VECTOR DATA

MODELS
(Data Models for GIS)
ARDEN PEEJAY L. EZAKI, PhD
Asst. Professor II
VECTOR DATA MODELS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
▸ The objective of this section is to
understand how vector data models are
implemented in GIS applications.
 Vector Data Model
In contrast to the raster data model is the vector data
model. In this model, space is not quantized into discrete grid cells
like the raster model. Vector data models use points and their
associated X, Y coordinate pairs to represent the vertices of spatial
features, much as if they were being drawn on a map by hand
(Aronoff 1989). The data attributes of these features are then stored
in a separate database management system. The spatial information
and the attribute information for these models are linked via a
simple identification number that is given to each feature in a map.

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 Vector Data Model
Three fundamental vector types exist in geographic information systems
(GISs): points, lines, and polygons (Figure 4.8 "Points, Lines, and
Polygons"). Points are zero-dimensional objects that contain only a single
coordinate pair. Points are typically used to model singular, discrete
features such as buildings, wells, power poles, sample locations, and so
forth. Points have only the property of location. Other types of point
features include the node and the vertex. Specifically, a point is a stand-
alone feature, while a node is a topological junction representing a
common X, Y coordinate pair between intersecting lines and/or polygons.
Vertices are defined as each bend along a line or polygon feature that is
not the intersection of lines or polygons.

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 Figure 1. Points, Lines and Polygons

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 Points, Lines & Polygons
▸ Points can be spatially linked to form more
complex features. Lines are one- dimensional
features composed of multiple, explicitly
connected points. Lines are used to represent
linear features such as roads, streams, faults,
boundaries, and so forth. Lines have the
property of length. Lines that directly connect
two nodes are sometimes referred to as chains,
edges, segments, or arcs.

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 Points, Lines & Polygons
▸ Polygons are two-dimensional features created by
multiple lines that loop back to create a “closed”
feature. In the case of polygons, the first coordinate
pair (point) on the first line segment is the same as the
last coordinate pair on the last line segment. Polygons
are used to represent features such as city boundaries,
geologic formations, lakes, soil associations,
vegetation communities, and so forth. Polygons have
the properties of area and perimeter. Polygons are also
called areas.

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VECTOR DATA MODELS
STRUCTURES
 Spaghetti Data Model
▸ Vector data models can be structured many different ways. We will examine two
of the more common data structures here. The simplest vector data structure is
called the spaghetti data model. In the spaghetti model, each point, line, and/or
polygon feature is represented as a string of X, Y coordinate pairs (or as a single
X, Y coordinate pair in the case of a vector image with a single point) with no
inherent structure (Figure 4.9 "Spaghetti Data Model"). One could envision each
line in this model to be a single strand of spaghetti that is formed into complex
shapes by the addition of more and more strands of spaghetti. It is notable that in
this model, any polygons that lie adjacent to each other must be made up of their
own lines, or stands of spaghetti. In other words, each polygon must be uniquely
defined by its own set of X, Y coordinate pairs, even if the adjacent polygons
share the exact same boundary information. This creates some redundancies
within the data model and therefore reduces efficiency.

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 Figure 2.
Spaghetti Data Model

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 Spaghetti Data Model
Despite the location designations associated with each line, or
strand of spaghetti, spatial relationships are not explicitly encoded
within the spaghetti model; rather, they are implied by their
location. This results in a lack of topological information, which
is problematic if the user attempts to make measurements or
analysis. The computational requirements, therefore, are very
steep if any advanced analytical techniques are employed on
vector files structured thusly. Nevertheless, the simple structure of
the spaghetti data model allows for efficient reproduction of maps
and graphics as this topological information is unnecessary for
plotting and printing.
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 Topological Data Model
In contrast to the spaghetti data model, the topological data model is
characterized by the inclusion of topological information within the dataset, as
the name implies. Topology14 is a set of rules that model the relationships
between neighboring points, lines, and polygons and determines how they share
geometry. For example, consider two adjacent polygons. In the spaghetti model,
the shared boundary of two neighboring polygons is defined as two separate,
identical lines. The inclusion of topology into the data model allows for a single
line to represent this shared boundary with an explicit reference to denote which
side of the line belongs with which polygon. Topology is also concerned with
preserving spatial properties when the forms are bent, stretched, or placed under
similar geometric transformations, which allows for more efficient projection
and reprojection of map files.

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 Three Basic Topological Precepts
1. First, connectivity describes the arc-node topology for the feature dataset.
As discussed previously, nodes are more than simple points. In the
topological data model, nodes are the intersection points where two or more
arcs meet. In the case of arc-node topology, arcs have both a from-node (i.e.,
starting node) indicating where the arc begins and a to-node (i.e., ending
node) indicating where the arc ends (Figure 4.10 "Arc-Node Topology"). In
addition, between each node pair is a line segment, sometimes called a link,
which has its own identification number and references both its from-node
and to-node. In Figure 4.10 "Arc-Node Topology", arcs 1, 2, and 3 all
intersect because they share node 11. Therefore, the computer can determine
that it is possible to move along arc 1 and turn onto arc 3, while it is not
possible to move from arc 1 to arc 5, as they do not share a common node.

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 Figure 3.
Arc-Node Topology

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 Three Basic Topological Precepts
2. The second basic topological precept is area definition. Area
definition states that an arc that connects to surround an area
defines a polygon, also called polygon-arc topology. In the case of
polygon-arc topology, arcs are used to construct polygons, and
each arc is stored only once (Figure 4. "Polygon-Arc Topology").
This results in a reduction in the amount of data stored and
ensures that adjacent polygon boundaries do not overlap. In the
Figure "Polygon-Arc Topology", the polygon-arc topology makes
it clear that polygon F is made up of arcs 8, 9, and 10.

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 Figure 4. Polygon-Arc
Topology

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 Three Basic Topological Precepts
3. Contiguity, the third topological precept, is based on the concept that
polygons that share a boundary are deemed adjacent. Specifically, polygon
topology requires that all arcs in a polygon have a direction (a from-node
and a to-node), which allows adjacency information to be determined
(Figure 4.12 "Polygon Topology"). Polygons that share an arc are deemed
adjacent, or contiguous, and therefore the “left” and “right” side of each
arc can be defined. This left and right polygon information is stored
explicitly within the attribute information of the topological data model.
The “universe polygon” is an essential component of polygon topology
that represents the external area located outside of the study area. Figure 5.
"Polygon Topology" shows that arc 6 is bound on the left by polygon B
and to the right by polygon C. Polygon A, the universe polygon, is to the
left of arcs 1, 2, and 3.
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 Figure 5. Polygon
Topology

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 Topology
▸ Topology allows the computer to rapidly determine and analyze the
spatial relationships of all its included features. In addition,
topological information is important because it allows for efficient
error detection within a vector dataset. In the case of polygon
features, open or unclosed polygons, which occur when an arc does
not completely loop back upon itself, and unlabeled polygons, which
occur when an area does not contain any attribute information,
violate polygon-arc topology rules. Another topological error found
with polygon features is the sliver18. Slivers occur when the shared
boundary of two polygons do not meet exactly (Figure 4.13
"Common Topological Errors").
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 Topological Errors
In the case of line features, topological errors occur when two
lines do not meet perfectly at a node. This error is called an
“undershoot” when the lines do not extend far enough to meet
each other and an “overshoot” when the line extends beyond the
feature it should connect to (Figure 4.13 "Common Topological
Errors"). The result of overshoots and undershoots is a “dangling
node” at the end of the line. Dangling nodes aren’t always an
error, however, as they occur in the case of dead-end streets on a
road map.

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 Figure 6. Common Topological Errors

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 ▸ Many types of spatial analysis require the degree of organization
offered by topologically explicit data models. In particular, network
analysis (e.g., finding the best route from one location to another) and
measurement (e.g., finding the length of a river segment) relies
heavily on the concept of to- and from-nodes and uses this
information, along with attribute information, to calculate distances,
shortest routes, quickest routes, and so forth. Topology also allows
for sophisticated neighborhood analysis such as determining
adjacency, clustering, nearest neighbors, and so forth.

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 ▸ Now that the basics of the concepts of topology have been
outlined, we can begin to better understand the topological
data model. In this model, the node acts as more than just a
simple point along a line or polygon. The node represents the
point of intersection for two or more arcs. Arcs may or may
not be looped into polygons. Regardless, all nodes, arcs, and
polygons are individually numbered. This numbering allows
for quick and easy reference within the data model.

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Advantages/Disadvantages of
the Vector Model
 Advantages
▸ In comparison with the raster data model, vector
data models tend to be better representations of
reality due to the accuracy and precision of
points, lines, and polygons over the regularly
spaced grid cells of the raster model. This results
in vector data tending to be more aesthetically
pleasing than raster data.

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 Advantages
Vector data also provides an increased ability to alter
the scale of observation and analysis. As each coordinate pair
associated with a point, line, and polygon represents an
infinitesimally exact location (albeit limited by the number of
significant digits and/or data acquisition methodologies),
zooming deep into a vector image does not change the view of a
vector graphic in the way that it does a raster graphic (see
Figure 4.1 "Digital Picture with Zoomed Inset Showing
Pixilation of Raster Image").

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 Advantages
▸ Vector data tend to be more compact in data
structure, so file sizes are typically much smaller
than their raster counterparts. Although the
ability of modern computers has minimized the
importance of maintaining small file sizes, vector
data often require a fraction the computer storage
space when compared to raster data.

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 Advantages
▸ The final advantage of vector data is that
topology is inherent in the vector model. This
topological information results in simplified
spatial analysis (e.g., error detection, network
analysis, proximity analysis, and spatial
transformation) when using a vector model.

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 Disadvantages
▸ Alternatively, there are two primary
disadvantages of the vector data model. First, the
data structure tends to be much more complex
than the simple raster data model. As the location
of each vertex must be stored explicitly in the
model, there are no shortcuts for storing data like
there are for raster models (e.g., the run- length
and quad-tree encoding methodologies).
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 Disadvantages
▸ Second, the implementation of spatial analysis
can also be relatively complicated due to minor
differences in accuracy and precision between
the input datasets. Similarly, the algorithms for
manipulating and analyzing vector data are
complex and can lead to intensive processing
requirements, particularly when dealing with
large datasets.
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KEY TAKEAWAYS
1. Vector data utilizes points, lines, and polygons to
represent the spatial features in a map.
2. Topology is an informative geospatial property that
describes the connectivity, area definition, and
contiguity of interrelated points, lines, and polygon.
3. Vector data may or may not be topologically explicit,
depending on the file’s data structure.
4. Care should be taken to determine whether the raster
or vector data model is best suited for your data
and/or analytical needs.
EXERCISES:
1. What vector type (point, line, or polygon) best represents the
following features: state boundaries, telephone poles, buildings,
cities, stream networks, mountain peaks, soil types, flight tracks?
Which of these features can be represented by multiple vector
types? What conditions might lead you choose one vector type
over another?
2. Draw a point, line, and polygon feature on a simple Cartesian
coordinate system. From this drawing, create a spaghetti data
model that approximates the shapes shown therein.
3. Draw three adjacent polygons on a simple Cartesian coordinate
system. From this drawing, create a topological data model that
incorporates arc-node, polygon-arc, and polygon topology.
 “
THANK
YOU!
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