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Chapter 11
Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
Introduction
▪ It was found that at low pressure ,when an electric field is applied
to the gas in the discharge tube, a fluorescent glow appeared on the
glass opposite to cathode. These cathode rays were discovered, in
1870, by William Crookes who later, in 1879, suggested that these rays
consisted of streams of fast moving negatively charged particles.

▪ By applying mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic fields

across the discharge tube, J. J. Thomson determined experimentally
the speed and the specific charge [charge to mass ratio (e/m)] of the
cathode ray.

▪ In 1887, it was found that certain metals, when irradiated by

ultraviolet light, emitted negatively charged particles having small
speeds. Also, certain metals when heated to a high temperature were
found to emit negatively charged particles. The value of e/m of these
particles was found to be the same as that for cathode ray particles.

These observations thus established that all these particles, although

produced under different conditions, were identical in nature. J. J. Thomson,
in 1897, named these particles as electrons, and suggested that they were
fundamental, universal constituents of matter.In 1913, the American
physicist R. A. Millikan performed oil-drop experiment and measured the
charge of electron as 1.602 × 10–19 C. Millikan’s experiment established that
electric charge is quantised.

Electron emission
If an electron attempts to come out of the metal, the metal surface acquires a
positive charge and pulls the electron back to the metal. The electron can
come out of the metal surface only if it has got sufficient energy to overcome
the attractive pull.
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Work Function
The minimum energy required to eject an electron from the metal
surface is called work function. The work function is denoted by ϕ0 .
▪ Work function is measured in electron volt (eV).
▪ ϕ0 depends on properties of metal and nature of its surface.
▪ One electron volt is the energy gained by an electron when it has been
accelerated by a potential difference of 1 volt.
1 eV = 1.602 ×10–19 J.

The work function of platinum is the highest (ϕ0 = 5.65 eV) while it is the
lowest (ϕ0 = 2.14 eV) for caesium.

The minimum energy required for the electron emission from the metal
surface can be supplied to the free electrons by any one of the following
physical processes:
(i)Thermionic emission
By suitably heating, the free electrons will get sufficient thermal energy to
escape from the metal surface.
(ii)Field Emission
By applying a very strong electric field (of the order of 108 V/m) to a metal,
electrons will get sufficient energy to escape from the metal, as in a spark
plug.
(iii) Photo-electric emission
When light of suitable frequency incident on a metal surface, electrons are
emitted from the metal surface. These photo(light)-generated electrons are
called photoelectrons.
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Photoelectric Effect
Hertz’s observations
The phenomenon of photoelectric emission was discovered in 1887 by
Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894).
He observed that when light falls on a metal surface, the electrons escaped
from the surface of the metal into the surrounding space.
Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s observations
Lenard (1862-1947) observed that when ultraviolet radiations were
allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosing two
electrodes (metal plates), current flows in the circuit.
Hallwachs, in 1888, connected a negatively charged zinc plate to an
electroscope and found that negatively charged particles were emitted from
the zinc plate under the action of ultraviolet light.
It was found that zinc, cadmium, magnesium, etc., responded only to
ultraviolet light, having short wavelength, to cause electron emission from
the surface.
However, some alkali metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium, caesium
and rubidium were sensitive even to visible light.
Photoelectric Effect
The phenomenon of emission of electrons when photosensitive substances
are illuminated by light of suitable frequency is called photoelectric effect.
Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect
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Experimental arrangement consists of an evacuated glass/quartz tube
having a photosensitive plate C and another metal plate A. Monochromatic
light from the source S of sufficiently short wavelength passes through the
window W and falls on the photosensitive plate C (emitter). A transparent
quartz window permits ultraviolet radiation to pass through it and irradiate
the photosensitive plate C. The electrons are emitted by the plate C and are
collected by the plate A (collector), by the electric field created by the
battery. The polarity of the plates C and A can be reversed by a commutator.
When the collector plate A is positive with respect to the emitter plate C, the
electrons are attracted to it. The emission of electrons causes flow of
electric current in the circuit. The photoelectric current can be increased or
decreased by varying the potential of collector plate A with respect to the
emitter plate C. The intensity and frequency of the incident light can also be
varied.

1.Effect of intensity of light on photocurrent

When intensity of incident radiation is increased( keeping the frequency

of the incident radiation and the accelerating potential fixe), the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second increases and hence the photoelectric
current also increases.
i.e., the photocurrent increases linearly with intensity of incident light.

2.Effect of potential on photoelectric current

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When the positive potential of collector (A) is increased the photoelectric
current increases until all the electrons are collected by the collector(A).
Then the photocurrent becomes maximum and is called saturation current.

Now the collector is made negative with respect to emitter C. Then the
photocurrent decreases with increases in negative potential and finally
becomes zero. The minimum negative potential of emitter plate A for which
the photocurrent stops or bocomes zero is called the cut off potential or
stopping potential (V0)
At stopping potential,
Kmax = e V0
𝟏
mvmax2 = e V0
𝟐

3.Effect of Intensity of incident radiation on stopping potential

The experiment is repeated with incident radiation of the same frequency

but different intensities I1, I2 and I3 (I3 > I2 > I1).When the intensity of
incident radiation is increased ,number of photo electrons emitted per
second increases and hence the the saturation current increases. But as the
kinetic energy of photoelectrons remains constant and the stopping
potential also remains constant.

i.e., for a given frequency of incident radiation, the stopping potential is

independent of intensity of radiation.
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4.Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential

The experiment is repeated at same intensity of light radiation but differenr

frequencies 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣3 such that 𝑣1 > 𝑣2 > 𝑣3 . When the frequency of
incident radiation increases, the kinetic energy of photoelectrons increases
and hence the stopping potential also increases. But as the intensity does not
change , the saturation current will be the same for different frequencies.

i.e., the stopping potential increases with increase in frequency of incident

radiation.

Laws of Photoelectric Effect

i.For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation,
the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of
incident light.
ii.For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation,
saturation current is found to be proportional to the intensity of incident
radiation whereas the stopping potential is independent of its intensity .
iii.For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-
off frequency of the incident radiation, called the threshold frequency(𝑣0 )
below which no emission of photoelectrons takes place, no matter how
intense the incident light is. Above the threshold frequency, the stopping
potential or equivalently the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident
radiation, but is independent of its intensity
iv.The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without any
apparent time lag.
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Threshold Frequency
Threshold frequency is the minimum cut-off frequency of the incident
radiation, below which photo emission is not possible, no matter how
intense the incident light is.
Photoelectric Effect and Wave Theory of Light
The phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarisation were explained
by the wave picture of light. But the wave picture is unable to explain the
most basic features of photoelectric emission.
▪ According to the wave picture of light, the free electrons at the
surface of the metal absorb the radiant energy continuously. The
greater the intensity of radiation, the greater should be the energy
absorbed by each electron. This is contradictory to the observations of
photoelectric effect.
▪ As large number of electrons absorb energy, the energy absorbed
per electron per unit time turns out to be small. It can take hours or
more for a single electron to pick up sufficient energy to overcome the
work function and come out of the metal. This is contrast to
observation that the photoelectric emission is instantaneous.
Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation: Energy Quantum of Radiation
Einstein explained photoelectric effect based on Planck’s quantum theory of
radiation. When a photon incident on a metal surface, a part of its energy is
used as work function and the remaining part is used to give kinetic energy
to emitted photoelectrons.
Energy of photon =work function + KE of electrons
ℎ𝑣 = 𝜙0 + Kmax
Kmax = 𝒉𝒗 − 𝝓𝟎 ----------------(1)
This is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

At stopping potential V0
Kmax=e V0
e V0 = 𝒉𝒗 − 𝝓𝟎 ----------------(2)

At threshold frequency , 𝑣 = 𝑣0 , KE = 0 , 𝜙0 = h𝑣0

Kmax = 𝒉𝒗 − 𝒉𝒗𝟎 -------------(3)
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Since Kmax is must be non negative, the photo emission is possible
only if ℎ𝑣 > 𝜙0 , ℎ𝑣 > ℎ𝑣0 , 𝑣 > 𝑣0
𝜙
where, 𝑣0 = 0
ℎ
Greater the work function ,greater the threshold frequency.
Below threshold frequency ,photoemission is not possible.
1
but Kmax = 𝑚ν𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
2
𝟏
𝒎𝛎𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐 = 𝒉(𝒗 − 𝒗𝟎 ) ------------(4)
𝟐

𝑐 𝑐
c= 𝑣 λ then 𝑣= , 𝑣0 =
𝜆 𝜆0
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝛎𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐 = hc ( − ) ----------(5)
𝟐 𝝀 𝝀𝟎
where 𝜆0 is called threshold wavelength.

Variation of stopping potential with frequency of incident radiation

At stopping potential V0 Einstein’s photoelectric equation ,
eV0 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝜙0
𝒉 𝝓𝟎
𝑽𝟎 = 𝒗−
𝒆 𝒆

This equation shows that the graph between stopping potential 𝑉0 and
ℎ
frequency 𝑣 is a straight line with slope which is a constant independent of
𝑒
nature of material.

𝑽𝟎 𝒉
From graph , slope
𝒗
= 𝒆

The x- intercept of this graph gives work function.

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The graph shows that
(i) the stopping potential V0 varies linearly with the frequency of
incident radiation for a given photosensitive material.
(ii) there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency ν0 for which the
stopping potential is zero

For two metals A and B these graphs metal A metal B will be parallel straight
lines

Particle Nature of Light –The Photon

1) In the interaction of light with matter , light behaves as if it is made up of
particles called photon.
2) Each photon has energy, E=hν and momentum p= hν/c and speed c= 3x
108 m/s
3) All photons of light of a particular frequency ν, or wavelength λ, have the
same energy and momentum p, whatever the intensity of radiation may be.
4) When intensity of light is increased only the number of photons
increases, but the energy of photon is independent of intensity of light.
5) Photons are electrically neutral. They are not deflected by electric and
magnetic fields.
6) In photon-particle collision total energy and total momentum are
conserved. However, the number of photons may not be conserved in a
collision. The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created.
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Example
Monochromatic light of frequency 6.0 ×1014 Hz is produced by a laser. The
power emitted is 2.0 ×10–3 W.
(a) What is the energy of a photon in the light beam?
(b) How many photons per second, on an average, are emitted by the
source?
(a) Each photon has an energy E = h ν = 6.63 ×10–34x6.0 ×1014 Hz
= 3.98 × 10–19 J
𝑃 2𝑥10−3
(b) N= = = 5 x1015photons per second
𝐸 3.98𝑥10−19

Example
The work function of a metal is 6eV. If two photons each having energy 4 eV
strike the metal surface. Will the emission be possible? Why?
No, photo emission is not possible.
Photo emission is possible only if ℎ𝑣 > 𝜙0
Here energy of incident photon is less than work function
and hence photo emission is not possible.

Example
The work function of caesium is 2.14 eV.
a) Find the threshold frequency for caesium.
b) the wavelength of the incident light if the photocurrent is brought
to zero by a stopping potential of 0.60 V.
𝜙
a) 𝑣0 = 0
ℎ
𝜙0 =2.14 eV =2.14 x1.6x10-19 J
h=6.63 x10-34Js
2.14 𝑥1.6𝑥10−19
𝑣0 = =5.16 x1014 Hz
6.63 𝑥10−34

b) e V0 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝜙0
ℎ𝑣 = e V0−𝜙0
𝑐
ℎ = e V0−𝜙0
𝜆
hc
λ=
eV0 −ϕ0
6.63 x10−34 x3 x108
= =454 nm
1.6 x10−19 x0.6−2.14 x1.6x10−19
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Wave Nature of Matter

▪ The wave nature of light shows up in the phenomena of
interference, diffraction and polarisation. On the other hand, in
photoelectric effect and Compton effect which involve energy and
momentum transfer, radiation behaves as if it is made up of particles –
the photons.
▪ The gathering and focussing mechanism of light by the eye-lens is
well described in the wave picture. But its absorption by the rods and
cones (of the retina) requires the photon picture of light.
A natural question arises: If radiation has a dual (wave-particle) nature,
might not the particles of nature (the electrons, protons, etc.) also exhibit
wave-like character?
Louis Victor de Broglie argued that moving particles of matter should
display wave-like properties under suitable conditions.
As nature is symmetrical , the two basic physical entities of nature – matter
and energy, must have symmetrical character. If radiation shows dual
aspects, matter should also exhibit dual nature.

de Broglie Relation -Wavelenth of matter wave

De Broglie proposed that the wave length λ associated with a particle of
momentum p is given as
𝒉 𝒉
λ = 𝒑= 𝒎𝒗 ----------(1)

where m is the mass of the particle and v its speed.

λ is called de Broglie wavelength.
The dual aspect of matter is evident in the de Broglie relation. Here λ is a
wave attribute while the momentum p is a particle attribute. Planck’s
constant h relates the two attributes.
For an electron of mass m and velocity v
1 𝑝2
K = m v2 = ,
2 2𝑚

P2 =2mK
P=√2𝑚𝐾
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𝒉
λ= ------------(2)
√𝟐𝒎𝑲
For an electron accelerated from rest through a potential V.
The kinetic energy K = e V
𝒉
λ= -------------(3)
√𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽
Substituting the numerical values of h, m, e,
𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟕
λ= nm -----------(4)
√𝑽

why macroscopic objects in our daily life do not show wave-like

properties?
The de Broglie wavelength of a ball of mass 0.12 kg moving with a speed of
20 m s–1 is ,
ℎ 6.6 𝑥10−34
λ= = = 2.76x10-34 nm
𝑚𝑣 0.12 𝑥20
This wavelength is so small that it is beyond any measurement. This is the
reason why macroscopic objects in our daily life do not show wave-like
properties. But in the sub-atomic domain, the wave character of particles is
significant and measurable.

Example
What is the de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron moving with
a speed of 5.4×106 m/s?
ℎ 6.6 𝑥10−34
λ= = = 0.135 nm
𝑚𝑣 9.1 𝑥 10−31 𝑥 5.4 𝑥106

This wavelength is measurable. i.e., in the sub-atomic domain, the wave

character of particles is significant and measurable.
Example
What is the de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron, accelerated
through a potential differnece of 100 volts?
1.227
λ= nm
√𝑉
1.227
= nm = 0.123 nm
√100

The de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron in this case is of the

order of X-ray wavelengths.
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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

The matter–wave picture incorporates the Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle.
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that, it is not possible to measure
both the position and momentum of an electron (or any other particle) at
the same time exactly.
𝒉
Δx Δp ≈
𝟐𝝅
Δx is the uncertainty in the specification of position
Δp is the uncertainty in the specification of momentum.

If Δx is zero; then Δp must be infinite in order that the product is non-zero.

Similarly, if Δp is zero, Δx must be infinite.
Ordinarily, both Δx and Δp are non-zero such that their product is of the
ℎ
order of = .
2𝜋

The matter wave description of an electron with an uncertainty in position

(Δx) and an uncertainty in momentum (Δp).
(Here λ and x are not definite )

The matter wave description of an electron with definite momentum.

i.e., Δp = 0 (and Δ x → ∞.
(Here λ is definite but x not definite i,e.,electron extends all over space).

Davisson and Germer Experiment

The wave nature of electron was first experimentally verified by Davisson
and Germer in 1927 (and independently by G P Thomson in 1928) Davisson
and Thomson shared Nobel prize for their experimental discovery of
diffraction of electrons by crystals.
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▪ A collimated beam of electron from an electron gun is allowed to

fall on a Nickel target. The intensity of scattered beam in a given
direction is measured by a movable detector.

▪ The variation of intensity of scattered electron with the angle of

scattering is obtained at different accelerating potential from 44V to
54V .It was found that a strong peak appeared in intensity of scattered
electron for an accelerating voltage of 54V and scattering angle
𝜃 = 500.

▪ The appearance of peak in particular direction is due to

constructive interference of electron beams scattered from different
layers of regularly spaced atoms of the crystal.

▪ From the electron diffraction measurement ,the wavelength of

matter wave was found to be 0.165nm.

▪ The de Broglie wavelength λ associated electron for 54V is

1.227 1.227
λ= nm = λ = nm =0.167nm
√𝑉 √54

Thus theoritical value agrees with experimentally obtained de Broglie

wavelength. Davisson Germer experiment thus confirms the wave nature
of electrons and the de Broglie relation.

Seema Elizabeth
MARM Govt HSS Santhipuram
Thrissur