CHAPTER 12: HEAT TREATMENT PROCESSES

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE

By the end of this lesson students should be able to

 Define heat treatment

 State some purposes of heat treatment
 Explain the different types of heat treatment processes

DEFINITION

Heat treatment process consists of a succession of heating and cooling cycles applied to a
metal or alloy in order to improve on the mechanical properties such as hardness, ductility,
tensile strength, toughness, grain size etc. The aim is to obtain a desired microstructure to
achieve certain predetermined properties (physical, mechanical, magnetic or electrical).

DEFINITION OF SOME PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Ductility: ductility is defined by the degree to which a material can sustain plastic
deformation under tensile stress before breakage. Materials that are generally described as
ductile include gold and copper

Toughness: it is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform without
fracturing

Plasticity: it is the ability of a solid material to undergo permanent deformation, a non-

reversible change of shape in response to applied force

Hardness: it is the measure of the resistance of a material to undergo plastic deformation

Stiffness is the extent to which a material resists deformation in response to an applied force

Brittleness: a material is brittle if when subjected to stress it breaks with little elastic
deformation and without plastic deformation

Malleability: it is a property whereby a material can be plastic deformed and shaped when
cold

Tensile strength: it is defined as the ability of a material to resist a force that tends to pull it
apart

Grain size:

PURPOSE OF HEAT TREATMENT

Heat treatment is a controlled heating and cooling operations used to bring about a desired
change in the properties of a metal. Its purpose is to improve the properties for some
particular use or for future work of the metal. The major objectives of metal and alloys heat
treatments can be defined as follows
 - To increase strength, harness and wear resistance
- To increase ductility and softness
- To increase toughness
- To obtain fine grain size
- To remove internal stresses induced by differential deformation by cold working, non-
uniform cooling from high temperature during casting and welding
- To improve machinability
- To improve cutting properties of tool steels
- To improve surface properties
- To improve electrical properties
- To improve magnetic properties

There are five basic heat-treatment processes: hardening, tempering, annealing, normalizing
and case hardening. Although each of these processes brings about different results in metal,
all of them involve three basic steps: heating, soaking and cooling

STAGES OF HEAT TREATMENT

Heating is the first step in a heat-treating process. Many alloys change structure when they
are heated to specific temperatures

Once a metal part has been heated to the temperature at which desired changes in its structure
will take place, it must remain at that temperature until the entire part has been evenly heated
throughout. This second step is called soaking

The third step is cooling the metal component. The structure may change from one chemical
composition to another, it may stay the same, or it may revert to its original form. Many
metals can be made to conform to specific structures to increase their hardness, toughness,
ductility and tensile strength

For ferrous materials, mainly for steel, different heat treatments are performed to change the
crystalline structure, hence the properties of the materials. Among the possible heat
treatments, the principal ones are briefly described here.

HEAT TREATMENT PROCESSES

Hardening

A ferrous metal is normally hardened by heating the metal to the required temperature and
then cooling it rapidly by plunging the hot metal into a quenching medium (e.g. oil, water or
brine). Most steels must be cooled rapidly to harden them. The hardening processes increase
the hardness and strength of metal, but also increase its brittleness
Cementation

The diffusion of carbon on the surface is called cementation. This procedure consists in
warming of parts at a temperature of about 900oC in an environment in which the carbon
penetration on the surface of the steel based on the time. This procedure means solid
(charcoal with additives, bath salts with cyanides), or media gas CO, H2, N2, CmHn can be
done. The use of gaseous media is the most widely used which allows control of the depth of
treatment.

After the cementation is carried out a rapid cooling to achieve the required surface hardness
to steels with low carbon content, to achieve a hard surface with a ductile core parts to
provide maximum resistance

Tempering

Steel is usually harder than necessary and too brittle for practical use after being hardened.
Severe internal stresses are set up during the rapid cooling of the metal. Steel is tempered
after being hardened to relieve the internal stresses and reduce its brittleness. Tempering
consists of heating the metal to a specified temperature and the permitting the metal to cool.
The rate of cooling usually has no effect on the metal structure during tempering. Therefore
the metal is usually permitted to cool in still air. Temperatures used for tempering are
normally much lower than the hardening temperatures. The higher the tempering temperature
used, the softer the metal becomes

Annealing

Annealing is a heat treatment process that changes the physical and sometimes the chemical
properties of a material to increase ductility and reduce the hardness to make it more
workable. The annealing process requires the material above its recrystallization temperature
for a certain amount of time before cooling. The cooling rate depends upon the types of
metals being annealed. For example, ferrous metals such as steel are usually left to cool down
to room temperature in still air while copper, silver and brass can either be slowly cooled in
air or quickly quenched in water

Normalizing

Normalizing is a heat treatment process that is used to make a metal more ductile and tough
after it has been subjected to thermal or mechanical hardening processes. Normalizing
involves heating a material to an elevated temperature and then allowing it to cool back to
room temperature by exposing it to room temperature air after it is heated. This heating and
slow cooling alters the microstructure of the metal which in turn reduces its hardness and
increases its ductility
Case-Hardening

It is also known as carburizing, it is a heat treatment process that produces a surface which is
resistant to wear, while maintaining toughness and strength of the core. This treatment is
applied to low carbon steel parts after machining, as well as high alloy steel bearings, gears
and other components

Carburizing increases strength and wear resistance by diffusing carbon into the surface of the
steel creating a case while retaining a substantially lesser hardness in the core. This treatment
is applied to low carbon steels after machining
THE QUENCHING MEDIA AND QUENCHING FACTOR

What is Quenching?

Quenching is a type of metal heat treatment process. Quenching involves the rapid cooling of
a metal to adjust the mechanical properties of its original state. To perform the quenching
process, a metal is heated to a temperature greater than that of normal conditions, typically
somewhere above its recrystallization temperature but below its melting temperature. The
metal may be held at this temperature for a set time in order for the heat to “soak” the
material. Once the metal has been held at the desired temperature, it is quenched in a medium
until it returns to room temperature. The metal also may be quenched for an extended period
of time so that the coolness from the quenching process is distributed throughout the
thickness of the material.

Quenching Media

There are a variety of quenching media available that can perform the quenching process.
Each media has its own unique quenching properties. Considerations for the type of media
use include quenching speed, quenching media environmental concerns, quenching media
replacement, and quenching media cost. Here are the main types of quenching media:

- Air
- Oil
- Water
- Brine

Air

Air is a popular quenching media used to cool metals for quenching. Affordability is one of
the main benefits of air; its affordability is a result of its profusion on earth. In fact, any
material that is heated and then allowed to cool to room temperature simply by being left
alone is considered to have been air quenched. Air quenching is also more intentionally
performed when it is compressed and forced around the metal being quenched. This cools the
part more rapidly than still air, although even compressed air may still cool many metals too
slowly to alter the mechanical properties.

Oil

Oil is able to quench heated metals much more rapidly than compressed air. To quench with
oil, a heated part is lowered into a tank that is filled with some type of oil. The oil can also be
flushed through the part. Different types of oil are often used depending on the application
because of their varying cooling rates and flash points.
Water

Water is able to quench heated metals rapidly as well. It can cool a metal even faster than oil.
In a fashion similar to oil quenching, a tank is filled with water and the heated metal is
submerged in it. It can also be flushed through a part. One benefit of water is that
flammability of the media is not a concern.

Brine

Brine is a mixture of water and salt. Brine cools faster than air, water, and oil. The reason for
this is that the salt and water mixture discourages the formation of air globules when it is
placed in contact with a heated metal. This means that more of the surface area of the metal
will be covered with the liquid, as opposed to air bubbles.

Factors Affecting Quenching

Several factors influence the effectiveness of a quenching medium in its ability to withdraw
heat from a quenched part. These factors include: temperature of the medium, degree of
agitation, surface conditions of the part, and the type of quenching medium.

Effect of Temperature

The temperature of the medium has a drastic effect on its ability to extract heat from a hot
part, but that is not to say that lowering the bath temperature increases the heat transfer rate.
The heat extraction is still dependent on the characteristics of the medium itself. In general,
higher quenching temperatures lower the temperature at which a total vapor blanket is
maintained in the medium. As a result, it will lengthen the duration of the first stage of
quenching, which lengthens the time at which the part is cooled at slower cooling rates.
Depending on the medium itself, higher bath temperatures may decrease viscosity, which
affects bubble size and therefore, decrease the rate of heat transfer during the third stage of
quenching.

In the case of water, since it produces the fastest cooling rates, lower temperatures produce
high thermal gradients between the bath and the part. As a result, high thermal stresses will
be induced and the risk of distortion or cracking will increase. On the other hand, as the
temperature of the water is increased to avoid cracking, the physical properties of the material
decrease due to incomplete saturation of the solution during quenching.

Effect of Agitation

Agitation plays a large role in the effectiveness of a particular medium to quench a part.
Some will say that it is the most important factor in determining the success of the quench. In
general, agitation increases the rate of heat transfer throughout the quenching process. During
the Vapor Blanket Stage, agitations will breakdown the blanket much earlier in the quench
and force the Boiling Stage to begin. As a result, a stage of slow cooling is cut short and
replaced with a stage of rapid heat transfer. Overall, the part will be cooled at a faster rate. In
addition, it will also produce smaller, more frequent bubbles during the Boiling Stage, which,
in turn, creates faster rates of heat transfer throughout the part.

In terms of its mechanical effects, any solids that have formed on the test piece will be
agitated off of the surface and allow for maximum heat transfer since the medium will be in
direct contact with the exposed surface. These gels would have acted as an insulating layer to
slow down the cooling rate, but with the use of agitation, this layer is mechanically removed
and maximum heat transfer can be achieved. Finally, agitation forces cool liquid to constantly
be circulated to the workpiece in place of the hot liquid. Therefore, higher temperature
differences will always exist between the medium and the surface, resulting in faster rates of
heat dissipation.

Effect of Surface Finish

Lowest cooling rates are observed on surfaced that are newly machined or bright etched,
whereas faster rates are obtained by surfaces with oxide films and stains. In addition, surface
roughness has a similar relationship regarding cooling rates; the rougher the surface, the
faster the cooling rate. This phenomenon can be attributed to the stability of the vapor phase
on each surface. If the surface is smooth, then the vapor layer becomes uniform and stable,
whereas if there are discontinuities on the surface, then it becomes easier to break down the
layer and induce the Boiling Stage. Furthermore, the application of non-reflective coatings
will increase heating and affect the quench of the material. Figure 2.3 shows the
corresponding cooling rate and heating rate for a machined surface and a surface with a black
carbon coating (black coated). It is readily seen that the coated surface not only heats up
faster, but also is quenched to room temperature faster.