DRAINAGE

Prepared by:
Mark Christian P. Ripani
Drainage is the term applied to systems for dealing
with excess water. Drainage deals with water before
it has reached major stream channels.

Three (3) primary drainage tasks:

Urban Storm Drainage
Land Drainage
Highway Drainage
URBAN STORM DRAINAGE
The design of drainage project requires a detailed
map of the area, with a scale between 1:1000 and
1:5000. The contour interval should be small enough
to define the divides between the various sub-
drainages within the system. Ground elevations at
street intersections and breaks in grade between
intersections should be indicated to the nearest 0.1ft
(0.03m).
Estimates of Flow – is the first step in the design of
storm-drainage work.

Drainage Works – usually designed to dispose of the

flow from a storm having a specified return period,
which should be determined on an insurance basis.

Rational Formula – is the most widely used method in

the design of drainage using a rainfall of the desired
frequency.
Digital Computer Simulation – flows are simulates
throughout the system from available rainfall data.
This method is the most satisfactory method for
estimating urban runoff. It is use as an adequate
basis for design in view of the high cost of urban
drainage. Simulation approach avoids the arbitrary
assumptions of constant runoff coefficient, uniform
rainfall intensity, equal frequency of rainfall and
runoff.
Output – is the simulated flow at all key points in the
system. From this output, annual flow peaks can be
selected and subjected to frequency analysis to
define the design flow at each point.
For areas of a few acres where extensive computer
simulation may not be justified, the rational formula
approach using Izzard’s estimate of time to
equilibrium should give reasonable results. Two
computations are suggested:

1. Assume contribution from only the impervious

area with a short time of concentration.

2. Assume runoff from the entire area but with a

relatively long time of concentration.

The one giving the higher flow would be used in the

design.
Gutters – is a depression running parallel to
a road designed to collect rainwater flowing along
the street and divert it into a storm drain. Gutters
are generally constructed with a transverse slope
of 1 on 20. With such a transverse slope and a 6-in.
(15cm) curb height, the width of flow in a gutter
will be 10 ft. (3m) when there is no freeboard.

The discharge capacity of gutters depends on their

shape, slope, and roughness. Manning’s equation
may be used for calculating the flow in gutters.
For well- finished gutters, n has a value about
0.016. Unpaved gutters will have much higher
values of n.
Inlet – used to intercept and direct to buried
sewers the gutter flow.

Two (2) main types of inlets:

 Grated Inlets – are openings in the gutter
bottom protected by grates.

 Curb-Opening Inlet – is an opening in the face

of the curb that operates much like a side-
channel spillway. Curb- opening inlets are
feasible only where curbs have essentially
vertical faces.

Catch Basin – provided at inlets to trap debris and

sediment and prevent their entry into the drain.
GRATED INLETS
The most efficient grated inlets have bars
parallel to the curb and a sufficient clear length (x)
so that water can fall through the opening without
hitting a crossbar or the far side of the grate.

X = 0.94V(y)^1/2 (metric units)

Where:

V – Mean approach velocity in the flow prism

intercepted by the grate.

y – is the drop from the water surface to the

underside of the grate.
CURB- OPENING INLETS
When water enters a curb-opening inlet, it must
change direction. Curb opening inlets function best with
relatively steep transverse slopes. For full interception,
inlet length La is equal to the gutter discharge Qa
divided by the inlet capacity per unit length. For partial
interception, the portion Q which it will intercept is
indicated as a function of the ratio of a/d and the
ration L/La, where L is the actual length of the inlet, or
it is about 44% greater than for full interception.

If the flow is ponded at the inlet and the head is less

than the height of the opening in the curb, a curb-
opening inlet may be considered as a weir with a
coefficient of about 3.1.
If the depth of the pond exceeds twice the height of the
clear opening in the curb, the discharge is that of an
orifice or
Q = 3.1Lbh^0.5 (metric units)

Where:

b – is the height of the inlet opening

h – is the depth of water above the mid-elevation of the

inlet opening
Manholes – are usually constructed of brick or concrete,
and occasionally of concrete block or corrugated metal.
The bottom of the manhole is usually of concrete with a
half-round or U-shaped trough for the water.

Two main purposes of manholes in drainage systems:

 Provide access to the drain for cleaning.

 They act as junction boxes for tributary drains.

Manhole covers and cover frames are usually of cast iron

and the combination will weigh 200 to 600lb (90 to 270
kg). Light frames and covers are used only where
subject to negligible traffic loads.
Tide Gates – operate like check valves to permit
gravity flow at low stages in the receiving waters but
close to prevent backflow when the elevation of the
receiving water is high.

Storage Basin – is feasible where the discharge is into

a tidal estuary in which fluctuations are regular and
the necessary detention time is relatively short.
DESIGN OF STORM DRAINS

The main rules governing selection of pipe size and slope

are:

1. The pipe is assumed to flow full under conditions of

steady, uniform flow.

2. To avoid clogging, the minimum pipe diameter should

preferably be 10 or 12 in. (25 to 30 cm), although 8
in. (20 cm) pipes are used in some cities.

3. The minimum velocity flowing full should be at least

2.5ft/sec. (0.75m/sec).
4. Pipe sizes should not decrease in the downstream
direction even though increased slope may provide
adequate capacity in the smaller pipe. Any debris
which enters a drain must be carried through the
system to the outlet, and the possibility of clogging
a smaller pipe with debris which may pass a larger
pipe is too great.

5. Pipe slope should conform to the ground slope

insofar as possible for minimum excavation. In some
cases, it may be possible to use a smaller pipe by
exceeding the ground slope. If this makes the use of
smaller pipe possible for some distance downslope,
it may be economical despite increased excavation.
6. Pipe grades are described in terms of the elevation
of the invert or inside bottom of the pipe. Where
pipes of different size join, the tops of the pipes are
placed at the same elevation, and the invert of the
larger pipe is correspondingly lower than that of
smaller pipe. This does not apply to tributary drains,
which may enter the main sewer through a drop
manhole.
LAND DRAINAGE

Land Drainage - removes excess surface water from an

area or lowers the ground water below the root zone
to improve plant growth or reduce the accumulation of
soil salts.

The purpose of land drainage is to remove a volume of

water in a reasonable time. Where sub-drainage is
installed to remove excess water from irrigated land
for salinity control, the volume of leaching water to be
applied in each irrigation is known; and the drains
should be capable of removing this volume in the
interval between irrigations.
Drainage installed for removal of excess water from
rainfall is typically designed to remove a specified
quantity of water in 24 hrs. Commonly known as the
drainage modulus or drainage coefficient.

DITCH

Ditch- is a small to moderate depression created to

channel water. A ditch can be used for drainage, to
drain water from low-lying areas, alongside roadways
or fields, or to channel water from a more distant
source for plant irrigation. Ditches are commonly seen
around farmland, especially in areas that have
required drainage.
Roadside ditches may provide a hazard
to motorists and cyclists, whose vehicles may crash into
them and get damaged, flipped over or stuck,
especially in poor weather conditions, and in rural
areas.

UNDERDRAINS

The reduction of the moisture content of the subgrade

is very important for a stable and long-lasting
pavement. One procedure used for reducing subgrade
moisture is underdrains. In general terms, an
underdrain requires the following:
1. A trench excavated along the edge of the pavement
deep enough to drain the subgrade and with
adequate slope to drain properly.

2. A perforated pipe or pipe with open joints placed in

the trench bottom to provide for entry and
movement of water.

3. Trench backfill with granular filter material to allow

ready entry of water from any soil layer above the
bottom of the pipe.
TRENCH EXCAVATION

Underdrains are required to be placed as soon as possible

after the subgrade is substantially complete to promote
positive drainage and expedite construction.

Underdrain Trencher Trench excavation is required to begin

at the outlet end and proceed towards the upper end. The
trench excavation is made to the required line and grade.
The trench depth is required to be checked to ensure that
the depth paid for is obtained. Recesses are cut in the
trench bottom to receive any projecting pipe hubs or bells.
If the trench is excavated too deep, the trench is backfilled
to the required elevation with approved soil. Cave-ins are
re-excavated, if necessary.
CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS OF UNDER DRAINS

PIPE INSTALLATION
The pipe is laid into the trench. Splices and other
connections are required to be correctly made.
Perforated pipe is placed with holes down, to keep out
silt, gravel, and other solids. Plastic corrugated
drainage pipe is unrolled into the trench. Minor cave-
ins that occur after pipe placement do not have to be
cleaned. The pipe sections are joined securely with the
appropriate couplings, fittings, or bands. If plain end
concrete pipe is being placed, no joint width may
exceed 1/4 in.
GEOTEXTILES
Storage and handling of geotextiles is required to
be in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations. Each geotextile roll is required to
be labeled or tagged. Damaged or defective geotextile
are replaced as directed. The geotextile is placed
loosely, but with no wrinkles or folds. The ends of
subsequent rolls of geotextile are overlapped a
minimum of 1 ft. The upstream geotextile overlaps the
downstream geotextile. Placement of the aggregate is
done following the placement of the geotextile.
BACKFILL
The trench is backfilled with No. 8 or No. 9 stone, slag, or
gravel. Coarse aggregate No. 8 or 9 is used for 6 in. underdrain
installations and coarse aggregate No. 9 is used for 4 in.
underdrain installations. The backfilling operation is done with a
device designed to fill the trench without promoting cave-ins. Prior
to placing open graded HMA above the underdrain aggregate, the
underdrain aggregate is required to be clean and exposed to
facilitate drainage. After the outlet pipe installation, the trench is
backfilled as indicated on the plans. B Borrow for structure backfill
may not extend into the limits of the underdrain trench. The
trench, outside of the limits of B borrow for structure backfill, is
filled with materials suitable for growing vegetation. Aggregate
and stabilized materials removed from an existing shoulder may
not be used as backfill and are disposed.
UNDERDRAIN OUTLETS
Pipe screens are placed in the end of the outlet
pipe. At the time of installation, a rodent screen is
placed on the outlet pipe or the ends of the underdrain
pipe when located in inlets or catch basins. Rodent
screens are required to be woven stainless steel wire
mesh or galvanized hardware cloth.

OUTLET PROTECTORS
Underdrain outlet protectors are required to be
constructed as indicated on the plans.
TILE DRAINAGE

Tile drainage - is a practice that removes excess water

from soil subsurface. Where as irrigation is the practice
of adding additional water when the soil is naturally
too dry, drainage brings soil moisture levels down for
optimal crop growth. While surface water can be
drained via pumping and/or open ditches, tile drainage
is often the best recourse for subsurface water.
 In a tile drainage system, a sort of "plumbing" is
installed below the surface of agricultural fields,
effectively consisting of a network of below-ground
pipes that allow subsurface water to move out from
between soil particles and into the tile line. Water
flowing through tile lines are often ultimately
deposited into surface water points—lakes, streams,
and rivers—located at a lower elevation than the
source. Water enters the tile line either via the gaps
between tile sections, in the case of older tile designs,
or through small perforations in modern plastic tile.
Layout of a Tile-Drain System

1. Natural system
2. Gridiron layout
3. Herringbone pattern
4. Double-main system
5. Intercepting drain
DESIGN OF A LAND-DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The steps in design may be summarized as follows:

1. Prepare a detailed contour map of the area. A

contour interval of 1 ft. (0.3 m) is commonly
necessary.

2. Select the location of the system outlet. If several

outlets are possible, an economy study of the
alternatives may be necessary.
3. Determine the drainage moslus for underdrains and
estimate the amount of water the ditches will
intercept.

4. Lay out a system of ditches (or pipe mains) of

adequate size to carry the expected flows.

5. Determine the proper depth for tile drains and plan

the tile-drain layout. Field drains of the customary
minimum size ( 4 in., or 10 cm) will usually have
adequate capacity, and it will be necessary to
calculate only required sizes for mains and
submains.
6. The first trial layout of mains may require revisions
after the plan for underdrains is completed. The
entire system should be planned for minimum cost
by use of shortest possible routes for pipes and
ditches.

7. Estimate project costs and proceed with legal steps

necessary to undertake the project.
LEGAL ASPECTS OF DRAINAGE

a) Mutual drainage districts – which are formed by

the unanimous consent of the landowners involved.
All that is usually required is the signing of an
agreement describing the work to be done and
setting forth the division of cost. The agreement is
legally recorded and a board of commissioners
formed to direct the work.

b) Majority-rule districts – such districts are usually

initiated by the filing of a petition having the
signatures of a specified number of landowners with
the county clerk or the board of supervisors.