Triangulation Adjustment

Error in Measurement
The difference between a measured and its true

value is called the measurement error. Thus, if x is a
given measurement and x
t
is the true value, then
the error e is given by
e =x -x
t
error =measured value - true value.
College of Engineering Pune (COEP)
Forerunners in Technical Education
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Classification of errors
Depending on sources of origin, errors in measurements fall into three classes.
They are
Natural Errors
Instrumental Errors
Personal Errors
Natural Errors
These are caused due to variations in nature i.e., variations in wind, temperature,
humidity, refraction, gravity and magnetic field of the earth.
Instrumental Errors
These result from imperfection in the construction or adjustment of surveying
instruments, and movement of their individual parts.
Personal Errors
These arise from limitations of the human senses of sight, touch and hearing.
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Types of Errors
Errors are traditionally been classified into three types.
1. Gross errors
2. Systematic errors
3. Random errors
Gross errors, also known as blunders or mistakes, are results from
Carelessness on the part of observer in taking or recording reading;
Faults in equipments;
Adoption of wrong technique.
Misinterpretation.
Systematic errors occur according to a system. These errors follow a definite
pattern. Thus, if an experiment is repeated, under the same condition,
same pattern of systematic errors reoccur. They are of two types
i. Cummulativeerrors
ii. Compensating errors
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Random Error
This error is small and is equally liable to be plus or
minus thus partly compensating in nature. Random
errors are unpredictable and they cannot be evaluated
or quantified exactly.
Random errors are determined through statistical
analysis based on following assumptions :
Small variations from the mean value occur more
frequently than large ones.
Positive and negative variations of the same size are
about equal in frequency, rendering their distribution
symmetrical about a mean value.
Very large variations seldom occur.
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Principle of adjustment
True error
Relative error : l : Least count
Relative error =
Most Probable Vale: Maximum likelyhood to be
nearest to the true value.
l
1,
l
2,
l
3..
L
n: No. of observations MPV : Arithmetic mean
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NPTEL: IITR
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Definations
Independent quantity: Aquantityis calledindependent whenits valueis independent of
the values of any other quantities so that change in one does not affect the values of
other.
Conditioned quantity: A quantity is said to be conditioned when its value is dependent
upon the values of one or more quantities on account of some necessary relation
betweenthem.
Observation: Anobservationisthenumerical valueof ameasuredquantity.
Direct observation: An observation is said to be direct when it is made directly upon a
quantitywhosevalueisdesired.
Indirect observation: An observation is said to be direct when it is made upon Some
functionof quantitieswhosevaluesaretobedetermined.
Weight of an observation: weight of an observation is a number indicating its relative
worthor trustworthiness.
Weightedobservations: Observations are called as weighted when different weights are
assignedtothem.
Observed value of a quantity: the observed value of a quantity is a value obtained as a
result of anobservationsafter applyingthecorrectionsfor all errors.
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Truevalueof aquantity: Thetruevalueof aquantityisavaluewhichisabsolutelyfreefrom
all errors.
Most Probablevalueof aquantity: TheMost Probablevalueof aquantityisavaluewhichis
most likelytobethetruevaluethananyother value.
A true error: A true error is a difference between the true value of a quantity and its
observedvalue.
A Residual error: A Residual error ( Residual) is the difference between the MPV of a
quantityand itsobservedvalue.
Observation Equation: An observation equation is an equation expressing the observed
quantityanditsnumerical value.
ReducedObservationEquation: Areducedobservationequationisanequationobtainedby
substitutionof observedvaluesof aquantity intheoriginal observationequation.
Conditioned equation: A Conditioned equation is an equation expressing the relation
existingbetweenseveral dependent quantities.
Normal equation: ANormal equationisanequationof conditionbymeansof whichMPVof
anyunknownquantitymaybedeterminedcorrespondingto set of valuesassignedto other
unknownquantities.
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Laws of weights
Thefollowinglawsof weightsareestablishedbythemethodof least squares:
1. The weight of the arithmetic mean of observations of unit weight is equal to number of
observations.
2. Theweight of theweightedarithmeticmeanisequal sumof individual weight.
3. If two or more quantities added algebraically, the weight of the result is equal to the
reciprocal of thesumof reciprocalsof individual weights.
e.g. =42
o
8 10weight : 4 =22
o
4 6 weight : 2
weight of + (=64
o
12 16) =
weight of - (=20
o
4 4) =
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4. If aquantityismultipliedbyafactor, theweight of theproduct isequal totheweight of that
quantitydividedbythesquareof that factor.
e.g. =42
o
8 10weight : 4
Weight of 3 (=126
o
24 30) =
5. If a quantity is divided by a factor, the weight of the result is equal to the weight of that
quantitymultipliedbythesquareof that factor.
e.g. =42
o
8 10weight : 4
Weight of ( =14
o
2 43.33) =3x3
2
=27
6. If an equation is multiplied by its own weight, the weight of resultingequation is equal to
thereciprocal of theweight of theequation.
e.g. A+B=126
o
24 30 weight weight of
7. The weight of an equation remains unchanged, if all the signs of the equation are changed
or if the equation is added or subtracted from a constant.
e.g. A +B =126
o
24 30 weight 3.2
weight of 180
o
- A +B (=53
o
35 30)=3.2
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The Most Probable Value of quantities
Fundamental Principle: In observations of equal precision the MPVs of the observed
quantitiesarethosethat render thesumof thesquaresof theresidual errorsaminimum.
1. Direct observations of equal weight: If Zis MPV of a quantity & M
1
,M
2
,..M
n
are
observedvaluesof then observations,
thentheresidual error v
1
, v
2
. v
n
are(Z- M
1
)(Z- M
2
)
.
(Z- M
n
)
Nowresidual error v
1
2
+v
2
2
+.+v
n
2
isminimum
(Z- M
1
)
2
+(Z- M
2
)
2
+
.......................................
+(Z- M
n
)
2
=aminimum
Differentiating theequationwehave
(Z- M
1
)+(Z- M
2
)+
.......................................
+(Z- M
n
) =0
Rule: TheMPV=Arithmeticmeanof theobservedvalues
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2. Direct observations of unequal weight: When the observations are weighted the general
principle is In observations of unequal precision the MPV of a quantities are those that
render the sum of weighted squares of the residual to a minimum.
Let theobservedvaluesM
1
,M
2
,..M
n
areweightsw
1
, w
2
.w
n
,
thenbytheaboveprinciplewehave
w
1
v
1
2
+w
2
v
2
2
+.+w
n
v
n
2
isminimum
w
1
(Z- M
1
)
2
+w
2
(Z- M
2
)
2
+
.......................................
+w
n
(Z- M
n
)
2
=aminimum
Differentiating theequationwehave
w
1
(Z- M
1
)+w
2
(Z- M
2
)+
.......................................
+w
n
(Z- M
n
) =0
Rule: The MPV of the observed quantity is equal to the weighted arihmatic mean of
observedvalues.
Theweight of weightedarihmaticmean =Sumof individual weight.
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Indirect observations on Independent Quantities:
The MPV of the unknowns may be found by method of normal equation.
Thenormal equationisanequationof conditionbymeansof whichwedeterminetheMPV
of any one unknown quantity corresponding to any particular set of values given to
remainingunknownquantities.
1. CaseI : Indirect observationof equal weight.
Rule for formingnormal equation: To forma normal equation for each of the unknown
quantities, multiplyeachobservationequationbythealgebraiccoefficient of that unknown
quantityinthat equationandaddtheresults.
e.g. Findthemost probablevalueof anangleAfromthefollowingobservationequation.
A=42
o
8 10 2A=84
o
15 30 5A=212
o
1 10
2. CaseII : Indirect observationof unequal weight.
Rule for formingnormal equation: To forma normal equation for each of the unknown
quantities, multiplyeachobservationequationbytheproduct of thealgebraiccoefficient of
that unknownquantityinthat equationandweight of that equationandaddtheresults.
e.g. Findthemost probablevalueof anangleAfromthefollowingobservationequation.
2A=84
o
15 30 weight 4 5A=212
o
1 10weight 2
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Conditioned Quantities
There are two methods of determining the MPV of
unknowns:
1. First method: in this method all the observation
equation are written in terms of the independent
quantities, thus eliminating condition equation.
The MPV of unknown may then found by the rules
of independent quantities.
2. The method in which observation equations are
eliminated, in which case the solution is obtained
by method of correlates.
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The probable error
Probable Error :in any large series of observations
the probable error is an error of such a value that
number of errors numerically greater than it is the
same as the numerically less than it.
The probable error, specifies the range which
contains 50% of the measured values.
E.g. A =42
o
8 10 3.24
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1. Direct observation of equal weight:
P.E with weight w =
The P.E. of single observation =E
s
= 0.6745 v
2
/ (n-1)
where n =number of observations
v
2
=the sum of squares of the residual
The P.E. of arithmetic mean =E
m
=E
s
/ n = 0.6745 v
2
/ n(n-1)
2. Direct observation of unequal weight:
The P.E. of single observation of unit weight =
E
s
= 0.6745 (wv
2)
/ (n-1)
The P.E. of any observation whose weight is w =E
s
/ w
The P.E. of weighted arithmetic mean =E
m
=E
s
/ w
= 0.6745 (wv
2)
/ w(n-1)
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3. Indirect observations on independent quantities:
The P.E. of an observation of unit weight =
E
s
= 0.6745 (wv
2)
/ (n-q)
The P.E. of an observation whose weight is w =E
s
/ w
where n: No. of observation equation
q: No. of unknown quantities.
4. Indirect observations involving conditioned equation:
The P.E. of an observation of unit weight =
E
s
= 0.6745 (wv
2)
/ (n-q+p)
The P.E. of an observation whose weight is w =E
s
/ w
where p: No. of conditional equations
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5. Computed quantities:
Case I: The computed quantity is the sum or difference of an
observedquantityandaconstant.
CaseII: The computed quantity is obtained by the product of an
observedquantityandaconstant factor.
Case III: The computed quantity is the algebraic sumof two or
moreindependentlyobservedquantity.
Case IV: The computed quantity is any function of a single
observedquantity.
Case V: The computed quantity is any function of two or more
independentlyobservedquantity.
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Figure Adjustment
Case I: Plane triangle: Sum of measured angle =180
0
The co-ordinates of triangle are calculated as follows: In ABC, let
the co-ordinates of A be given AB is known side, its azimuth is known
from previous computations.
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i. From the known azimuth of AB, and the angles A &
B, Find azimuth of BC and AC.
ii. Calculate the latitude and departure of AB.
iii. Find the co-ordinates of B by adding algebraically
the latitude departure of AB to the north co-
ordinate & east co-ordinates of A respectively.
iv. Calculate the latitude and departure of BC and AC.
v. Find the co-ordinates of C from B, and also from A
to check the results.
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Rule 1: for angles of equal weight, the discrepancy d is
distributedequallyamongall thethreeangles.
Rule 2: for angles of unequal weight, the discrepancy d is
distributedininverseproportiontotheweights.
Rule 3: If instead of weights, number of observations is
given, then the discrepancy d is distributed in inverse
proportiontothenumber of observations.
Rule 4: The corrections are inversely proportional to the
squareof thenumber of observations.
Rule 5: The corrections are proportional to the square of
theProbableerrors.
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Rule 6: When the weights of the observations are not
given directly, then if v is the difference between
the mean observed value and the observed value of
an angle, the weight of the angle is given by
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Spherical triangle
Aspherical triangleisafigureformedonthesurfaceof aspherebythree

great circular arcs intersectingpair wise in three vertices. Let a spherical
triangle have angles A B & C, and (measured in radians at the vertices
alongthesurfaceof thesphere) andlet thesphereonwhichthespherical
trianglesitshaveradiusR. Thenthesurfaceareaof thespherical triangle
is
whereEiscalledthespherical excess, withE=0 inthedegeneratecaseof
aplanar triangle.
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The sumof the angles of a spherical triangle is between and 3
radians (180
0
and 540
0
; Zwillinger 1995, p. 469). The amount by
which it exceeds is called the spherical excessand is denoted E, the
latter of which can cause confusion since it also can refer to the
surface area of a spherical triangle. The difference between 2
radians (360
0
) and the sumof the side arc lengths a, b, and c is
calledthespherical defect andisdenotedDor .
Spherical excess E is The difference between the sumof the angles
A,B, andCof aspherical triangleand radians(180
0
)
Where : the area of the spherical triangle in sq. Km.
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Areaof triangle:
WhereaistheknownsideandA,BCaresidesof triangle.
Geodetic tables gives values foe logarithmof for different
latitudes.
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Stepsfor calculationof spherical excess:
Let A,B C are mean observed values of
spherical anglesof ABC
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Triangulation Adjustment

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Error in Measurement

The difference between a measured and its true

Aspherical triangleisafigureformedonthesurfaceof aspherebythree

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