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FOUR DATA MODELS IN GIS

Presentation · August 2017

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.17384.37120

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 FOUR DATA MODELS IN GIS

By

Prof. A. Balasubramanian,
Centre for Advanced Studies in Earth Science,
University of Mysore,Mysore

1
Introduction:

In order to visualize natural phenomena, one must

first determine how to best represent geographic
space.

Data models are a set of rules and/or constructs used

to describe and represent aspects of the real world in a
computer.

2
The basic units of spatial information are points, lines
(arcs) and polygons.
Representing these geospatially, belongs to Data
Models.

The data model in geographic information systems is

a mathematical construct for representing geographic
objects or surfaces as data.

A GIS data model enables a computer to represent the

real geographical elements as graphical elements.

3
In GIS, a mathematical construct for representing
geographic objects or surfaces as data.
For example, the vector data model represents
geography as collections of points, lines, and
polygons; the raster data model represents geography
as cell matrixes that store numeric values; and the
TIN data model represents geography as sets of
contiguous, nonoverlapping triangles.

4
A geodata model is an abstract, artificially created
data model.
GIS data model should not only describe the content,
properties and data structures, but also rules and
relations between the entities of a data model.
A proper data model should facilitate data updation
possibility.
The method using geometrical formulas for data
model is known as vector or vectorized graphics.
Vector storage implies the use of vectors (directional
lines with their x,y cordinates) to represent a
geographic feature.
5
The method using dots, in which each pixel( picture
element) is bitmap imaging, and is known as raster
graphics.

1. VECTOR DATA REPRESENTATION :

Vector data is characterized by the use of sequential

points called vertices.
Vertex is a linear segment(distance and direction)-
may be line or arc. Each vertex consists of an X
coordinate and a Y coordinate.
6
An arc consist of a string of vertices terminated by
a node. A line is a collection of related points, and a
polygon is a collection of related lines.
In vector representation, the storage of the vertices for
each feature and connectivity between features, e.g.
the sharing of common vertices are important.

Points are zero-dimensional objects.

Points are represented by a single x,y pair.
Points are used to model single, discrete features such
as buildings, wells, power poles, sample locations,
and similar items.
7
Polygonal features are defined by a set of closed
coordinate pairs.
Lines are one-dimensional features.
They are composed of multiple, explicitly connected
points. Lines are used to represent linear features such
as roads, streams, faults, boundaries, and so forth.
Lines have the property of length. Lines that directly
connect two nodes are sometimes referred to as
chains, edges, segments, or arcs.
Polygons are two-dimensional features.
These are created by multiple lines that loop back to
create a “closed” feature.
8
In the case of polygons, the first coordinate pair
(point) on the first line segment is the same as the last
coordinate pair on the last line segment.
Polygons are used to represent features such as city
boundaries, geologic formations, lakes, soil
associations, vegetation communities, and so forth.
Polygons have the properties of area and perimeter.

9
Data structures:
The simplest vector data structure is called the
spaghetti data model.
In the spaghetti model, each point, line, and/or
polygon feature is represented as a string of X, Y
coordinate pairs with no inherent structure.
In contrast to the spaghetti data model, the
topological data model is characterized by the
inclusion of topological information within the
dataset.
10
Topology is a set of rules that model the relationships
between neighboring points, lines, and polygons and
determines how they share geometry.

Vector data not only contains the geometry of a

point;
depending on the model, it can also include topology
or neighborhood relations, e.g. areas next to a line or
start and end point of a line.

11
Three basic topological precepts are necessary to
understand the topological data model are outlined
here.
First, connectivity describes the arc-node topology
for the feature dataset.
The second one is area definition.
The third one is Contiguity.
It is based on the concept that polygons that share a
boundary are deemed adjacent.

12
Components in vector data:
Usually, vectorial systems are composed of two
components: the one that manages spatial data and the
one that manages thematic data.
This is called as hybrid organisation system.
Vector data scale dependency:
For all vector datasets, there is a scale and type
dependency of spatial data.
When should an airport be represented as a point, and
when should it be a polygon?
13
If you are measuring the distance from major cities to
their airports, then the cities and airports would be
best represented as points.
Advantages of Vector Data Structures:
• Good representation of phenomenonology
• Compact /
• Topology can be completely described
• Accurate graphics /
• Retrieval, updating and generalization of graphics
and attributes possible.

14
Vector data are also in the form of images.
Vectorized images describe every aspect of their
shape in terms of a mathematical formula.
Imagine, for representing a simple shape, such as a
circle, in a raster image, a circle that is 100 pixels
wide will have to store where each of the pixels in
that 1,000 pixel area is placed.
By contrast, on a vectorized image, a simple
mathematical formula would describe the radius of
the circle and the fact that it is a true circle, and the
processor could calculate the rest.

15
This allows vectorized images to be manipulated
much more easily – grown or shrunk, twisted and bent
– without any distortion or loss of quality.
Vector data also provides an increased ability to alter
the scale of observation and analysis.
Zooming deep into a vector image does not change
the view of a vector graphic in the way that it does a
raster graphic.
Vector data tend to be more compact in data
structure, so file sizes are typically much smaller
than their raster counterparts.

16
The advantage of vector data is that topology is
inherent in the vector model.
This topological information helps in various
simplified spatial analysis (e.g., error detection,
network analysis, proximity analysis, and spatial
transformation) when using a vector model.
There are two primary disadvantages of the vector
data model.
First, the data structure tends to be much more
complex than the simple raster data model.

17
As the location of each vertex must be stored
explicitly in the model, there are no shortcuts for
storing data like there are for raster models (e.g., the
run-length and quad-tree encoding methodologies).
Second, the implementation of spatial analysis can
also be relatively complicated due to minor
differences in accuracy and precision between the
input datasets.
Similarly, the algorithms for manipulating and
analyzing vector data are complex and can lead to
18
intensive processing requirements, particularly when
dealing with large datasets.

2. RASTER DATA MODEL

What is raster data?

A raster consists of a matrix of cells (or pixels)
organized into rows and columns (or a grid).
Each cell contains a value representing information,
such as temperature.

19
Digital aerial photographs, imagery from satellites,
digital pictures, or even scanned maps contain raster
data.
The structure of raster data is simple, it is
exceptionally useful for a wide range of applications.
The cell size is an imp concept.

Within a GIS, the uses of raster data fall under four

main categories:

Encoding Raster Data:

20
Several methods exist for encoding raster data from
scratch.

Three of these models are as follows:

a) Cell-by-cell raster encoding:

This method encodes a raster by creating records for
each cell value by row and column.
This method could be thought of as a large
spreadsheet wherein each cell of the spreadsheet
represents a pixel in the raster image.
21
This method is also referred to as “exhaustive
enumeration.”

22
b) Run-length raster encoding:
This method encodes cell values in runs of similarly
valued pixels and can result in a highly compressed
image file.
The run-length encoding method is useful in
situations where large groups of neighboring pixels
have similar values.
It is less useful where neighboring pixel values vary
widely.
23
c) Quad-tree raster encoding:
This method divides a raster into a hierarchy of
quadrants that are subdivided based on similarly
valued pixels.

The division of the raster stops when a quadrant is

made entirely from cells of the same value.

A quadrant that cannot be subdivided is called a “leaf

node.”

24
Rasters as basemaps:
Three main sources of raster basemaps are
orthophotos from aerial photography, satellite
imagery, and scanned maps.
Rasters as surface maps:
Rasters are well suited for representing data that
changes continuously across a landscape (surface).
They provide an effective method of storing the
continuity as a surface.

25
They also provide a regularly spaced representation of
surfaces.

Rasters as thematic maps:

Rasters representing thematic data can be derived
from analyzing other data.

Rasters as attributes of a feature:

Rasters used as attributes of a feature may be digital

photographs, scanned documents, or scanned
drawings related to a geographic object or location.
26
The advantages of storing your data as a raster are as
follows:
A simple data structure—A matrix of cells linked to
an attribute table.
A powerful format for advanced spatial and statistical
analysis.
The ability to represent continuous surfaces and
perform surface analysis.

The ability to uniformly store points, lines, polygons,

and surfaces.
27
The ability to perform fast overlays with complex
datasets.
Limitations:
Raster datasets are potentially very large.
Resolution increases as the size of the cell decreases;
however, normally cost also increases in both disk
space and processing speeds.
For a given area, changing cells to one-half the
current size requires as much as four times the storage
space, depending on the type of data and storage
techniques used.
28
There is also a loss of precision that accompanies
restructuring data to a regularly spaced raster-cell
boundary.
General characteristics of raster data:

In raster datasets, each cell (which is also known as a

pixel) has a value.
Cell values can be either positive or negative, integer,
or floating point.
The area (or surface) represented by each cell consists
of the same width and height and is an equal portion
of the entire surface represented by the raster.
29
The dimension of the cells can be as large or as small
as needed.
The cell size determines the resolution. The smaller
the cell size, the smoother or more detailed the raster
will be.
The location of each cell is defined by the row or
column.
Row and column values begin with 0.
Often you need to specify the extent of a raster.
The extent is defined by the top, bottom, left, and
right coordinates of the rectangular area covered by a
raster.
30
31
Raster bands:
The term band originated from the reference to the
color band on the electromagnetic spectrum.

Some rasters have a single band, or layer (a measure

of a single characteristic), of data, while others have
multiple bands.

32
Most satellite imagery has multiple bands, typically
containing values within a range or band of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

There are three main ways to display (render) single-

band raster datasets:

Using two colors— Grayscale—Color map.

When there are multiple bands, every cell location

has more than one value associated with it.

33
When you create a map layer from a raster image, you
can choose to display a single band of data or form a
color composite from multiple bands.

A combination of any three of the available bands in a

multiband raster dataset can be used to create RGB
composites.
A satellite image, commonly has multiple bands
representing different wavelengths from the
ultraviolet through the visible and infrared portions of
the electromagnetic spectrum.

34
Cell size of raster data:
The level of detail (of features/phenomena)
represented by a raster is often dependent on the cell
(pixel) size, or spatial resolution, of the raster.
Resampling:
A raster dataset can always be resampled to have a
larger cell size.
Types of resolution:
When working with imaged raster data, there are four
types of resolution you might be concerned with:
spectral resolution, temporal resolution, radiometric
resolution, and spatial resolution.
35
How features are represented in a raster?
Points:
A point is represented by an explicit x,y coordinate in
vector format, but as a raster, it is represented as a
single cell—the smallest unit of a raster.
One can make the cell size small enough to capture
sufficient input points for the desired analysis.
Lines:
In vector format, a line is an ordered list of x,y
coordinates, but in raster format, it is represented as a
36
chain of spatially connected cells with the same value.
As with point data, linear features will become the
width of the cell.
Polygons:
A vector polygon is an enclosed area defined by an
ordered list of x,y coordinates in which the first and
last coordinates are the same, thereby representing
area.
By contrast, a raster polygon is a group of contiguous
cells with the same value that most accurately portray
the shape of the area.Polygonal, or area, data is best
represented by a series of connected cells.
37
Discrete and continuous data:
A lake is a discrete object within the surrounding
landscape.
Where the water’s edge meets the land can be
definitively established.
Other examples of discrete objects include buildings,
roads, and parcels.
Raster dataset properties:
Explains the storage format and information needed
to support the format and display the data.

38
Raster information:
lists the raster-specific properties, including the
following:
Number of columns and rows (of pixels),
Number of bands,
Cell size (x,y),
Uncompressed size,
Format,
Source type,
Pixel type (unsigned/signed, integer/floating point)/
Pixel depth,
Bit depth (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64),
39
No Data value,
Colormap (present/absent),
Pyramids,
Compression type.
Extent:
The Extent section describes the rectangle (boundary)
containing all the raster dataset's data. The top,
bottom, left, and right coordinates of the rectangle.

40
Statistics:
The Statistics section lists several of the raster
dataset's statistics:
Minimum value,
Maximum value,
Mean value,
Standard deviation,
Number of classes.
Raster dataset attribute tables:
Raster datasets that contain attribute tables typically
have cell values that represent or define a class,
group, category, or membership.
41
is table's attribute information with this classified
raster dataset .

The TIN model (Triangulated Irregular Network):

A triangulated irregular network (TIN) is a digital

data structure used in a geographic information
system (GIS) for the representation of a surface.

42
A TIN is a vector based representation of the physical
land surface or sea bottom, made up of irregularly
distributed nodes and lines with three dimensional
coordinates (x,y, and z) that are arranged in a network
of non-overlapping triangles.
TINs are often derived from the elevation data of a
rasterized digital elevation model (DEM).

STRUCTURE OF TIN DATA MODEL

43
The TIN model represents a surface as a series of
linked triangles, hence the adjective triangulated.
Triangles are made from three points, which can
occur at any location, giving the adjective, irregular.
For each triangle, TIN records:
· The triangle number
· The numbers of each adjacent triangle
· The three nodes defining the triangle
· The x, y coordinates of each node
· The surface z value of each node
· The edge type of each triangle edge (hard or
soft)
44
45
COMPONENTS OF TIN

NODES:
Nodes are the fundamental building blocks of the
TIN.
The nodes originate from the points and arc vertices
contained in the input data sources.
Every node is incorporated in the TIN triangulation.
Every node in the TIN surface model must have a z
value.
46
EDGES:
Every node is joined with its nearest neighbors by
edges to form triangles, which satisfy the Delaunay
criterion.
Each edge has two nodes, but a node may have two or
more edges.
Because edges have a node with a z value at each end,
it is possible to calculate a slope along the edge from
one node to the other.

47
TIN:
Advantages- ability to describe the surface at different
level of resolution, efficiency in storing data.
Disadvantages- in many cases require visual
inspection and manual control of the network.

Automated hill shading :

The TIN model of terrain representation lends itself to
development of an automated method of hill shading.
Slope mapping is possible in TIN.
48
49
DIGITAL ELEVATION MODEL (DEM)

A DEM file is a simple, regularly spaced grid of

elevation points.

A digital terrain model is a topographic model of the

bare earth – terrain relief - that can be manipulated by
computer programs.

50
The data files contain the spatial elevation data of the
terrain in a digital format which usually presented as a
rectangular grid.
Vegetation, buildings and other man-made (artificial)
features are removed digitally - leaving just the
underlying terrain ( on the other hand, Digital Surface
Model (DSM) is usually the main product produced
from photogrammetry, where it does contain all the
features mentioned above, while a filtered DSM
results in a DTM).

51
A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a digital
cartographic/geographic dataset of elevations in xyz
coordinates.

52
The terrain elevations for ground positions are
sampled at regularly spaced horizontal intervals.

DEMs are derived from hypsographic data (contour

lines) and/or photogrammetric methods using 7.5-
minute, 15-minute, 2-arc-second (30- by 60-minute),
and 1-degree (1:250,000-scale) topographic
quadrangle maps.

53
DEMs are raster grids of elevation values that are
arrayed in series of south-north profiles.

Like other data, DEMs were produced originally in

tiles that correspond to topographic quadrangles.
Large scale (7.5-minute and 15-minute), intermediate
scale (30 minute), and small scale (1 degree) series
are produced.

The resolution of a DEM is a function of the east-west

spacing of the profiles and the south-north spacing of
elevation points within each profile.
54
Modeling terrain relief via DTM is a powerful tool
in GIS (Geographic Information System) analysis and
visualization.

DTM can be stored in a GIS databases in several

ways:
1) a set of contour vectors;
2) a rectangular grid of equal-spaced corner/point
heights; or,
55
3) an irregularly spaced set of points connected as
triangles (TIN - Triangular Irregular Network).
The DTM data sets are extremely useful for the
generation of 3D renderings of any location in the
area described.

3D models rendered from DTM data can be extremely

useful and versatile for a variety of applications.

DTMs are used especially in civil engineering,

geodesy & surveying, geophysics, and geography.

56
The main applications are:
1. Visualization of the terrain
2. Reduction (terrain correction) of gravity
measurements (gravimetry, physical geodesy)
3. Terrain analyses in Cartography and Morphology
4. Rectification of airborne or satellite photos
5. Extraction of terrain parameters, model water flow
or mass movement.

57
Many DEMs provided by the USGS use a 30-m grid.
In other words, the area covered in the DEM is split
into squares with 30-m sides.
Hills or valleys smaller than the 30-m cells will not
show up.

The other names are digital terrain model (DTM) and

digital surface model (DSM).

DEM is often used as a generic term for DSMs and

DTMs, only representing height information without
any further definition about the surface.
58
59
A DEM can be represented as a raster (a grid of
squares, also known as a height map when
representing elevation) or as a vector-based triangular
irregular network (TIN).

DEMs are commonly built using data collected using

remote sensing techniques, but they may also be built
from land surveying.

60
DEMs are used often in geographic information
systems, and are the most common basis for digitally-
produced relief maps.

The DEM is the simplest form of digital

representation of topography ;
 a variety of DEMs are available, including
coverage of much of the US from the US
Geological Survey
 the resolution, or the distance between adjacent
grid points, is a critical parameter

61
  the best resolution commonly available is 30 m,
with a vertical resolution of 1 m
 coverages of the entire globe, including the ocean
floor, can be obtained at various resolutions.
Creation of DEMs:

Several different methods have been used to create

DEM. some of them are:
 conversion of printed contour lines
 existing plates used for printing maps are scanned
 the resulting raster is vectorized and edited
62
 contours are "tagged" with elevations
 additional elevation data are created from the
hydrography layer.
 i.e. shorelines provide additional contours
 finally, an algorithm is used to interpolate
elevations at every grid point from the contour data
 by photogrammetry
 this can be done manually or automatically:
 manually, an operator looks at a pair of
stereophotos through a stereoplotter and must

63
 move two dots together until they appear to be one
lying just at the surface of the ground
 automatically, an instrument calculates the parallax
displacement of a large number of points
 extraction of elevation from photographs is
confused by flat areas, especially lakes, and
wherever the ground surface is obscured
(buildings, trees)
 there are two techniques for choosing sample
points when using manual photogrammetry:
1. Profiling

64
 the photo is scanned in rows, alternately left to
right and right to left, to create profiles
 a regular grid is formed by resampling the points
created in this process
 because the process tends to underestimate
elevations on uphill parts of each profile and
overestimate on downhill parts, the resulting
DEMs show a characteristic "herringbone" effect
when contoured
2. Contour Following
 contour lines are extracted directly from stereopairs
during compilation of standard USGS maps
65
 contour data are processed into profile lines and a
regular grid is interpolated using the same

66
Common uses of DEMs include:
1. Extracting terrain parameters for
geomorphology.
2. Modeling water flow for hydrology or mass
movement (for example avalanches and
landslides).
3. Creation of relief maps.
4. Rendering of 3D visualizations.
5. 3D flight planning and TERCOM.

67
6. Creation of physical models (including raised
relief maps).
7. Rectification of aerial photography or satellite
imagery.
8. Reduction (terrain correction) of gravity
measurements (gravimetry, physical geodesy).
9. Terrain analysis in geomorphology and physical
geography.
10. Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
11. Engineering and infrastructure design.
12. Global positioning systems (GPS).
13. Line-of-sight analysis.
68
 14. Base mapping.
15. Flight simulation.
16. Precision farming and forestry.
17. Surface analysis.
18. Intelligent transportation systems (ITS).
19. Auto safety / Advanced Driver Assistance
Systems (ADAS).
20. Archaeology.

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