textured
soils(Infiltration data).
 i) Check for evidence of erosion or overtopping.
 j) Move the flumes and measure the streams at the heads only of the other
furrows.

 Results: To be presented in a format shown:
 ............................................................................................................
 Watch Opportunity time(mins)
 Station A Station B Losses
 Time A B C Depth Flow Depth Flow Diff Infil.
 (mm) ( L/s) (mm) (L/s) (L/s) (mm/h)
 ..............................................................................................................

3.2.2. Border Irrigation System

 In a border irrigation, controlled surface flooding is

practised whereby the field is divided up into strips by
parallel ridges or dykes and each strip is irrigated
separately by introducing water upstream and it
progressively covers the entire strip.
 Border irrigation is suited for crops that can
withstand flooding for a short time e.g. wheat.
 It can be used for all crops provided that the system
is designated to provide the needed water control for
irrigation of crops.
 It is suited to soils between extremely high and very
low infiltration rates.
Border Irrigation System
Border Irrigation
 Border Irrigation Contd.

 In border irrigation, water is applied slowly.

 The root zone is applied water gradually down
the field.
 At a time, the application flow is cut-off to
reduce water loses.
 Ideally, there is no runoff and deep
percolation.
 The problem is that the time to cut off the
inflow is difficult to determine.
3.2.2.2 Design Parameters of Border
Irrigation System
 a) Strip width: Cross slopes must be eliminated by leveling.
 Since there are no furrows to restrict lateral movement, any
cross slope will make water move down one side leading to
poor application efficiency and possibly erosion.
 The stream size available should also be considered in
choosing a strip width.
 The size should be enough to allow complete lateral spreading
throughout the length of the strip.
 The width of the strip for a given water supply is a function of
the length (Table 3.5).
 The strip width should be at least bigger than the size of vehicle
tract for construction where applicable.
 Design Parameters of Border
Irrigation System Contd.
 b) Strip Slope: Longitudinal slopes should be almost same as
for the furrow irrigation.
 c) Construction of Levees: Levees should be big enough to
withstand erosion, and of sufficient height to contain the
irrigation stream.
 d) Selection of the Advance Stream: The maximum advance
stream used should be non-erosive and therefore depends on
the protection afforded by the crop cover. Clay soils are less
susceptible to erosion but suffer surface panning at high water
velocities. Table 3.4 gives the maximum flows recommendable
for bare soils.
 e) The Length of the Strip: Typical lengths and widths for
various flows are given in Table 3.5. The ideal lengths can be
obtained by field tests.
 3.2.2.3 Evaluation of a Border Strip

 The aim is to vary various parameters with the aim of

obtaining a good irrigation profile.
 Steps
 a) Measure the infiltration rate of soils and get the
cumulative infiltration curve. Measurement can be by
double ring infiltrometer.

Depth of D = KTn
Water, D (mm)

Time, T (mins)
Fig 3.5: Cumulative Infiltration Curve
 Evaluation of Border Strip Contd.

 b) Mark some points on the border strip and check

the advance of water. Also check recession. For
steep slopes, recession of water can be seen unlike
in gentle slopes where it may be difficult to see. In
border irrigation, recession is very important because
unlike furrows, there is no place water can seep into
after water is turned off.
Time Distance Diagram of the
Border System
 Evaluation of the Border System
Contd.
 About two-thirds down the border, the flow is turned
off and recession starts.
 The difference between the advance and recession
curves gives the opportunity time or total time when
water is in contact with the soil.
 For various distances, obtain the opportunity times
from the advance/recession curves and from the
cumulative infiltration curve, obtain the depths of
water.
 With the depth and distance data, plot the irrigation
profile depth shown below.
Depth- Distance Diagram of the
Border System
 Evaluation of the Border System
Contd.
 The depth of irrigation obtained is compared with the SMD
(ideal irrigation depth).
 There is deep percolation and runoff at the end of the field.
 The variables can then be changed to give different shapes of
graphs to see the one to reduce runoff and deep percolation. In
this particular case above, the inflow can be stopped sooner.
The recession curve then changes.
 The profile now obtained creates deficiency at the ends of the
borders (see graph: dotted lies above).
 A good profile of irrigation can be obtained by varying the flow,
which leads to a change in the recession curve, and by choosing
a reasonable contact time each time using the infiltration curve.
 3.2.3 Basin Irrigation System

 3.2.3.1 Description: In basin irrigation, water is

flooded in wider areas. It is ideal for irrigating rice.
 The area is normally flat.
 In basin irrigation, a very high stream size is
introduced into the basin so that rapid movement of
water is obtained.
 Water does not infiltrate a lot initially.
 At the end, a bond is put and water can pond the field.
 The opportunity time difference between the upward
and the downward ends are reduced.
Basin Irrigation Diagram

rrigation time.
 3.2.3.2 Size of Basins
 The size of basin is related to stream size and soil type(See Table 3.6
below).
 Table 3.6: Suggested basin areas for different soil types and rates of water flow
 Flow rate Soil Type
 Sand Sandy loam Clay loam Clay
 l/s m /hr 3 .................Hectares................................
 30 108 0.02 0.06 0.12 0.20
 60 216 0.04 0.12 0.24 0.40
 90 324 0.06 0.18 0.36 0.60
 120 432 0.08 0.24 0.48 0.80
 150 540 0.10 0.30 0.60 1.00
 180 648 0.12 0.36 0.72 1.20
 210 756 0.14 0.42 0.84 1.40
 240 864 0.16 0.48 0.96 1.60
 300 1080 0.20 0.60 1.20 2.00
 ...........................................................................................
 Note: The size of basin for clays is 10 times that of sand as the infiltration rate for clay is low leading to
higher irrigation time. The size of basin also increases as the flow rate increases. The table is only a
guide and practical values from an area should be relied upon. There is the need for field evaluation.
 3.2.3.3 Evaluation of Basin System

 a) Calculate the soil moisture deficiency and irrigation depth.

 b) Get the cumulative infiltration using either single or double
ring infiltrometer .
I = c Tn
Infiltered
Depth (mm)

Time (mins)
 Evaluation of a Basin System
Contd.
 c) Get the advance curves using sticks to monitor
rate of water movement. Plot a time versus distance
graph (advance curve). Also plot recession curve or
assume it to be straight

 It is ensured that water reaches the end of the basin

at T/4 time and stays T time before it disappears. At
any point on the advance and recession curves, get
the contact or opportunity time and relate it to the
depth-time graph above to know the amount of water
that has infiltrated at any distance.
Time-Distance Graph of the Basin
System
Depth-Distance Graphs of the Basin
Irrigation System
 Evaluation of Basin Irrigation
Concluded.
 Check the deficiency and decide
whether improvements are necessary
or not. The T/4 time can be increased
or flow rate changed. The recession
curve may not be a straight line but a
curve due to some low points in the
basin.
 3.3 SPRINKLER IRRIGATION

 3.3.1 Introduction: The sprinkler system is ideal in

areas where water is scarce.
 A Sprinkler system conveys water through pipes and
applies it with a minimum amount of losses.
 Water is applied in form of sprays sometimes
simulating natural rainfall.
 The difference is that this rainfall can be controlled in
duration and intensity.
 If well planned, designed and operated, it can be
used in sloping land to reduce erosion where other
systems are not possible.
Components of a Sprinkler
Irrigation System
 3.3.2 Types of Conventional
Sprinkler Systems
 a) Fully portable system: The laterals, mains, sub-
mains and the pumping plant are all portable.
 The system is designed to be moved from one field
to another or other pumping sites that are in the
same field.
 b) Semi-portable system: Water source and
pumping plant are fixed in locations.
 Other components can be moved.
 The system cannot be moved from field to field or
from farm to farm except when more than one fixed
pumping plant is used.
 Types of Conventional Sprinkler
Systems Contd.
 c) Fully permanent system: Permanent laterals, mains,
sub-mains as well as fixed pumping plant.
 Sometimes laterals and mainlines may be buried.
 The sprinkler may be permanently located or moved
along the lateral.
 It can be used on permanent irrigation fields and for
relatively high value crops e.g. Orchards and
vineyards.
 Labour savings throughout the life of the system may
later offset high installation cost.
 3.3.3 Mobile Sprinkler Types

 a) Raingun: A mobile machine with a big

sprinkler.
 The speed of the machine determines the
application rate. The sprinkler has a powerful
jet system.
 b) Lateral Move: A mobile long boom with
many sprinklers attached to them.
 As the machine moves, it collects water from
a canal into the sprinklers connected to the
long boom.
Raingun Irrigation System
Linear Move
 Centre Pivot

 c) Centre Pivot: The source of water is

stationary e.g. a bore hole. The boom
with many sprinklers rotates about the
water source.
Centre Pivot
Pivot of a Centre Pivot System
 3.3.4 Design of Sprinkler
Irrigation System
 Objectives and Procedures
 Provide Sufficient Flow Capacity to
meet the Irrigation Demand
 Ensure that the Least Irrigated Plant
receives adequate Water
 Ensure Uniform Distribution of Water.
 Design Steps

 Determine Irrigation Water

Requirements and Irrigation Schedule
 Determine Type and Spacing of
Sprinklers
 Prepare Layout of Mainline, Submains
and Laterals
 Design Pipework and select Valves and
Fittings
 Determine Pumping Requirements.
 Choice of Sprinkler System

 Consider:
 Application rate or precipitation rate
 Uniformity of Application: Use UC
 Drop Size Distribution and
 Cost
 Sprinkler Application Rate

 Must be Less than Intake Rates

Soil Texture Max. Appln. Rates
(mm/hr.)
Coarse Sand 20 to 40

Fine Sand 12 to 25

Sandy Loam 12

Silt Loam 10

Clay Loam/Clay 5 to 8
 Effects of Wind

 In case of Wind:
 Reduce the spacing between Sprinklers:
See table 6 in Text.
 Allign Sprinkler Laterals across
prevailing wind directions
 Build Extra Capacity
 Select Rotary Sprinklers with a low
trajectory angle.
 System Layout

 Layout is determined by the Physical Features

of the Site e.g. Field Shape and Size,
Obstacles, and topography and the type of
Equipment chosen.
 Where there are several possibilities of
preparing the layout, a cost criteria can be
applied to the alternatives.
 Laterals should be as long as site dimensions,
pressure and pipe diameter restrictions will
allow.
 Laterals of 75 mm to 100 mm diameter can
easily be moved.
 Pipework Design

 This involves the Selection of Pipe

Sizes to ensure that adequate water can
be distributed as uniformly as possible
throughout the system
 Pressure variations in the system are
kept as low as possible as any changes
in pressure may affect the discharge at
the sprinklers
 Design of Laterals

 Laterals supply water to the Sprinklers

 Pipe Sizes are chosen to minimize the
pressure variations along the Lateral, due to
Friction and Elevation Changes.
 Select a Pipe Size which limits the total
pressure change to 20% of the design
operating pressure of the Sprinkler.
 This limits overall variations in Sprinkler
Discharge to 10%.
 Lateral Discharge

 The Discharge (QL) in a Lateral is

defined as the flow at the head of the
lateral where water is taken from the
mainline or submain.
 Thus: QL = N. qL Where N is the
number of sprinklers on the lateral and
qL is the Sprinkler discharge (m3/h)
 Selecting Lateral Pipe Sizes

 Friction Loss in a Lateral is less than that in a

Pipeline where all the flow passes through the
entire pipe Length because flow changes at
every sprinkler along the Line.
 First Compute the Friction Loss in the Pipe
assuming no Sprinklers using a Friction
Formula or Charts and then:
 Apply a Factor, F based on the number of
Sprinklers on the Lateral (See Text for F
Values)
 Selecting Lateral Pipe Sizes
Contd.
 Lateral Pipe Size can be determined as
follows:
 Calculate 20% of Sprinkler Operating Pressure
(Pa)
 Divide Value by F for the number of Sprinklers
to obtain Allowable Pressure Loss (Pf)
 Use Normal Pipeline Head Loss Charts of
Friction Formulae with Calculated Pf and QL to
determine Pipe Diameter, D.
 Changes in Ground Elevation

Allowance must be made for Pressure

changes along the Lateral when it is
uphill, downhill or over undulating land.
 If Pe1 is the Pressure Difference Due to
Elevation changes:
0 .2 Pa  PeL
Pf  for laterals laid uphill
F

0 .2 Pa  PeL
Pf  for laterals laid downhill
F
 Pressure at Head of Lateral

 The Pressure requirements (PL)where the

Lateral joins the Mainline or Submain are
determined as follows:
 PL = Pa + 0.75 Pf + Pr For laterals laid
on Flat land
 PL = Pa + 0.75 (Pf Pe) + Pr For Laterals
on gradient.
 The factor 0.75 is to provide for average
operating pressure (Pa) at the centre of the
Lateral rather than at the distal end. Pr is the
height of the riser.
Diagram of Pressure at Head of Lateral
 Selecting Pipe Sizes of
Submains and MainLines
 As a general rule, for pumped systems, the
Maximum Pressure Loss in both Mainlines
and Submains should not exceed 30% of the
total pumping head required.
 This is reasonable starting point for the
preliminary design.
 Allowance should be made for pressure
changes in the mainline and submain when
they are uphill, downhill or undulating.
 Pumping Requirements

 Maximum Discharge (Qp) = qs N

Where:
 qs is the Sprinkler Discharge and
 N is the total number of Sprinklers operating
at one time during irrigation cycle.
 The Maximum Pressure to operate the
system (Total Dynamic Head, Pp) is given as
shown in Example.
 3.4 DRIP OR TRICKLE
IRRIGATION
 3.4.1 Introduction: In this irrigation system:
 i) Water is applied directly to the crop ie. entire field
is not wetted.
 ii) Water is conserved
 (iii) Weeds are controlled because only the places
getting water can grow weeds.
 (iv) There is a low pressure system.
 (v) There is a slow rate of water application
somewhat matching the consumptive use.
Application rate can be as low as 1 - 12 l/hr.
 (vi) There is reduced evaporation, only potential
transpiration is considered.
 vii) There is no need for a drainage system.
 Components of a Drip
Irrigation System
Control
Head Wetting Pattern
Unit

Mainline
Or
Manifold

Emitter
Latera
l
 Drip Irrigation System

 The Major Components of a Drip

Irrigation System include:
 a) Head unit which contains filters to
remove debris that may block emitters;
fertilizer tank; water meter; and
pressure regulator.
 b) Mainline, Laterals, and Emitters
which can be easily blocked.
3.4.2 Water Use for Trickle Irrigation
System
 The design of drip system is similar to that of
the sprinkler system except that the spacing
of emitters is much less than that of
sprinklers and that water must be filtered and
treated to prevent blockage of emitters.
 Another major difference is that not all areas
are irrigated.
 In design, the water use rate or the area
irrigated may be decreased to account for
this reduced area.
Water Use for Trickle Irrigation
System Contd.
 Karmeli and Keller (1975) suggested the
 following water use rate for trickle irrigation design
 ETt = ET x P/85

 Where: ETt is average evapotranspiration rate for crops under
trickle irrigation;
 P is the percentage of the total area shaded by crops;
 ET is the conventional evapotranspiration rate for the crop. E.g.
If a mature orchard shades 70% of the area and the
conventional ET is 7 mm/day, the trickle irrigation design rate is:
 7/1 x 70/85 = 5.8 mm/day
 OR use potential transpiration, Tp = 0.7 Epan where Epan is the
evaporation from the United States Class A pan.
 Emitters

 Consist of fixed type and variable size types.

The fixed size emitters do not have a
mechanism to compensate for the friction
induced pressure drop along the lateral while
the variable size types have it.
 Emitter discharge may be described by:
 q = Khx
 Where: q is the emitter discharge; K is
constant for each emitter ; h is pressure head
at which the emitter operates and x is the
exponent characterized by the flow regime.
 Emitters Contd.

 The exponent, x can be determined by

measuring the slope of the log-log plot of
head Vs discharge.

 With x known, K can be determined using the

above equation.

 Discharges are normally determined from the

manufacturer's charts (see Fig. 3.7 in Note).

 3.4.4 Water Distribution from
Emitters
 Emitter discharge variability is greater than that of
sprinkler nozzles because of smaller openings(lower
flow) and lower design pressures.
 Eu = 1 - (0.8 Cv/ n 0.5 )
 Where Eu is emitter uniformity; Cv is manufacturer's
coefficient of variation(s/x ); n is the number of
emitters per plant.
 Application efficiency for trickle irrigation is defined
as:
 Eea = Eu x Ea x 100
 Where Eea is the trickle irrigation efficiency; Ea is the
application efficiency as defined earlier.
 3.4.5 Trickle System Design

 The diameter of the lateral should be selected so

that the difference in discharge between emitters
operating simultaneously will not exceed 10 %.
 This allowable variation is same as for sprinkler
irrigation laterals already discussed.
 To stay within this 10 % variation in flow, the head
difference between emitters should not exceed 10 to
15 % of the average operating head for long-path or
20 % for turbulent flow emitters.
Trickle System Design Contd.

 The maximum difference in pressure is

the head loss between the control point
at the inlet and the pressure at the
emitter farthest from the inlet.
 The inlet is usually at the manifold
where the pressure is regulated.
 The manifold is a line to which the
trickle laterals are connected.
 Trickle System Design Contd.
 For minimum cost, on a level area 55 % of the allowable head
loss should be allocated to the lateral and 45 % to the manifold.
 The Friction Loss for Mains and Sub-mains can be computed
from Darcy-Weisbach equation for smooth pipes in trickle
systems when combined with the Blasius equation for friction
factor.
 The equation is:
 Hf = K L Q 1.75 D – 4.75
 Where: Hf is the friction loss in m;
 K is constant = 7.89 x 105 for S.I. units for water at 20 ° C;
 L is the pipe length in m;
 Q is the total pipe flow in l/s; and
 D is the internal diameter of pipe in mm.
 Trickle System Design Contd

 As with sprinkler design, F should be

used to compute head loss for laterals
and manifolds with multiple outlets, by
multiplying a suitable F factor
 (See Table 8 of Sprinkler Design section)
by head loss.
 F values shown below can also be used.
Table 3.7: Correction Factor, F for Friction
Losses in Aluminium Pipes with Multiple
Outlets.
 Number of Outlets F*
 1 1.00
 2 0.51
 4 0.41
 6 0.38
 8 0.37
 12 0.36
 16 0.36
 20 0.35
 30 or more 0.35
 *Values adapted from Jensen and Frantini (1957
 Example

 Design a Trickle Irrigation System for a fully

matured orchard with the layout below.
Assume that the field is level, maximum time
for irrigation is 12 hours per day, allowable
pressure variation in the emitters is 15%, the
maximum suction lift at the well is 20 m, the
ET rate is 7 mm/day and the matured orchard
shades 70% of the area; trickle irrigation
efficiency is 80%. Sections 1 and 2 are to be
irrigated at the same time and alternated with
sections 3 and 4. Each tree is to be supplied
by 4 emitters.
LAYOUT OF THE TRICKLE
IRRIGATION SYSTEM
 Solution

 (1) ETt = ET x P/85

 Where: Ett is the average ET for crops
under trickle irrigation (mm/day)
 ET is nomal ET rate for the crop = 7
mm/day
 P is the percentage of total ares shaded
by the crop = 70%
 ETt = 7 mm/day x 70/85 = 5.8 mm/
day.
 Solution Contd.

 (2) Discharge for each tree with a spacing of 4 m x

7m
 = 4 m x 7 m x 5.8 x 10-3 m/day = 0.162 m3/
day
 = 0.00675 m3/hr (24 hr. day)
 For 12 hours of opearation per day, discharge
required
 = 0.00675 x 24/12 = 0.0135 m3/hr = 0.00375 L/
s
 With an appliance efficiency of 80%, the required
discharge per tree is: 0.00375/0.8 = 0.0047 L/s
 The discharge per emitter with 4 emitters per tree is
 Discharge of Each Line
Line No. of No. of Required
Trees Emitters Discharge
(L/s)
Half 12 48 0.0576
Lateral
Half 168 672 0.8060
Manifold
Submain, 336 1344 1.6130
A to
Section 1
Main, A to 672 2688 3.2260
Pump
 Solution Contd.

 (4) From Fig. 21.6 (Soil and Water

Conservation), select the medium long-
path emitter with K = 0.000073 and x =
0.63
 Substituting in equation q = K hx, with
an average discharge of 0.0012 L/s,
 Log q =Loglog K + Log
q  Log K
x log h
0 . 0012  Log 0 . 000073
Log h  
x 0 . 63

h = 87 kPa or 8.9 m ( or use Chart to obtain h). This is the

Average operating head, Ha.
 Solution Contd.

 (5) Total allowable pressure loss of 15 % of

Ha in both the Lateral and Manifold = 8.9 x
0.15 =1.3 m of which 0.55 x 1.3 = 0.7 m is
allowed for Lateral and 0.45 x 1.3 = 0.6 is for
the Manifold.
 (6) Compute the Friction Loss in each of the
Lines from Equation:
 Hf = K L Q 1.75 D –4.75 by selecting a
diameter to keep the loss within the allowable
limits of 0.7 m and 0.6 m, already determined.
 Selection of Diameters
Line Q (L/s) Pipe L (m) F Hf’ (m)
Diameter
(mm)

Half 0.0576 12.70 46 0.36 0.51

Lateral
Half 0.8060 31.75 45.5 0.36 0.68
Manifold
Sub-Main, 1.6130 44.45 243 1 6.59
A to
Section 1
Main, A 3.2260 50.80 60 1 2.90
to Pump
 Pressure Head at Manifold
Inlet
 Like Sprinklers, the pressure head at inlet to
the manifold:
 = Average Operating Head = 8.9 m
 + 75% of Lateral and Manifold head Loss =
0.75 (0.51 + 0.68)
 + Riser Height = Zero for Trickle since no
risers exist.
 + Elevation difference = Zero , since the field
is Level
 = 9.79 m
 Solution Concluded

 Total Head for Pump

 = Manifold Pressure = 9.79 m
 + Pressure loss at Sub-main = 6.59 m
 + Pressure loss at Main = 2.90 m
 + Suction Lift = 20 m
 + Net Positive Suction head for pump = 4 m
(assumed)
 = 43.28 m
 i.e. The Pump must deliver 3.23 L/s at a head
of about 43 m.
3.5 SUB-SURFACE IRRIGATION

 Applied in places where natural soil and

topographic condition favour water
application to the soil under the surface, a
practice called sub-surface irrigation. These
conditions include:
 a) Impervious layer at 15 cm depth or more
 b) Pervious soil underlying the restricting
layer.
 c) Uniform topographic condition
 d) Moderate slopes.
SUB-SURFACE IRRIGATION Contd.

 The operation of the system involves a huge

reservoir of water and level is controlled by
inflow and outflow.
 The inflow is water application and rainfall
while the outflow is evapotranspiration and
deep percolation.
 It does not disturb normal farm operations.
Excess water can be removed by pumping.
3.6 CHOICE OF IRRIGATION
METHODS:
 The following criteria should be considered:
 (a) Water supply available
 (b) Topography of area to be irrigated
 c) Climate of the area
 (d) Soils of the area
 (e) Crops to be grown
 f) Economics
 (g) Local traditions and skills
 (For details see extract from Hudson's Field
Engineering).
 3.7 INFORMATION TO BE COLLECTED
ON A VISIT TO A PROPOSED IRRIGATION
SITE.
 a) Soil Properties: Texture and structure, moisture
equilibrium points, water holding capacity,
agricultural potential, land classification, kinds of
crops that the soil can support.
 b) Water Source: Water source availability eg.
surface water, boreholes etc., hydrologic data of the
area, water quantity, water quality, eg. sodium
adsorption ratio, salt content, boron etc.; possible
engineering works necessary to obtain water.
 c) Weather data: Temperature, relative humidity,
sunshine hours and rainfall.
 INFORMATION TO BE COLLECTED

 d) Topography e.g. slope: This helps to

determine the layout of the irrigation system
and method of irrigation water application
suited for the area.
 e) History of People and Irrigation in the area:
Check past exposure of people to irrigation
and land tenure and level of possible re-
settlement or otherwise.
 f) Information about crops grown in the area:
Check preference by people, market potential,
adaptability to area, water demand, growth
schedules and planting periods.