CE211 Mod1

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Southern Leyte State University - Main Campus

College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department

Module One
INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING & TACHYMETRY
Course Overview

Course No.
Course Code CE 211/ CE211L
Descriptive Title FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING 1
Credit Units 3 units lec, 1 unit lab
School 1st Semester, AY. 2021-2022
Year/Term
Mode of Delivery Online and Modular Learning
Name of Engr. Rec Alfonso P. Cinco
Instructor
Course This course deals with measurement of distance and distance corrections, the
Description use of surveying instruments, area computations, balancing the traverse,
elevation determination, and leveling; Stadia surveying, topographic
surveying, triangulation and trilateration, missing data, irregular boundaries,
and global positioning system.
Course Outcomes Skills (Do)
1. Apply the basic surveying concepts, principles and theories on
distance and angular measurements as well as area computation.
2. Solve for distances, elevations, and areas from a provided set of
survey data.
3. Use the appropriate methodology in topographic, hydrographic, and
control surveys in various civil engineering constructions.
SLSU Vision A high quality corporate science and technology university.
SLSU Mission Produces S and T leaders and competitive professionals; generate
breakthrough research in S and T based disciplines; transform and improve
the quality of life in the communities in the service area; and be self –
sufficient and financially viable.

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Module Guide

In this module, you are going to determine the values of interrelationship of errors in a
measurement during a survey. This is a fundamental tool to correct errors in a measurement as
accuracy is important in a survey. For more examples and discussion, you can refer to the self-
paced learning material entitled “SPLM #1 Introduction to Surveying & Tachymetry” together
with this module and uploaded on Moodle.

Module Content:

Introduction
Keywords to Remember
Discussion
o Lesson 1 Types of Surveys
o Lesson 2 Interrelationship of Errors
o Lesson 3 Pacing & Tachymetry
Summary
Assessment
o Task 1
o Task 2
References
How to Submit Outputs

Learning Plan

Enabling Learning Outcome:

1. Compute for the most probable value and probable error of a measurement.
2. Determine the horizontal distance using pacing method, stadia, and subtense bar

Introduction

One of the oldest arts practiced by man is surveying. From the earliest times it
has always been necessary to mark boundaries and divide tracts of land. Through
the centuries, the uses of surveying have expanded such that today it is difficult
to undertake any type of engineering construction that does not involve some
type of surveying. Planning and design are based on the results of surveys, and
construction is controlled by surveying.

Keywords to Remember

Surveying
– The art and science of determining angular and linear measurements to establish the form,
extent, and relative position of points, lines, and areas on or near the surface of the earth or on
other extra-terrestrial bodies through applied mathematics and the use of specialized equipment
and techniques.

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Discussion

Lesson 1 – Types of Surveys

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Lesson 2 – Interrelationship of Errors

Most Probable Value

Most probable value refers to a quantity which, based on available data, has more chances of being
correct than has any other. It is determined by using the following equation:
∑𝒙
mpv = 𝒙 = where: mpv – most probable value of the quantity measured
𝒏
∑ 𝒙 – the sum of the individual measurements
n – total number of observations made

In the case of related measurements taken under identical conditions where the sum should equal
a mathematically exact quantity, the most probable values are the observed values corrected by
an equal part of the total error.

It is also a different case for related measurements taken under identical conditions when the
sum should equal to a single measurement. Here, the most probable values are obtained by
dividing the discrepancy equally among all the measurements, including the sum. If the correction
is subtracted from each of the related measurements, it is added to the measurement
representing their sum, and vice versa.

Example

The angles about a point Q have the following observed values. 130°15’20”, 142°37’30”, and
87°07’40”. Determine the most probable value of each angle.

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Solution:

Given: θ1 = 130°15’20” θ3 θ1
θ2 = 142°37’30”
θ3 = 87°07’40”
n = 3 (number of observed angles) θ2

a) Determining the Correction to be Applied


Sum = θ1 + θ2 + θ3
= 130°15’20” + 142°37’30” + 87°07’40”
= 360°00’30” (sum of the angles observed about point Q)

Discrepancy = 360° - 360°00’30”


= -30” (discrepancy in the observation)
Correction = Discrepancy/n = -30”/3
= -10” (correction to be subtracted from each observed angle)

b) Determining the Most Probable Values


θ1’ = θ1 ± Correction = 130°15’20” – 10”
= 130°15’10” (most probable value of θ1)
θ2’ = θ2 ± Correction = 142°37’30” – 10”
= 142°37’20” (most probable value of θ2)
θ3’ = θ3 ± Correction = 87°07’40” – 10”
= 87°07’30” (most probable value of θ3)

c) Solution Check:
θ1’ + θ2’ + θ3’ = 360°00’00”
130°15’10” + 142°37’20” + 87°07’30” = 360°00’00”
360°00’00” = 360°00’00” (checks)

Residual

The residual, sometimes referred to as the deviation, is defined as the difference between any
measured value of a quantity and its most probable value. In equation form:

v=x-𝒙 where: v is the residual in any measurement


x is a measurement made of a particular quantity
𝒙 is the most probable value of the quantity measured

Probable Error

The probable error is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the most probable
value, defines a range within which there is a 50 percent chance that the true value of the
measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits thus set.

The value of the probable error is calculated with the use of the following formulae which are
derived from the method of least squares.

∑ 𝒗𝟐
PEs = ± 0.6745 √𝒏−𝟏
∑ 𝒗𝟐
PEm = ± 0.6745 √
𝒏 (𝒏−𝟏)
Where: PEs = probable error of any single measurement of a series
PEm = probable error of the mean

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∑ 𝑣 2 = summation of the squares of the residuals
n = number of observations

The determination and use of the probable error in surveying is primarily to give an indication of
the precision of a particular measurement. It is often an approximate value and is not
mathematically exact since only a few repeated measurements are usually made and the
conditions of measurement are not rigidly controlled.

For example, 235.50 ± 0.10 m means 235.50 m represents the mean or most probable value of
several measurements and 0.10 m represents the probable error of the mean value. The chances
are even that the true value lies between 235.40 m and 235.60 m.

Relative Precision

Relative precision, sometimes called relative error, is expressed by a fraction having the
magnitude of the error in the numerator and the magnitude of a measured quantity in the
denominator. It necessary to express both quantities in the same units, and the numerator is
reduced to unity or 1 in order to provide an easy comparison with other measurements.

Weighted Observations

It is not always possible to obtain measurements of equal reliability under similar conditions.
Many surveying measurements are made under different circumstances and conditions and
therefore have different degrees of reliability.

Example
Four measurements of a distance were recorded as 284.18, 284.19, 284.22, and 284.20
meters and given weights of 1, 3, 2, and 4, respectively. Determine the weighted mean.

Solution:

MEASURED LENGTH ASSIGNED WEIGHT P = X (W)


(X) (W)
284.18 m 1 284.18
284.19 3 852.57
284.22 2 568.44
284.20 4 1136.80
Sums ∑ 𝑊= 10 ∑ 𝑃= 2841.99

∑𝑃 2841.99
Weighted Mean = ∑ 𝑊 = 10
= 284.20 m (most probable value of the distance measured)

In some instances, it is required to determine how the final result is affected when a computation
involves quantities that are subject to accidental errors. Two commonly applied principles of the
theory of errors involve the summation of errors and the product of errors.

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1. Summation of Errors
PEs = ±√𝑷𝑬𝟏𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝟐𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝟑𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝒏𝟐
Where:
PEs = probable error of the sum
PE1, PE2, PE3, etc. = probable error of each measurement
n = number of values added

Example
The three sides of a triangular-shaped tract of land is given by the following measurements
and corresponding probable errors: a=162.54±0.03m, b=234.26±0.05m, and
c=195.70±0.04m. Determine the probable error of the sum and the most probable value of
the perimeter.

Solution:

Perimeter = a + b + c = 162.54 + 234.26 + 195.70


= 592.50 m (perimeter of the tract of land)

PEs = ±√𝑃𝐸12 + 𝑃𝐸22 + 𝑃𝐸32


= ±√0.032 + 0.052 + 0.042
= ±0.07 m (probable error for the sum of the three measurements)

∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝟓𝟗𝟐. 𝟓𝟎 ±0.07 m.

2. Product of Errors
PEp = ±√( 𝑸𝟏 ∙ 𝑷𝑬𝟐)𝟐 + (𝑸𝟐 ∙ 𝑷𝑬𝟏)𝟐
Where:
PEp = probable error of the product
Q1 & Q2 = measured quantities
PE1 & PE2 = probable error corresponding to each quantity measured

Example
The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain estimated probable errors as
follows: W=253.36±0.06m and L=624.15±0.08m. Determine the area of the lot and the
probable error in the resulting calculation.

Solution:

Area = L x W = 624.15 (253.36)


= 158,134.64 sqm (area of the rectangular lot)

PEp = ±√( 𝐿 ∙ 𝑃𝐸𝑤)2 + (𝑊 ∙ 𝑃𝐸𝑙)2


= ±√(624.15 ∙ 0.06)2 + (253.36 ∙ 0.08)2
= ±42.58 sqm (probable error of the calculated area)

∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝟏𝟓𝟖, 𝟏𝟑𝟒. 𝟔𝟒 ± 𝟒𝟐. 𝟓𝟖 sqm.

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Lesson 3 – Pacing & Tachymetry
Distance by Pacing

Pacing consists of counting the number of steps or paces in a required distance. A pace is defined
as the length of a step in walking. It may be measured from heel to heel or from toe to toe. In
surveying, pacing means moving with measured steps; and if the steps are counted, distances can
be determined if the length of a step is known. Because of its many practical applications, it is one
of the most valuable things learned in surveying.

To pace a distance, it is necessary to first determine the length of one’s pace. This is referred to
as the pace factor.

Example
A 45-m course, AB, on level ground was paced by a surveyor for the purpose of
determining his pace factor. The number of paces for each trial taken are shown in the
accompanying tabulation.

TRIAL LINE TAPED DISTANCE NO. OF PACES MEAN


1 AB 50
2 BA 53
3 AB 51
45.0 52
4 BA 53
5 AB 52
6 BA 53
a. Determine his pace factor.
b. If the surveyor then took 771, 770, 768, 770, 772, and 769 paces in walking an
unknown distance CD, what is the length of the line?
c. Assuming that the taped length of line CD is 667.0m, determine the relative
precision of the measurement performed.

Solution:

a) Determining Pace Factor


L = 45 m (length of line AB)
nl = 6 (number of trials taken on line AB)
Suml = (50 + 53 + 51 + 53 + 52 + 53) = 312 paces
Ml = Suml/nl = 312/6
= 52 paces (mean number of paces to walk line AB)
PF = L/Ml = 45m/52 paces
= 0.865 m/pace (pace factor of surveyor)

b) Determining Unknown Distance


n2 = 6
Sum2 = (771 + 770 + 768 + 770 + 772 + 769)
= 4620 paces
M2 = Sum2/n2 = 4620/6
= 770 paces

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PD = M2 (PF)
= 770 paces (0.865m/pace)
= 666.1 m (paced length of line CD)

c) Determining Relative Precision


TD = 667.0 m
PD = 666.1 m
RP = (TD – PD)/TD = (667.0 – 666.1)/667.0
= 0.9/667.0
= 1/741 say 1/700 (relative precision of the measurement)

Distance by Stadia Method

This method provides a rapid means of determining horizontal distances. Horizontal distances
determined by this method will yield a relative precision of only between 1/300 and 1/1000.
Because of its low precision, it is mostly used in topographic or reconnaissance surveys.

The process of taking a stadia measurement consists in observing through the telescope the
apparent locations of the two stadia hairs on a vertically held rod. From the observed interval
read on the rod, the distance from the telescope to the rod is found by proportional relationships
in similar triangles.

D = Ks + c where: D = horizontal distance


c = distance from the center of instrument to
the principal focus
K = stadia interval factor of the instrument
s = stadia interval (difference between upper
and lower stadia hair readings)

Example
A stadia rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an instrument set up at A. the upper and
lower stadia hair readings were observed as 1.300m and 0.900m, respectively. If the stadia
interval factor (K) is 100, and the instrument constant (c) is zero, determine the length of line
AB.

Solution:

D = Ks + c
= 100 (1.300 – 0.900) + 0.0
= 40.0m (length of line AB)

Distance by Subtense Bar Method

The subtense bar is a convenient and practical device used for quick and accurate measurement
of horizontal distances. The procedure for determining the distance between two points consists
of setting up the subtense bar at the distant station, and measuring the horizontal angle
subtended by the distance between the two targets.

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Figure: Principle of Subtense Measurement

Example
The following subtended angles were read on a 2-m long subtense bar using a theodolite:
0°54’13”, 0°22’20”, 0°32’06”, and 0°19’46”. Compute the horizontal distance from the
theodolite to each position of the bar.

Solution:

D1 = 1/tan (0°54’13”/2) = 126.81 m


D2 = 1/tan (0°22’20”/2) = 307.86 m
D3 = 1/tan (0°32’06”/2) = 214.19 m
D4 = 1/tan (0°19’46”/2) = 347.83 m

Summary

Surveying plays a vital role since the early times. Errors in measurements in surveying
are corrected by using the methods of determining the most probable value, probable error, and
weighted measurements.
Three most common methods of determining horizontal distances conveniently are
pacing, stadia method, and subtense bar method.

Assessment

Task #1 Interrelationship of Errors

Direction: Solve the following problems. Show your solutions. (10 pts each)

1. The base and altitude of a triangular lot were measured with certain estimated probable
errors as follows: b=215.50 ± 0.18m and h=69.40 ± 0.16m. Determine the probable
error in the resulting calculation and the probable true area of the lot.

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2. The length of a line was measured repeatedly on three different occasions and the
probable error of each mean value was computed with the following results:

1st set of measurements = 1201.50 ± 0.02 m


2nd set of measurements = 1201.45 ± 0.04 m
3rd set of measurements = 1201.62 ± 0.05 m
Determine the weighted mean of the three sets of measurements.

3. A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to measure a distance between two
points marked on the ground. The students came up with the following six different
values: 250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50, and 251.22 meters. Assuming these values
are equally reliable and that variations result from accidental errors, determine the most
probable value of the distance measured.

4. The observed interior angles of a triangle are A=35⁰14’37”, B=96⁰30’09”, and


C=48⁰15’05”. Determine the discrepancy for the given observation and the most probable
value of each angle.

Task #2 Tachymetry

Direction: Solve the following problems. Show your solutions. (10 pts each)

1. A surveyor counted 50, 52, 53, 51, 53 and 51 paces in walking along a 45-m course laid
out on a concrete pavement. He then took 768, 771, 772, 770, 769, and 770 paces in
walking an unknown distance XY. Determine his pace factor and the length of XY.

2. Two points, A and B, are established along the same direction from a theodolite station. If
the subtended angle read on the subtense bar held at A and B are 0⁰55’20” and 0⁰23’44”,
respectively, determine the horizontal distance between the two points.

3. A 2m subtense bar is used to measure the distance from A to B. If the angle subtended by
the bar is 5⁰, find the distance from A to B.

References
 La Putt, J.P., Elementary Surveying.,3rd ed., 2013

******************************************************************************************

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How do I write my answers?

1. Write your solutions and answers on a long bond paper.


2. On the upper left of the paper, write your full name.
3. On the upper center, write the module number and title.
4. For multiple pages, write the page number on the bottom together with
your signature.

SAMPLE ANSWER SHEETS:

Ivana Alawi (continuation)


Module 1
Introduction to Surveying &
Tachymetry

Task 1
(Answers and Solutions)
(Answers and Solutions)

Task 2

(Answers and Solutions)

2
1

How do I send my outputs? (ONLINE)

1. Take a clear picture of your output per page. (For clearer results, use any
scanner app (e.g. CamScanner, Notebloc, etc.) available on Google Play/App
Store)
2. Consolidate your answers in one file only (pdf format for multiple
pages).
3. Submit your outputs in a private message via messenger

How do I send my outputs? (OFFLINE)


1. Compile all your outputs accordingly and place it in a brown envelop.
2. Write your full name, course and section, and instructor’s name on the
envelope.
Ex. Ivana Alawi
BSCE 2-A
Engr. Rec Alfonso P. Cinco
3. Send your envelope thru any courier service addressed to SLSU-Main, Brgy. San Roque,
Sogod, Southern Leyte or directly hand over the envelope to the guard’s station.

Deadline: November 2021

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