CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 WHAT IS LONG TERM DEFLECTION
Long-term deflection in long span bridges is the deflection or deformation that occurs over
time due to shrinkage and temperature. It is also influenced by the condition of the cracking
and concrete creep. Long-term deflection is very important in the design of reinforced concrete
structures. The calculation of the deflection of a concrete involves the assessment of the time
dependent properties of the concrete itself, to account for the variation in the material over
time, along with an assessment of the variations in loading during the structure’s serviceable
life, particularly during the construction phase when the concrete is still curing.

1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The objective of studying long-term deflection in structural engineering and civil engineering
is to assess how a structure or building will deform or settle over an extended period of time,
typically due to factors like sustained loads, environmental conditions, and material properties.
This analysis serves several purposes:

1. Safety:
Ensure that the structure will not deform excessively over time, which could compromise its
safety and integrity.

2. Serviceability:
Evaluate whether the structure will meet serviceability requirements, such as maintaining
acceptable levels of comfort and functionality.

3. Durability:
Assess the long-term performance of materials and their resistance to creep, shrinkage, and
other time-dependent effects.

4. Code Compliance:
Ensure compliance with building codes and standards that often have specific criteria for
allowable long-term deflection.

5. Cost-effectiveness:
Optimize the design by balancing structural performance with construction costs and materials.

6. Maintenance Planning:
Understand how the structure will behave over time to plan for necessary maintenance and
repairs.

Overall, studying long-term deflection helps engineers design structures that are safe, durable,
and meet the expected performance criteria over their intended lifespan.
1.3 SCOPE AND LIMITATION

To address these scope and limitations, engineers employ various design and monitoring
techniques, such as incorporating prestressing, using appropriate materials, performing regular
inspections, and implementing maintenance plans. The goal is to ensure that long-span bridges
remain safe, functional, and visually appealing throughout their service life while minimizing
the effects of long-term deflection.

Scope of Long-Term Deflection in Long-Span Bridges:

1. Material Creep:
Long-term deflection can occur due to material properties, such as the creep behaviour of
concrete and steel, which causes gradual deformation under sustained loads. Engineers must
account for this phenomenon in their designs.

2. Environmental Effects:
Bridges are exposed to environmental factors like temperature fluctuations and moisture
variations, which can cause expansion and contraction of materials, leading to long-term
deflection.

3. Traffic Loads:
Repeated heavy traffic loads can contribute to long-term deflection, as they can cause fatigue and stress
relaxation in the bridge components over time.

4. Settlement and Foundation Movement:

The settlement of foundation supports and soil movement beneath the bridge can lead to long-
term deflection as the bridge adjusts to these changes.

5. Aging and Maintenance:

Aging of materials and components, as well as maintenance practices, can affect the long-term
behaviour of the bridge. Proper maintenance can help mitigate excessive deflection.

Limitations of Long-Term Deflection in Long-Span Bridges:

1.Safety Concerns:
Excessive long-term deflection can compromise the safety and structural integrity of a bridge.
It may lead to increased stress in critical components and potential structural failure.

2. Serviceability:
Long-term deflection can affect the serviceability of the bridge by causing issues such as
uneven road surfaces, reduced clearance, and alignment problems for railroads.

3. Aesthetic Considerations:
Long-term deflection can result in changes in the appearance of the bridge, affecting its
aesthetics and potentially impacting public perception.
4. Cost of Maintenance:
Mitigating long-term deflection often requires regular inspection and maintenance, which can
be costly and disruptive to traffic.

5. Design Challenges:
Designing for long-term deflection requires a thorough understanding of material behaviour
and environmental conditions, which can be complex and challenging to predict accurately.
 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Review of Study of Long-term Deflection for Long Span Prestressed
Concrete Box-girder Bridge.
This Journal published in Highway and Transportation Research and Development Vol.2,
No.2(2007)47 by Xie Jun, Wang Guo-Liang, Zhenz Xio-Hua. Research shows that the
structural characteristics of pre-stressed concrete box-girder bridge, deflection of the bridge is
a balanced result of two opponent action effects. One is the action of dead load and live load.
The other is the action provided by prestressing system of the bridge. From the structural effect
of action, structural stiffness is main factor affects the deflection besides live load. The stiffness
of box-girder is controlled by structure arrangement, cracking degree of concrete, prestress
layout and prestress degree, creep and shrinkage characteristics, fatigue features and so on. On
the other hand, the action provided by prestressing system is affected by effective prestress and
prestress arrangement.
The main causes lead to deflection of LSPCBB, identified by experts at home and aboard,
include:
1) Neglect some influence for creep and shrinkage of concrete (contain shrinkage difference
of different part thick of box section, repeated and sustained loads by traffic and
temperature, weakening by segmental conjunction, variance of ambient temperature and
humidity).
2) Underestimate long-term loss of prestress.
3) Concrete cracking.
4) Unfavourable completion stress state by construction (especially improper closure
operation)

Researches show that many factors described above possess not only strong uncertainty but
also intercoupling. Therefore, advances of modern calculation means are ceaselessly gained,
but accurately predicate long-term deflection of LSPCBB is still not an easy work.

Existing state on control technologies for deflection of box girder

In the aspect of measures to control long-term deflection of LSPCBB, there are many control
methods proposed, such as external cable, horizontal jacking in midspan, preload in midspan,
high - strength light weight concrete or steel segments used in parts of midspan, etc. Because
of some unclear factors caused long-term deflection of LSPCBB, particularly absence of robust
and effective calculation method to predict long-term deflection, effect of deflection control
and accuracy of adjusting magnitude is always not satisfied. Some bridge began to resume
deflection soon after measures were taken.
There are many factors influenced long-term deflection of LSPCBB, including design and
calculation, construction, material, control technologies, etc. Some factors are very
complicated at the same time coupling each other. Some factors belong to those unclear factors
need to be clarified further.
with the increasing of span, the problem of excessive long-term deflection of main span is
getting more and more serious in recent years, which has prevented the evolvement of
LSPCBB. The deflection characteristics of main span include the increase of deflection is a
long-term course and growth rate may trend accelerating, reducing or keeping with time, and
long-term deflection of LSPCBB is always beyond the calculated expectation. Deflection of
some typical LSPCBB is listed in Table 1. From this table it can be concluded that excessive
deflection is a universality problem at home and abroad and some special factors such as
variance of material, environment and construction quality as for different region are not the
certain reasons which cause the deflection. It must be some flaws in structural system.
Bridge name Country Construction Year of Time Span Deflection
completion (m) (mm)

Stolma bridge Norway Cast in place 1998 3 301 92

Stovset bridge Norway Cast in place 1993 8 220 200
Parrotts bridge USA Cast in place 1978 12 195 635
Humen subsidiary China Cast in place 1997 7 270 223
waterway bridge

Grand mere bridge Canada Cast in place 1977 9 181.4 300

`
Midspan deflection of prestressed concrete box-girder bridge not only sharply increases cost
of maintenance and destroy bridge aesthetics but also decreases the safety of structure and
traffic running in more importance sense. Some accidents for deflection out of control had
emerged in LSPCBB.

Result:-
In order to solve excessive deflection problem of LSPCBB, there are still so many hard theories
and technologies need to be researched. At present the problems in earnest need of solving
include:
(1) LSPCBB design need to be perfected further. Solve calculation methods of three-
dimensional effect and long-term deformation. Strengthen control to the structural rigidity by
structural arrangement, especially strengthen researches on rational layout of the prestress and
consciously dispose so called deflection control cables benefit to minish long-term
deformation.
(2) In the aspects of material, clarify the long-term effect rules of effective prestress, elastic
modulus, concrete creep caused by repeated loads such as traffic and temperature, etc. Propose
proper shrinkage and creep model suited to HSC widely used by LSPCBB, and at the same
time consider modification to the long-term shrinkage and creep by change of environment,
dimensional effect of box girder etc
(3) Research the influence mechanism and methods of strong couple of concrete cracking of
box girder, action effect of prestress and concrete creep to structural long-term deflection under
the repeated loads
(4) Regulate design, construction and strengthening technologies of LSPCBB. Provide relevant
codes or technologies guide.

2.2 Causes of Long-Term Deflection of Large span Pre-Stressed Concrete

Box Girders and Recommendations and How to Avoid These.
Introduction
This journal published by V. Kristek, L. Vrablik and V. Hrdousek in 2008. The study on long
term deflection of pre-stressed concrete reviewed and to minimise the future deflection Special
attention is placed on prestressing - a procedure to find the optimal arrangement of tendon
layout - is presented not only a concrete mix design and types of reinforcement is responsible
but also in prestress member the deflection increase due to incorrect tendon layout. so proper
arrangement or layout of tendon wire decrease the deflection comparatively theoretical value
of deflection. The long-term deflection behaviour of long-span pre-stressed concrete box girder
bridges has often deceived engineers monitoring the deflections. A survey of many bridges
monitored in various countries showed that all of them have experienced similar deflection
histories. It has frequently been experienced that the box girders of many pre-stressed concrete
bridges deflected far more than predicted in design. The deflection evolution has often been
counterintuitive, with slowly growing deflections in the early years, followed later by a rapid
and excessive deflection growth.

Deflection Increase DueTo Incorrect And Harmful Tendon Layout

The location of a tendon that is most efficient for reducing deflections a possible unsuitable
tendon layout that would be harmful, causing a long-time increase (rather than a decrease) of
the mid-span deflection. the location and profile, is often governed by construction stages, as
well as the cross-section geometry. But it is important to optimize the layout of tendons, so as
to minimize deflections. Low deflections during the cantilever construction stages do not
ensure acceptable deflections during the service life. The tendons installed during cantilever
erection stages are usually very efficient during construction. However, after changes of the
structural system (e.g. closing of the mid-span joints) to make the structure continuous, the
cantilever tendons might not significantly inhibit the long-term deflection growth because
creep produces additional forces, due to the redundancy of the new structural system.
Tendons of several categories were installed during the individual stages of the construction
process. The effects of individual tendons were evaluated by applying the above mentioned
computer program OPTI 1.1 developed for this purpose. As a result, 22 % of the all pre-stressed
tendons have been identified that affect this bridge unfavourably, i.e., contribute to an increase
of deflection. The tendons located at the bottom surface of the first and third spans, prove to be
extremely harmful, since all of them enhance the deflections in the central region of the main
span. Among the tendons located at the top surface, installed during cantilever erection, the
straight ones, which are passively anchored in the vicinity of internal supports and follow the
top surface, are harmful. In this particular bridge, the unfavourable tendons in the first, as well
as the third, span are anchored typically at distance of approximately 15 m from the ends of the
bridge, and the unfavourable tendons in the main span are anchored typically at distances of
approximately 30 m from the mid-span

Figure:1 Schematic layout of pre-stressed tendons

Example of Reconstruction
In the reconstruction, the stiffness of the structure was increased by adding external pre-stressed
tendons. An example is the excessive deflection that required reconstruction of the box girder
bridge over river Labe (or Elbe) in Decin in North Bohemia. The structural system of this
bridge is a three-span continuous box girder (with spans 62.5 + 104+ 62.5 m). It is tapered in
shape and was erected using the cantilever technology. The bridge was monitored since its
erection in 1993. The mid-span deflection increased annually by about 8 mm. The total
difference between the theoretical and measured road levels reached about 140 mm just before
the start of reconstruction. There are several probable reasons for the excessive deflection:
 A lower value of modulus of elasticity of concrete.
 Neglect of the shear effect on deflection in the design.
 Incorrect compliance function for the evolution of creep in time.
 A higher influence of relaxation of pre-stressed steel.

Figure.2 View of external tendon

Conclusion
The lesson to be learned from the deflections of the existing bridges is that bridge design
should be performed in two different and equally important phases - not only the usual
stress analysis, but also the optimization of pre-stressing tendon layout. So proper layout
of tendon wire during the time of design or construction phase that must be ensured correct
to minimise the future deflection of pre-stressed member. The latter is a necessity for
ensuring acceptable long-term deflections.

2.3 Deflection Control of Long-Span PSC Box-Girder Bridge

Based on Field Monitoring and Probabilistic FEA
Introduction
This Journal published by Tong Guo and Zheheng Chen in 2016, American Society of
Civil Engineers. In long span pre-stressed concrete box girder excessive deflection
occur at mid-span of the beam due to shrinkage and creep that lead into driving
discomfort and structural safety issue. In this paper, a deflection control strategy is
proposed on the basis of field monitoring and probabilistic finite element analysis
(FEA) to minimise the future deflection. The time-dependent behaviour of the bridge
was predicted using a three dimensional finite element model with integrated time-
dependent models for creep and shrinkage. The FE model was validated or updated
according to field monitored data to predict future bridge performance. Using
probability density functions of variables and probabilistic analyses, uncertainties in
long-term deflections were described. A case study on the Jinghang Canal Bridge, a
three-span continuous PSC box-girder bridge in China, The control of deflection done
by using tendon wire studied.

Case Study
The Jing Hang Canal Bridge in Suzhou, China is a three-span PSC continuous box-
girder bridge, with one main span of 150 m and two side spans of 85 m, respectively.
The bridge consists of two separated single-cell box girders in two traffic directions. In
the main span, the height of box girder gradually changes from 9.0 m at the supports to
3.3 m at the mid span. The top plate of the girder has a total width of 14.6 m and the
length of its cantilever is 3.6 m. The width of the bottom plates is 7.4 m, and their
thickness varies from 90 cm at the supports to 32 cm at the midspan. The web thickness
ranges from 90 cm at the supports to 50 cm at the midspan. In the cantilever casting
process, the concrete with the nominal cubic compressive strength of 55 MPa was used.

Figure.3 Jinghang Canal Bridge

 Probabilistic Analysis of Long-Term Deflection
The Displacement transducer fixed to understand the deflection of bridge. This sensor
were designed for purposes of construction control, completion test and long-term
health monitoring. Concrete strains, stresses in reinforcements, temperatures, and
deflections at concerned cross sections were continuously monitored. For the long-term
deflection monitoring, a hydrostatic levelling system was adopted to measurement. six
cross-sections were selected from the east half of the bridge for monitoring, including
the midspan, and 1=4 span of the main span and the side span, and two reference cross-
sections at the piers/abutment of main span and side span. In addition, the ambient
temperatures at the bridge site also were monitored, as, during which daily and seasonal
fluctuations were observed clearly. the monitored deflection time-histories after the
completion of the bridge, in which it was observed that the deflections increased
gradually with time. The deflections exhibited both the daily and seasonal fluctuations,
which is similar to the change in temperature. In addition, the deflections at the midspan
of the main span were positive, whereas those at the middle of the side span were
negative. After one and a half years of service, the deflection at the mid-span of the
main span was as large as 45 mm.

Figure.4 Displacement Transducer

Finite Element analysis to obtain the midspan deflection at different time points. the
time-dependent PDFs of midspan deflection were obtained. In addition, the long-term
midspan deflections exhibited a high degree of randomness, and the bandwidth between
the upper and lower bounds of the 95% confidence interval also gradually increased
with time, which showed that the uncertainties in long-term deflection increased with
time. In addition, according to the probabilistic analyses, the upper bound of the 95%
confidence interval ranged from 7.78 to 23.34 cm at 1–30 years after the bridge
completion, which is significantly larger than the deterministic design results, namely
5.11 to 15.94 cm.

Conclusion
In this paper, a deflection control strategy for long-span PSC box girder bridges is proposed,
which is on the basis of field monitoring and probabilistic FE analyses. According to the
presented study, conclusions were drawn as follows.
1. Considering the difficulties in accurate prediction of long-term deflection of long-span
PSC box-girders, an advanced numerical simulation model is needed for deflection
prediction and control. Because of the high level of uncertainties, probabilistic analysis
is more appropriate than deterministic ones. The reliability of the developed model,
however, should be validated or updated on the basis of long-term monitored data.
2. According to the monitored data, the measured deflections during the first 1.5 years
may be as large as 45 mm. For the long-span PSC bridges, which are temperature-
 sensitive, the measured deflections showed both daily and seasonal fluctuations.
Meanwhile, the bandwidth of the confidence interval of predicted deflections gradually
increased with time, which indicated the increasing uncertainties in long-term
deflections. As a result, deflection control may be needed when monitored deflections
significantly exceed the expectation.
3. To realize a rational deflection control, it is suggested that the amount of control should
be determined according to the confidence interval of predicted deflection and the
allowable value. A demonstration study is provided using backup prestressing tendons,
and details of the design can be used for further references.

2.4 Prediction of Vertical Deflections for a Long-span Prestressed

Concrete Bridge Structure
Introduction
This journal published by Ian N. Robertson, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, US in 2005. The North Halawa Valley Viaduct
on the Hawaiian island of Oahu was instrumented extensively during construction in 1994. The
objective of the instrumentation program was to monitor both short-term and long-term
behaviour of the viaduct. Long-term deformations of the viaduct are compared with analytical
predictions using a finite element computer program specially developed for use with
segmental construction of prestressed concrete bridge structures. The North Halawa Valley
Viaduct (NHVV) is a 1.5 km box-girder viaduct with span lengths up to 110 m. It is part of the
new H-3 freeway on the island of Oahu in Hawaii. The twin inbound and outbound viaducts
were built by means of post-tensioned in-situ.

Description of Instrumentation
The strain and deflection measurement systems pertaining to the results presented in this paper.
Based on the excellent performance of all instrumentation installed during this project. Seven
sections were selected for instrumentation in order to provide an adequate representation of the
viaduct behaviour. Sections A, D, E and G are at, or close to, midspan, while B, C and F are
close to the ends of the instrumented spans.

Figure.5 Device arrangement

The primary instruments for measuring concrete strain are Vibrating Wire Strain Gages. These
6-inch long gages were embedded in the concrete to measure longitudinal strain, and monitored
automatically be the dataloggers. The analytical predicted strains are computed at the level of
the gages using linear interpolation between top and bottom fibre strain predictions provided
by SAP2000 and SFRAME.

Long Term Deflection Response

The long-term response of a prestressed concrete bridge depends on numerous material and
environmental factors. Primary among these are the concrete creep and shrinkage behaviour,
the level of prestress and prestress loss, the ambient relative humidity and temperature, and the
construction sequence involved in erecting the structure. In addition to structural geometry and
section properties, the SFRAME input includes a constitutive model of the concrete material.
This model includes the time-dependent variations in modulus of elasticity, shrinkage and
creep. The program employs a step-wise incremental analysis of the bridge structure during
and after construction. Each concrete pour, tendon stressing operation and gantry load is
included as an individual step in the construction of the viaduct. This outcome is to be expected
since the long-term response depends on a large number of parameters that vary throughout the
structure.
 Long-term modelling, Based on the improved material properties and measured
environmental conditions at the bridge site, modifications were made to the SFRAME
model so as to improve the comparison with long-term measured results.
 Long-term design envelope, A Design Envelope is proposed to more effectively predict
the likely response of a long-span concrete bridge structure. Upper and lower bound
estimates of the Design Envelope are based on estimated ranges in all relevant material
and environmental variables.
 Long-term span shortening, The axial strains in the concrete box girder were recorded
by vibrating wire strain gages as described earlier. These strains are measured at
midspan and end span locations on all four instrumented spans. The average of the
strains at these two sections gives an estimate of the average strain for the span. The
span average strain can also be determined from the extensometer readings divided by
the span length.
 Long-term prediction of concrete strains, The SFRAME Final Model was used to
predict the long-term concrete strains at the top and bottom fibres of the box girder.
These predictions were interpolated to the level of the strain gages in top slab and
bottom slab respectively.
 Long-term prediction of span shortening, The SFRAME Final Model was also used to
predict the span shortening of each instrumented span shows the predicted span
shortening compared with that measured by the extensometer in span pier to pier.
Similar good agreement was observed for all instrumented spans.
the variability in each of the material and environmental factors affecting the long-term
structural response. Upper and lower bound estimates of the Design Envelope are based on
estimated ranges in all relevant material and environmental variables.
Conclusions
The following conclusions are based on the results of the instrumentation and monitoring
program on the prestressed concrete box-girder viaduct presented in this paper.
1. Short-term deflections and bending strains measured during a load test on the viaduct
were successfully predicted using a three-dimensional linear elastic beam element
model in SAP2000, a commercial finite element analysis program.
2. Long-term deflections and concrete strains were predicted using SFRAME, a time-
dependent step-wise finite element analysis program written specifically for analysis of
incrementally constructed prestressed concrete bridges. The original design predictions
of long-term vertical deflections differed significantly from the observed deflections.
This was attributed to increased creep and shrinkage compared with that anticipated
during the design phase, and variability in other material and environmental properties
critical to the long-term response.
3. Improved long-term predictions were obtained using SFRAME with creep and
shrinkage predictions based on interpolation from short-term test data. These
predictions compared well with measured vertical deflection, span shortening and axial
concrete strains.
4. A procedure is proposed for the prediction of upper and lower bound response based
on anticipated ranges of material and environmental variables. This Design Envelope
provides a valuable guide for the design team and bridge owner during the design phase.
5. The Vibrating Wire strain gages used in this instrumentation program were reliable for
both short-term and long-term monitoring.
6. The base-line system used for vertical deflection measurements was reliable and
accurate, both for short term and long-term monitoring.
 CHAPTER-3
Methodology
3.1 Data Collection Method
Collecting data on long-term deflection of structures is essential for assessing their
performance and ensuring their safety over time. Long-term deflection refers to the
deformation or displacement of a structure that occurs gradually over an extended period. To
collect data on long-term deflection, you can use various methods and instruments, depending
on the specific structure and the level of accuracy required. Here are some common data
collection methods:

1. Strain Gauges:- Strain gauges are sensors that measure changes in strain or
deformation. They can be attached to different points on a structure to monitor strain
over time. As the structure undergoes long-term deflection, the strain gauges will detect
changes in strain, which can then be used to calculate deflection.

2. Displacement Sensors: Displacement sensors, such as linear variable differential

transformers (LVDTs) or potentiometers, can directly measure the displacement or
movement of specific points on a structure. These sensors provide real-time data on
deflection and can be used for long-term monitoring.

3. Surveying Instruments: Surveying instruments like total stations and digital levels
can be used to measure changes in elevation or position over time. These instruments
are often used for monitoring vertical deflection in large structures like bridges and
buildings.

4. Load Cells: Load cells are sensors that measure the applied load or force on a
structure. By continuously monitoring the load and its distribution, you can indirectly
assess long-term deflection by analysing how the structure responds to these loads over
time.

5. Strain Monitoring Systems: These systems consist of an array of sensors

strategically placed throughout a structure. They continuously collect data on strain and
deformation at multiple points, allowing for a comprehensive assessment of long-term
deflection.

6. Remote Sensing and Imaging Techniques : Technologies like satellite imagery,

LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), and photogrammetry can be used to monitor the
external deformation of large structures, such as bridges and dams, over time.

7. Data Loggers and Datalogging Systems: Data loggers can be used to record
sensor measurements at regular intervals. These data loggers are often equipped with
communication capabilities for remote data retrieval and analysis.
 8. Finite Element Analysis (FEA): FEA is a computational method that can simulate
long-term deflection by modelling the structure's behaviour under various loads and
environmental conditions. While it doesn't directly collect physical data, it can be a
valuable tool for predicting and understanding long-term deflection.
When collecting data on long-term deflection, it's important to establish a monitoring plan that
includes the selection of appropriate sensors, measurement intervals, data recording, and
analysis procedures. Regular inspections and maintenance are also crucial to ensure the
accuracy of the data and the safety of the structure. Additionally, the specific method and
instruments used will depend on the type of structure and the desired level of precision in
monitoring long-term deflection.

3.2 Experimental Set up

The experimental setup for measuring long-term deflection typically depends on the specific
application and material being tested. Long-term deflection is a measure of how much a
material or structure deforms over an extended period of time, often due to sustained loads or
environmental factors. Here is provide a general outline of the steps and considerations for
setting up such an experiment:

1. Objective Definition: Clearly define the objectives of your experiment. Understand

what you want to measure and the parameters you are interested in, such as the deflection
rate, load applied, temperature, humidity, and the duration of the test.

2. Material and Specimen Selection: Choose the material or structure you want to
test and prepare specimens that are representative of the real-world conditions. The size,
shape, and condition of your specimens should mimic the actual application as closely as
possible.

3. Loading Setup: Depending on your application, set up the loading mechanism. This
could involve applying a constant load, cyclic loading, or other types of loads. Make sure
to measure and record the applied load accurately.

4. Measurement Devices: Use appropriate measurement devices to monitor the

deflection over time. Common instruments include:
 Displacement Sensors: These can be linear variable differential
transformers (LVDTs), strain gauges, or extensometers.
 Load Cells: To measure the applied load.
 Data Loggers: To record data over time.

5. Environmental Sensors: If environmental factors such as temperature or humidity

affect your material, include sensors for these variables.
 6. Data Acquisition System: Set up a data acquisition system to continuously record
measurements over the duration of the experiment. This could be a computer-based
system or a standalone data logger.

7. Environmental Controls: If your experiment is sensitive to environmental

conditions, control and monitor factors like temperature, humidity, and lighting. You may
need environmental chambers or conditioning equipment.

8. Test Duration: Determine the required test duration based on the expected long-term
behaviour of the material or structure. Long-term deflection experiments can run from
weeks to years.

9. Safety Precautions: Ensure safety measures are in place, especially if high loads or
potentially hazardous materials are involved.

10. Data Analysis: After the experiment, analyse the data to calculate deflection rates,
assess the material's creep behaviour, and draw conclusions about its long-term
performance.

11. Documentation: Document every aspect of the experiment, including the setup,
equipment calibration, environmental conditions, and results. Proper documentation is
crucial for repeatability and research validation.
12. Validation: Compare the experimental results with theoretical predictions or models to
validate your findings.

13. Report: Prepare a detailed report summarizing the experiment's setup, procedure,
results, and conclusions. Include any unexpected observations or issues encountered
during the experiment.
Remember that the specific setup can vary significantly depending on the type of material,
loading conditions, and research objectives. Consulting relevant standards and literature in your
field can provide more specific guidance on the experimental setup for long-term deflection
testing in your application. Additionally, consider involving experts in materials science, civil
engineering, or other relevant disciplines to ensure the experiment is well-designed and
executed.

3.3 Mathematical Models or Simulation Used

Modelling and simulating long-term deflection in structures typically involves the use of
mathematical equations and numerical methods. Here's a general approach to create a
mathematical model and perform a simulation for long-term deflection:

1. Define the Problem:- Identify the structure you want to analyse for long-term
deflection. This could be a beam, slab, bridge, or any other structural element.
Determine the material properties, such as Young's modulus (E), Poisson's ratio (ν), and the
geometry of the structure, including dimensions and boundary conditions.

2. Select a Theoretical Model:- Choose an appropriate theoretical model that

represents the behaviour of the structure under long-term loading. Common models
include linear elasticity, linear viscoelasticity, or nonlinear models if required.

3. Formulate the Governing Equations :- Write down the governing equations

based on the chosen theoretical model. For linear elasticity, this typically involves the
linear elasticity equation (Stress = E * Strain). For viscoelastic materials, you may need
to incorporate a creep function.

4. Apply Boundary Conditions:- Apply appropriate boundary conditions to the

equations to represent the constraints and supports of your structure. Boundary
conditions dictate how the structure is fixed or supported at its ends and along its length.

5. Incorporate Loadings:- Include the time-dependent loadings that are causing

long-term deflection. These loadings could be permanent loads (e.g., dead loads) or
time-dependent loads (e.g., temperature changes, live loads, or creep-inducing loads).

6. Solve the Equations Numerically:-

 Depending on the complexity of the problem and the chosen model, you may
need to use numerical methods to solve the equations. Finite element analysis
(FEA) or finite difference methods are common choices for structural
simulations.
 Implement a numerical solver or use software like ANSYS, Abaqus, or
COMSOL to perform the simulation. These tools can handle linear and
nonlinear structural analyses.

7. Time-Stepping:- For long-term deflection analysis, you'll need to perform a time-

stepping simulation. Discretize time into small time intervals, and at each time step,
update the structural response based on the applied loads and the material properties.

8. Iterate and Converge:- Continue the time-stepping simulation until you reach the
desired analysis duration. Ensure that the solution converges and stabilizes over time.

9. Evaluate and Interpret Results:- Analyse the simulation results to understand

how the structure's deflection evolves over time. You can extract information such as
maximum deflection, deflection profiles, and stress distribution.

10. Validate and Fine-Tune:- Compare the simulation results with experimental data
or known analytical solutions if available. Make adjustments to the model or input
parameters as needed to improve accuracy.
 11. Documentation and Reporting:- Document your modelling approach,
assumptions, and simulation results. Provide a clear report summarizing the long-term
deflection behaviour of the structure.
12. Sensitivity Analysis:- Perform sensitivity analyses to assess how changes in
material properties, loads, or boundary conditions affect long-term deflection. This can
help in design optimization and risk assessment.
Remember that the specific details of your mathematical model and simulation will depend on
the nature of the structure, material properties, loading conditions, and any relevant factors
unique to your problem. Additionally, commercial software packages are often used to simplify
the numerical aspects of structural simulations.

3.4 Assumptions and Constraints

Assumptions and constraints are essential components of any modelling and simulation
process. They help simplify complex systems and make the analysis more tractable. Here's an
explanation of what assumptions and constraints are and how they are used:

Assumptions:
Assumptions are simplifications or idealizations made in a model or simulation to make the
problem more manageable or to focus on specific aspects of the system. They are used to
simplify complex real-world situations and provide a starting point for analysis. However,
assumptions can introduce limitations and potential inaccuracies into the model. Common
types of assumptions include:
 Simplifying Geometry: Assuming a complex geometry is simplified to a more
manageable shape, such as approximating a structure as a simple beam or a two-
dimensional surface.

 Linear Behaviour: Assuming linear relationships between variables, such as stress and
strain in a material, which simplifies the mathematical equations but may not accurately
represent nonlinear behaviour.

 Neglecting Friction: Assuming frictionless conditions in mechanical systems to

simplify calculations, even though friction may be present in reality.

 Constant Properties: Assuming material properties like Young's modulus or thermal

conductivity are constant over time and temperature, whereas they may vary in reality.

 Ignoring Inertia: In fluid dynamics, neglecting the effects of fluid inertia in situations
where it can be considered negligible.

 Steady-State Assumption: Assuming that a system has reached a stable equilibrium

and that transient effects are not considered in the analysis.
  Perfect Gas Assumption: In thermodynamics, assuming ideal gas behaviour even
when real gases deviate from ideal behaviour at high pressures or low temperatures.

Assumptions are made consciously and should be clearly stated when presenting the model or
simulation results. It's essential to recognize the potential limitations these assumptions impose
on the accuracy and applicability of the model.
Constraints: Constraints are conditions or limitations imposed on a system or model that restrict
its behaviour or variables. Constraints are used to represent real-world limitations or
requirements and are essential for solving optimization problems and ensuring the feasibility
of solutions. Types of constraints include:
 Physical Constraints: These are based on the physical properties or characteristics of
the system. For example, constraints on the length, mass, or dimensions of a mechanical
component.

 Boundary Conditions: In mathematical models, boundary conditions are constraints

applied at the boundaries of a domain to define the behaviour of the model at those
locations.

 Equality Constraints: Constraints that specify that certain variables are equal to each
other, such as balance equations in chemical reactions.

 Inequality Constraints: Constraints that specify that certain variables must be greater
than or less than a specified value, limiting the feasible solution space.

 Resource Constraints: In optimization problems, constraints related to resource

availability, such as budget, time, or material constraints.

 Environmental Constraints: Constraints that reflect environmental regulations or

limitations, such as emissions limits in industrial processes.
Constraints are critical for determining feasible solutions in various fields, including
engineering, economics, and optimization. They help ensure that solutions align with real-
world constraints and requirements.
In modelling and simulation, a balance must be struck between making reasonable assumptions
to simplify a problem and incorporating constraints to reflect the real-world context accurately.
Careful consideration of both assumptions and constraints is crucial for obtaining meaningful
and practical results.
 CHAPTER-4
Analysis of Long-Term Deflection
4.1 Analysis of Data Using Appropriate tools.
Analysing long-term deflection of a long-span bridge involves the use of various tools and
methods to collect and interpret data. Here's an overview of some of the tools commonly used
in such analyses:

1. Strain Gauges:
 Strain gauges are commonly used to measure deformation in structures. They can
be bonded to the surface of the structure at critical points where you want to measure
deflection.
 Wheatstone bridge configurations are often used to convert the strain into an
electrical signal that can be measured over time.
 These gauges are suitable for measuring small displacements and can provide high
precision.

Figure.6 Strain gauge in girder bottom

2. Surveying Instruments:

 Total Station: Total stations are used for precise measurements of bridge deflection
by surveying points on the bridge structure over time.

Figure.7 Total station device

  GPS Receivers: Global Positioning System (GPS) can provide data on the movement
and deformation of the bridge.

Figure.8 GPS deflection monitoring

3. Data Loggers and Recorders:

Data loggers can record data from various sensors over extended periods. They are essential
for collecting long-term deflection data. Data loggers and data recorders acquire digital data
from sensors and other signals. Typically the device is used in situ or in the field, and stores
data over a period of time. The data is then usually downloaded and stored to a computer system
for historical recordkeeping and analysis.

Figure.9 Data Logger

4. Finite Element Analysis (FEA):

FEA software can simulate the behaviour of the bridge over time, considering various loads,
temperature changes, and material properties. It helps predict long-term deflection trends.

5. Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) Systems:

SHM systems integrate various sensors and data analysis tools to continuously monitor the
structural health of a bridge, including long-term deflection. Structural Health Monitoring
(SHM) aims at providing support for these strategies, through the collection of reliable data on
the real condition of a bridge, the observation of its evolution over time and characterization
of the degradation. Typically, a structural health monitoring system consists of three main parts:
A network of measurement sensors such as accelerometers, crack meters, load cells, etc. Data
acquisition and transmission systems.
 Figure.10 Structural Health Monitoring system

6. Load Testing:
Load testing involves applying known loads to the bridge and monitoring deflection responses.
It helps evaluate the bridge's structural integrity under different conditions. The loading test on
existing bridge is carried out for the purpose of the evaluation of the load carrying capacity and
the durability of fatigue for steel member by measuring the deformation and stress of bridge
under the actual loading on existing bridge. The deflection limit check is to check whether the
maximum displacement of mid span is larger than the value calculated by (L/800). This limit
is commonly used to evaluate the serviceability of the bridge.

Figure.11 Bridge Load Test

7. Environmental Monitoring Tools:

Weather stations and temperature sensors are used to monitor environmental factors that can
affect bridge deflection, such as temperature fluctuations and wind loads.

Figure.12 Environmental Monitoring tool set

 8. Data Analysis Software:
Specialized software for data analysis, such as MATLAB or Python with numerical libraries,
is used to process and interpret data collected from sensors and surveys.

4.2 Discussion of Results and Trends

The long-term deflection of long-span bridges is a critical aspect of their structural performance
and safety. Understanding the results and trends in long-term deflection is essential for ensuring
the structural integrity and serviceability of these important infrastructure assets. Here, we will
discuss the key factors influencing long-term deflection and the trends associated with it:

1. Material Properties:
The materials used in bridge construction, such as concrete and steel, exhibit creep and
relaxation behaviour over time. Creep is the gradual deformation of a material under a constant
load, while relaxation is the decrease in stress over time under a constant strain. These material
properties contribute to long-term deflection.

2. Load History:
The long-term deflection of a bridge depends on its load history. Repeated heavy traffic loads
and other dynamic factors can lead to cumulative deformation over time. Changes in traffic
patterns and increased load capacity can also affect long-term deflection.

3. Environmental Conditions:
Environmental factors like temperature variations, humidity, and exposure to corrosive agents
can influence long-term deflection. Expansion and contraction due to temperature changes can
cause thermal-induced deflection.

4. Bridge Geometry:
The geometry and design of the bridge play a significant role in long-term deflection. The span
length, structural configuration, and support conditions all affect how the bridge responds to
loads over time.

5. Maintenance and Repair:

Proper maintenance and timely repair can help mitigate long-term deflection issues. Regular
inspections and structural health monitoring systems can identify deformations and
maintenance needs, allowing for timely interventions to prevent excessive deflection.
4.3 Comparison with Theoretical and practical Prediction
Theoretical and practical prediction of long-term deflection in long-span bridges involves
assessing how these structures deform over time due to various factors. Here is a summary
comparing the theoretical and practical aspects of predicting long-term deflection:

Theoretical Prediction:
 Theoretical prediction of long-term deflection involves using mathematical models and
engineering principles to estimate how a bridge will deform over time.
 It relies on simplified assumptions and calculations, such as elastic beam theory, to
estimate deflections caused by static and dynamic loads, temperature changes, creep,
and shrinkage of materials.
 Theoretical predictions are typically carried out during the design phase of a bridge and
serve as a baseline for expected deflections.

Practical Prediction:
 Practical prediction of long-term deflection involves monitoring and measuring the
actual deflections of a bridge in the field over an extended period.
 It takes into account real-world factors that might not be perfectly captured by
theoretical models, such as construction imperfections, material variations, and
environmental conditions.
 Practical prediction often relies on instruments like strain gauges, displacement sensors,
and GPS to continuously monitor and record deflections.

Comparison:
 Theoretical predictions are essential for initial design and evaluation but tend to be
idealized and conservative.
 Practical predictions provide valuable feedback on the bridge's actual performance and
can identify deviations from theoretical expectations.
 Theoretical predictions may underestimate or overestimate long-term deflection,
whereas practical predictions provide real-time data for assessment and maintenance
decisions.
 Practical predictions help in identifying potential structural issues early, allowing for
timely maintenance or adjustments to prevent safety hazards.

4.3.1 Challenges:
 Theoretical predictions are limited by the accuracy of the assumptions and data input
during the design phase.
 Practical predictions may be affected by measurement errors, sensor calibration, and
environmental variability.
 Integrating theoretical and practical predictions can enhance the accuracy of long-term
deflection assessment.
In summary, while theoretical prediction provides a solid foundation for designing long-span
bridges, practical prediction is crucial for monitoring real-world performance and ensuring the
safety and longevity of these structures. Combining both approaches can help bridge engineers
make informed decisions regarding maintenance and structural integrity over the bridge's
lifespan.
 CHAPTER-5
Factor Affecting Long Term Deflection
5.1 Environmental Factors
Long-term deflection in long-span bridges can be influenced by various factors, including:

1) Creep: Creep is the gradual deformation of materials, such as concrete and steel, under
sustained load over time. It can significantly contribute to long-term deflection in
bridges.

2) Shrinkage: Concrete, especially in the early stages of curing, can undergo shrinkage
as it loses moisture. Shrinkage can result in long-term deflection if not properly
accounted for in the design and construction.

3) Temperature changes: Temperature fluctuations can cause materials to expand and

contract. These temperature-induced movements can lead to long-term deflection in
bridges, particularly in long spans.

4) Moisture effects: Changes in moisture levels can affect the dimensions of bridge
materials, leading to long-term deformations. This is particularly relevant for wooden
components in some bridge designs.

5) Material properties: The properties of the materials used in bridge construction,

such as concrete strength, steel modulus of elasticity, and timber properties, can
influence long-term deflection.

6) Design parameters: The design of the bridge, including its geometry, span length,
and load-carrying capacity, plays a significant role in determining long-term deflection.
Longer spans are generally more susceptible to deflection.

7) Load history: The history of live loads and traffic patterns on the bridge can affect
its long-term deflection. Frequent heavy traffic or overloading can lead to greater long-
term deformation.

8) Construction methods and quality control: The construction process,

including the accuracy of construction methods, the curing of concrete, and quality
control measures, can influence long-term deflection.

9) Maintenance and repairs: The maintenance and repair practices employed

throughout the bridge's lifespan can either mitigate or exacerbate long-term deflection
issues.
 10) Environmental factors: Environmental conditions, such as exposure to harsh
weather, corrosion, and chemical exposure, can affect the materials' properties and
contribute to long-term deflection.

11) Foundation settlement: Settlement of bridge foundations over time can lead to
long-term deflection. Proper foundation design and construction are essential to
minimize this effect.
To manage and mitigate long-term deflection in long-span bridges, engineers and designers
consider these factors during the design and construction phases and may employ various
techniques, including appropriate material selection, prestressing, and structural monitoring, to
address potential deflection issues over the bridge's operational life.

5.2 Material Properties

Long-term deflection in long-span bridges is a critical consideration in structural engineering,
as it can impact the safety, serviceability, and durability of the bridge. Several material
properties and design factors play a role in determining long-term deflection. Here are some
key factors to consider:

1) Elastic Modulus (Young's Modulus): This property represents the stiffness of

the material. A material with a higher elastic modulus will experience less deflection
under a given load. When selecting materials for long-span bridges, engineers often
choose high-strength materials with a high elastic modulus.

2) Creep Behaviour: Creep is the gradual deformation of a material under a sustained

load over time. Materials like concrete and steel exhibit creep behaviour. Engineers
consider the creep characteristics of the chosen materials when designing the bridge to
account for long-term deflection.

3) Shrinkage: Materials like concrete can shrink over time as they cure. Shrinkage can
result in long-term deflection in concrete structures. Engineers need to account for the
expected shrinkage when designing the bridge and may use expansion joints or other
strategies to mitigate its effects.

4) Temperature Effects: Temperature variations can cause expansion and contraction

of bridge materials, leading to long-term deflection. Materials expand when heated and
contract when cooled. Engineers must consider the temperature range the bridge will
experience and the coefficient of thermal expansion of the materials used.

5) Creep and Shrinkage of Prestressed Materials : In prestressed concrete

bridges, the prestressing tendons induce compressive forces to counteract external
loads. However, both concrete and steel tend to exhibit creep over time, which can
affect long-term deflection. Engineers must account for the creep of both materials
when designing prestressed bridges.
 6) Environmental Effects: Exposure to environmental factors like moisture,
humidity, and aggressive chemicals can affect the long-term behaviour of bridge
materials. Corrosion of reinforcing steel, for example, can lead to structural degradation
and increased deflection.

7) Support Conditions: The type of support conditions at the ends of the bridge also
plays a significant role in long-term deflection. A bridge that is simply supported
(hinged) at its ends will experience more deflection compared to one that is
continuously supported.

8) Load History: The history of loads applied to the bridge, including both dead loads
(permanent static loads) and live loads (variable loads), can influence long-term
deflection. Engineers consider the expected traffic patterns and load scenarios when
designing the bridge.

9) Maintenance and Inspection: Regular maintenance and inspection of the bridge

are essential to monitor and manage long-term deflection. Detecting issues early can
prevent excessive deflection and ensure the bridge's long-term safety.

10) Design Codes and Standards: Engineers must adhere to relevant design codes
and standards that provide guidelines and requirements for the design of long-span
bridges. These codes often include provisions for addressing long-term deflection.
In summary, the material properties of the bridge components, as well as environmental factors,
support conditions, and load history, all contribute to long-term deflection in long-span bridges.
Engineers use a combination of material selection, design techniques, and maintenance
strategies to manage and minimize long-term deflection while ensuring the bridge's safety and
serviceability.

5.3 Construction Techniques

Deflections of concrete beams and slabs are affected by construction measures and materials
used. In most situations, size of the reinforced concrete sections is controlled by deflections.
To achieve more economical sections, certain measures can be employed includes construction
techniques and material selection techniques. In this article construction and material selection
measures which can be used to reduce concrete beam and slab deflection are explored in the
following sections:

1. Cure the concrete to allow it achieve strength

It is claimed that the deflection response of concrete members are specified by concrete
strength at initial loading rather than final strength of concrete elements. It is recommended to
use concrete that obtain high strength at early stages when constructed members are to be
loaded in no time after construction. Additionally, the deflection of cracked members is much
higher than the same element in uncracked condition.
2. Cure the concrete to decrease creep and shrinkage
By and large, proper curing will affect and decrease long term deflection, not short term
deflection. Moreover, curing effects on long term deflection components (shrinkage and creep)
are similar. The larger influence of curing is observed in reinforced concrete beams and slabs
that are subjected to high shrinkage for example structures in aired atmosphere, members with
thin flanges, and restrained members.

3. Control shoring and reshoring procedures

It is indicated that the load of shoring on floors in multi-story building could be as much as two
times the self-weight of concrete slab. Since dead load of the slab is larger than superimposed
design load in many cases, the slab could be overstressed because of shoring loads and
consequently uncracked state, which assumed based on design loads, will no longer be a valid
assumption. That is why the slab flexural stiffness is decreased by one third of the flexural
stiffness value that computed based on assumed design loads. Moreover, it is possible that shore
loads are applied to the slab before the design strength is obtained by concrete and this produce
cracks because of low modulus of rupture. Furthermore, based on experience, it is claimed that
apparent deflection is changing broadly between slabs even if the same construction and design
is employed. This variation might be due to number of factors for example timing and method
of striping forms were not applied uniformly and construction loads were not imposed
uniformly. Lastly, the soil beneath shoring support must be checked to avoid settlement under
recently poured concrete, because settling of soil under shoring support lead to sagging of
forms which is not desired.

4. Postpone beginning of loading

This technique gives concrete enough time to obtained design strength and not only does it
increase modulus of elasticity but also modulus of rupture is rose. Moreover, the more modulus
of rupture the fewer amounts of cracks is developed. An increase in modulus of elasticity leads
to increase flexural stiffness. Lastly, by postponing beginning of loading, creep deflection is
decreased.

5. Install deflection sensitive equipment at later times

In this case the incremental deflection which is happen when deflection sensitive equipment is
installed until it is removed or deflection reaches its final value, is reduced. ACI 318-11 section
9.5.2.5 provides method of calculating additional long term deflection for delaying partition
installation.

6. Place deflection sensitive equipment or elements to prevent deflection

issues
It is recommended to locate devices such as printing presses, scientific equipments, and other
equipments that must be level in the middle of the span because modifying slopes resulted from
deflection is minimal in this location. Moreover, place vibration sensitive equipments close to
supports because vibration amplitude is very small in this location.
7. Provide architectural details to accommodate the expected deflection
Partitions which abut the column might exhibit deflection influences such as separating from
the column horizontally near the top. So, it is advised that architectural detailing provide rooms
for such movements. Similarly, doors, windows, partitions and non-structural elements which
located under or supported by deflecting concrete element should be equipped with slip joints
for accommodating anticipated deflections of concrete elements which are located below or
above non-structural members.

8. Build camber into the floor slab

Cambering will not affect the deflection value after the deflection takes place. Therefore, to get
the best result out of building camber into the slab, firstly, the deflection should be computed
accurately and overestimation must be prevented, secondly, specifying the -cambering pattern,
thirdly, results should be monitored during construction.

9. Make sure that top steel reinforcements are not displaced downward
Generally, downward displacement of reinforcement decrease member strength. Regarding
deflection, uncracked members is slightly influenced by displacement of top reinforcement,
but cracked members especially cantilever beams are extremely sensitive and affected by steel
downward movement. In addition, continuous beams deflections are increased when bar
displacement is occurred at negative moment positions and redistribution of moment is
happened.

10. Choose materials that increase rupture and modulus of elasticity or

decrease shrinkage and creep
Cement, aggregates, silica fumes, and admixtures are those materials that affect properties such
as modulus of elasticity and rupture. These properties in return influence the deflection of
concrete element.

11. Use a mix design that lead to reduce creep and shrinkage or increase the
elastic modulus and creep
Shrinkage can be decreased when lower water to cement ratio is applied and long term
deflection can be reducing. Moreover, proportions of the mixture can be modified to get better
mixture.

12. Use a concrete with higher modulus of elasticity

As per ACI Code procedures, the stiffness of uncracked elements is increased proportionally
to the modulus of elasticity. In contrary, the influence of elastic modulus on member’s stiffness
is low and fully cracked members is not affected.

13. Use concrete with a higher modulus of rupture

Increasing stiffness, which in return decrease deflection, is depend on Modulus of rupture
combine, reinforcement ratio, and applied load magnitude affect.

14. Add short discrete fibres to the concrete mixture

Using short discrete fibres in concrete mixture might be costly but it increases crack strength
and shrinkage. Consequently, deflection of the member is decreased .
5.4 Maintenance Practice
Maintaining long-span bridges to control long-term deflection is essential for ensuring their
structural integrity and safety. Long-term deflection refers to the gradual deformation or
sagging of a bridge over an extended period of time, often caused by factors such as material
creep, temperature changes, and settlement. Here are some maintenance practices to address
long-term deflection in long-span bridges:

1. Regular Inspections:
Conduct regular inspections of the bridge to monitor any signs of deflection or deformation.
Use instruments like inclinometers, strain gauges, and surveying equipment to measure and
record the bridge's movements over time.

2. Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) Systems:

Implement SHM systems that continuously monitor the bridge's structural behaviour. These
systems can provide real-time data on deflection, stress, and other critical parameters, allowing
for early detection of issues.

3. Load Testing:
Periodically conduct load tests to assess the bridge's performance under various loads. These
tests can help identify any changes in deflection and deformation and provide valuable data for
maintenance planning.

4. Temperature and Environmental Monitoring:

Keep track of temperature fluctuations and environmental conditions, as these can affect the
bridge's materials and long-term behaviour. Extreme temperature variations can lead to thermal
expansion and contraction, causing deflection.

5. Geotechnical Surveys:
Perform geotechnical surveys to monitor and address any soil settlement or foundation-related
issues beneath the bridge. Settlement can contribute to long-term deflection, so it's crucial to
identify and rectify such problems.

6. Material Assessment:
Regularly assess the condition of the bridge materials, including steel, concrete, and cables.
Corrosion and material degradation can weaken the bridge's structure and lead to increased
deflection.

7. Maintenance of Expansion Joints:

Ensure that expansion joints are properly maintained and functioning. These joints allow the
bridge to expand and contract with temperature changes without inducing excessive stresses
and deflection.
8. Strengthening and Retrofitting:
Consider strengthening or retrofitting measures to address long-term deflection if necessary.
This may involve adding supplemental supports, reinforcing components, or using advanced
materials.

9. Environmental Protection:
Implement measures to protect the bridge from environmental factors, such as applying
protective coatings to prevent corrosion or installing insulation to reduce temperature-related
effects.

10. Regular Cleaning:

Keep the bridge clean to prevent the buildup of debris, which can add unnecessary weight and
contribute to deflection over time.

11. Emergency Response Planning:

Develop a comprehensive emergency response plan in case a sudden increase in deflection is
observed. This plan should include procedures for closing the bridge, evacuating personnel,
and conducting emergency repairs.

12. Professional Expertise:

Engage structural engineers and bridge maintenance experts who specialize in long-span bridge
maintenance to assess the condition of the bridge and develop appropriate maintenance
strategies.

Remember that long-term deflection in long-span bridges is a complex issue that requires
ongoing monitoring and maintenance efforts to ensure the safety and functionality of the
structure. Regular inspections and a proactive approach to maintenance are key to addressing
and mitigating deflection over the bridge's lifespan.
 CHAPTER-6
CASE STUDIES
6.1 Highlight Real World Example of Long Span Bridges
6.1.1 Brooklyn Bridge
The Brooklyn Bridge is a hybrid cable stayed bridge /Suspension bridge in New York City,
spanning the East river between the boroughs of Manhattam and Brooklyn. Opened on May
24, 1883, the Brooklyn Bridge was the first fixed crossing of the East River. It was also
the Longest suspension bridge in the world at the time of its opening, with a main span of
1,595.5 feet (486.3 m) and a deck 127 ft (38.7 m) above Mean high water. The span was
originally called the New York and Brooklyn Bridge or the East River Bridge but was
officially renamed the Brooklyn Bridge in 1915.
Proposals for a bridge connecting Manhattan and Brooklyn were first made in the early 19th
century, which eventually led to the construction of the current span, designed by John A
Robling. The project's chief engineer, his son Washington Roebling, contributed further design
work, assisted by the latter's wife, Emily Warren Roebling. Construction started in 1870, with
the Tammany Hall-controlled New York Bridge Company overseeing construction, although
numerous controversies and the novelty of the design prolonged the project over thirteen years.
Since opening, the Brooklyn Bridge has undergone several reconfigurations, having carried
horse-drawn vehicles and elevated railway lines until 1950. To alleviate increasing traffic
flows, additional bridges and tunnels were built across the East River. Following gradual
deterioration, the Brooklyn Bridge has been renovated several times, including in the 1950s,
1980s, and 2010s. The Brooklyn Bridge, an early example of a steel-wire suspension bridge,
uses a hybrid cable-stayed/suspension bridge design, with both vertical and diagonal suspender
cables. Its stone towers are neo-Gothic, with characteristic pointed arches.

Figure.13 Brooklyn Bridge

6.1.2 Centennial Bridge
The Centennial Bridge is the second major road crossing of the Panama Canal, the first being
the Bridge of the Americas. (Small service bridges are built in the lock structures at Miraflores
and Gatún Locks, but these bridges are only usable when the lock gates are closed and have
limited capacity). The Bridge of the Americas, which opened in 1962, was the only major road
crossing of the Panama Canal. The traffic over this bridge was originally around 9,500 vehicles
per day; however, this expanded over time, and by 2004 the bridge was carrying 35,000
vehicles per day.
Since the bridge represented a major bottleneck in the Pan-American Highway, Panama's
Ministry of Public Works requested tenders for a second canal crossing in October 2000. The
contract to build a replacement bridge was awarded in March 2002. An ambitious schedule of
just 29 months was set for construction, so that the bridge could open on the 90th anniversary
of the first ship transit of the Panama Canal by the cargo ship Ancon, on 15 August 1914. The
bridge was named for Panama's centennial, which occurred on 3 November 2003. similar to
Russky Bridge in Russia,
The new bridge was designed by a joint venture between T.Y. Lin International and the Louis
Berger Group Inc, and constructed by German-based Bilfinger Berger Ingenieurbau GmbH
using resources from its Australian subsidiary Baulderstone Hornibrook. The architects were
Elle Sokolow working as an Architect for Geiger-Berger Associates and the Boston-based
transportation architect Miguel Rosales from Rosales + Partners who created the concept and
initial aesthetic designs for the Panama-Centennial Bridge. Structural engineering contracts
were awarded to Leonhardt, Andra and Partner.
The bridge was inaugurated on schedule on 15 August 2004, although it was opened for traffic
on 2 September 2005, when the new highways leading to it were finished. The bridge is a cable-
stayed design with a total span of 1,052 m (3,451 ft). The main span is 420 m (1,380 ft) and
clears the canal by 80 m (260 ft), allowing large vessels to pass below it. The bridge is
supported by two towers, each 184 m (604 ft) high. The deck carries six lanes of traffic across
the canal.
The Centennial Bridge is designed to withstand the earthquakes which are frequently recorded
in the canal area. It was built by the German construction firm Bilfinger. The West Tower was
built about 50 m inland to allow space for the future widening of the Panama Canal.

Figure.14 Centennial Bridge

6.1.3 Erasmus Bridge
The Erasmusbrug (English: "Erasmus Bridge") is a combined cable-stayed and bascule
bridge, construction began in 1986 and was completed in 1996. It crosses the Nieuwe Maas in
the centre of Rotterdam, connecting the north and south parts of this city, second largest in the
Netherlands. The bridge was named in 1992 after Desiderius Erasmus, a prominent
Christian Renaissance humanist also known as Erasmus of Rotterdam. The Erasmus Bridge is
Rotterdam's most important landmark and is even part of the city's official logo.
The 802-metre-long (2,631 ft) bridge across the New Meuse was designed by Ben van
Berkel and completed in 1996. The cable-stayed bridge section has a single 139-metre-high
(456 ft) asymmetrical pale blue pylon with a prominent horizontal base, earning the bridge
its nickname "The Swan".
The southernmost span of the bridge has an 89-metre-long (292 ft) bascule bridge for ships that
cannot pass under the bridge. The bascule bridge is the largest and heaviest in Western
Europe and has the largest panel of its type in the world. After costing more than 165 million
Euros to construct, the bridge was officially opened by Queen Beatrix on September 6, 1996.
Shortly after the bridge opened to traffic in October 1996, it was discovered the bridge would
swing under particularly strong wind conditions. To reduce the trembling, stronger shock
dampers were installed.
In the subsequent engineering feasibility study, a number of significant design changes were
made. Most importantly, live loads, like 60-ton trucks, would introduce tremendous bending
forces into the backward leaning pylon; therefore back stays were added to minimize bending
forces. The 150-m-high concrete pylon was changed to a 139-m-high steel pylon. The overall
appearance of the bridge design remained intact, however, which proved to be the decisive
factor for its selection. In November 1991, the city council chose the highly ambitious
backward leaning bent pylon shape and made available the necessary additional funds for the
asymmetric bridge.
The Erasmus Bridge is the result of an unusual design process in which architects and engineers
interacted as equals. In the end this resulted in a bridge that evidences a full commitment to
both technical and aesthetic standards.
Two box girder spines & transverse sections under the deck of the Erasmus bridge. The thin
deck profile was not only aesthetically motivated, but also dictated by a number of technical
conditions, e.g., there needed to be a clear shipping height in the centre of the span of 12.5m
for at least 200m. The deck was thus designed with two box girder spines, 2.25m high by 1.25m
wide, where the cables were attached to support a deck with 4 traffic lanes and 2 tram tracks in
between the two spines. The two spines were joined every 4.9m by transverse sections, which
were cantilevered out 6.7m either side for the pedestrian and cycle ways. [8]
On the concrete piers, the engineers designed the steel tubes within the concrete piers to support
the bridge and the architects designed the concrete form around these inner steel tubes as a
sculptural form.

Figure.15 Erasmus Bridge

 CHAPTER-7
Mitigate and Maintenance
7.1 Strategies to Mitigate Long term Deflection
Mitigating long-term deflection in structures, such as bridges and buildings, is essential to
ensure their long-term performance and safety. Long-term deflection can occur due to factors
like creep, shrinkage, and settlement. Here are several strategies to help mitigate long-term
deflection:

1. Proper Design and Analysis:

 Begin with a thorough structural analysis during the design phase to predict deflections
accurately.
 Ensure that the initial design accounts for anticipated loads, material properties, and
other relevant factors.

2. Material Selection:
Choose construction materials that exhibit minimal creep and shrinkage characteristics. For
example, high-performance concrete with low shrinkage properties can be used in concrete
structures.

3. Reinforcement and Prestressing:

 Incorporate reinforcement, such as steel bars or cables, to counteract deflection.
Properly designed reinforcement can help limit long-term deflection.
 Consider prestressing techniques where tendons are tensioned before loads are applied
to the structure. This can offset deflection caused by external loads.

4. Controlled Curing:
Ensure that concrete elements are cured properly to minimize shrinkage and maintain structural
integrity.

5. Joints and Bearings:

Use expansion joints and bearings to accommodate thermal expansion and contraction without
causing excessive deflection.

6. Monitor and Adjust:

Implement a monitoring system to continuously assess the structure's deflection over time. This
allows for early detection of excessive deflection and provides an opportunity for adjustments
if needed.

7. Maintenance and Repairs:

Regularly inspect and maintain the structure to identify and address issues that could lead to
long-term deflection. Repair or retrofit as necessary.
8. Load Distribution:
Properly distribute loads across the structure to prevent localized deflection. This can involve
adjusting support locations or using additional supports.

9. Temperature Control:
Control the temperature conditions during construction and occupancy to minimize thermal-
induced deflection.

10. Adaptive Structures:

In some advanced structures, adaptive materials and technologies can be used to actively
counteract deflection, but these are typically more complex and expensive solutions.

11. Research and Innovation:

Stay updated on the latest advancements in construction materials and techniques to
incorporate new strategies for mitigating deflection.
It's important to note that the specific strategies to mitigate long-term deflection will vary
depending on the type of structure, its intended use, and local environmental conditions.
Engineers and designers should carefully consider these factors and consult relevant design
codes and standards to ensure the long-term performance and safety of the structure.

7.2 Importance of Regular Maintenance

The fundamental justification for a bridge inspection programme lies in the assurance of safety.
Timely and economic planning and programming of remedial and preventive maintenance and
repair work, or even bridge replacement with the minimum interruption to traffic are dependent
upon detailed bridge inspection. It is particularly necessary in case of old bridges not designed
to modern loading standards and also whose materials of construction have deteriorated as a
result of weathering. Inspection is aimed at identifying and quantifying deterioration, which
may be caused by applied loads and factors such as dead load, live load, wind load and
physical/chemical influences exerted by the environment. Apart from inspection of bridge
damage caused by unpredictable natural phenomena or collision by vehicles or vessels,
inspection is also needed to identify or follow up the effect of any built-in imperfections.
Inspection can also help to increase life of older bridges. For example, there are certain types
of deterioration which appear early in the life of a bridge and which, if not recorded and
repaired promptly, can lead to considerable reduction in the length of service life of the bridge.
Specific purposes of bridge inspection can be identified as detailed below:
 To know whether the bridge is structurally safe, and to decide the course of action to
make it safe.
 To identify actual and potential sources of trouble at the earliest possible stage. 3. To
record systematically and periodically the state of the structure.
 To impose speed restriction on the bridge if the condition/ situation warrants the same
till the repair/ rehabilitation of the bridge is carried out.
  To determine and report whether major rehabilitation of the bridge is necessary to cope
with the natural environment and the traffic passing over the bridge.
 To provide a feedback of information to designers and construction engineers on those
features which give maintenance problems.

7.3 Case studies on Maintenance Practice

The Golden Gate Bridge, located in San Francisco, California, is an iconic suspension bridge
that spans the Golden Gate Strait, connecting San Francisco to Marin County. It's an
engineering marvel known for its distinctive International Orange colour and graceful design.

7.3.1 Maintenance Challenge:

The Golden Gate Bridge faces numerous maintenance challenges due to its exposure to
saltwater, fog, and wind, as well as frequent seismic activity in the region. Ensuring the
structural integrity and aesthetics of the bridge is a constant effort.

7.3.2 Maintenance Solutions:

A. Routine Inspections:
Regular inspections are conducted by engineers to identify and address any corrosion,
cracks, or other structural issues. Advanced technologies, such as drones, are employed
to access hard-to-reach areas.

B. Painting and Preservation:

The bridge's signature International Orange colour requires frequent repainting to
protect the steel from corrosion. A dedicated team of painters continuously works on
the bridge, applying specialized coatings.

C. Seismic Retrofit:
Given the earthquake-prone region, the Golden Gate Bridge underwent a significant
seismic retrofit in the 1990s. This retrofit included the installation of shock-absorbing
devices and structural enhancements to improve earthquake resilience.

D. Traffic Management:
To minimize disruptions to traffic, maintenance work is often scheduled during off-
peak hours or overnight. Advanced traffic management systems are used to maintain
the flow of vehicles.

E. Public Engagement:
The Golden Gate Bridge District actively engages with the public to provide updates
on maintenance projects and gather input. This helps maintain public support and
awareness of the bridge's preservation efforts.
 Conclusion
In conclusion, addressing long-term deflection in long-span bridges is a critical aspect of bridge
design and maintenance. Long-span bridges, characterized by their impressive spans and
significant loads, are engineering marvels that play a vital role in transportation infrastructure.
However, they are susceptible to various factors that can lead to deflection over time. Long-
term deflection in these bridges can result from a combination of factors, including material
properties, environmental conditions, traffic loads, and structural design. While some initial
deflection is expected and typically accounted for in the design phase, excessive and
progressive deflection can compromise the safety and functionality of the bridge. To mitigate
long-term deflection, engineers and bridge maintenance teams employ various strategies,
including regular inspections, structural monitoring systems, and maintenance measures such
as re-tensioning cables or redistributing loads. These efforts help ensure the continued
structural integrity and safety of long-span bridges, prolonging their lifespan and reducing the
need for costly repairs or replacements. In summary, addressing long-term deflection in long-
span bridges is essential to ensure their sustained performance, safety, and longevity. By
proactively monitoring and maintaining these iconic structures, we can continue to rely on them
as crucial elements of our transportation infrastructure, connecting communities and
facilitating economic growth for years to come.
 Reference
1. www.wikipedia.com
2. www.Researchgate.com
3. www.sciencedirect.com
4. ACI committee 209 (American Concrete Institute),2008.
5. RODRIGUEZ S. Design of Long Span Concrete Box Girder Bridges Challenges and
Solutions/Proceedings of the Structures Congress-building on the Past: Securing the
Future. Nashville, TN, USA: ASCE, 2004:361-371.
6. Banchik C, Khaled N. North Halawa Valley Viaduct design and construction. Concrete
International 1994;16(3):39–43.