CHAPTER TWO

2. NATURE AND SOURCES OF GIS DATA

2.1. Nature of GIS data
GIS technology utilizes two types of data.
1. Spatial data:
Describes the absolute & relative location of
geographic features.
Spatial or coordinate data represents features
that have a known location on the earth.
Spatial Data in a GIS) can be grouped in to two
basic types.
 Cont’d…
A. Vector Data:-
Discrete representations of reality.
Vector represent a geographic feature by Point,
line and polygon.
 Point:
Do not have length, width or area.
They are described completely by their
coordinates
Areused to represent features such as, cities,
towns, well locations, rain gauge stations, soil
sampling points, etc.
 Cont’d…
 Line:-
 consists of a set of ordered points.
 It has length, but no width or area.
 it is used to represent features such as roads,
streams or canals.
 Polygon:-
 Is formed when a set of ordered lines form
closed figure whose boundary is represented by
the lines.
 Are used to represent area features such as land
parcels, lakes, districts, agro-ecological zones,
etc.
 Cont’d…
B. Raster Data
Row and column matrix represent
geographic space.
A raster is a tessellation of a surface. ( A
tessellations defined as the process to cover a
surface through the repeated use of a single
shape.)
A raster based system stores data by using a
grid of cells.
Raster data resolution is dependent on the
pixel or grid size and may vary from sub-
meter to many kilometers.
 Cont’d…

Vector Examples Raster examples

 Administrative  Temperature
borders  Air pressure
 Linear features  Soil ph.
 Roads  Precipitation
 Rivers  Salinity
 Discrete boundaries  Elevation
 2. Attribute Data
Attribute data are the information linked to the
geographic features (spatial data) that describe
features.
Attribute data are descriptive data of point, line
and area features.
For points, Attribute data may be the name of the
location, its elevation, etc.
For lines attribute data could be the name of a
road, or canal and other descriptions associated
with them.
For polygons, the attribute data may relate to name
of a district and its population, area, area under
specific crops in the district, etc.
 Cont’d…
Attributes:-

Labels fixed to data points, lines & polygons.

Used to describe feature that we want to map.
Can include text or numeric descriptors: i.e.
nominal, ordinal, or interval/ratio data types.
Must be careful in how the different data types are
integrated and used to mix and match.
 2.1.2. GIS data models
In order to represent the spatial information and
their attributes, a data model w/c is a set of logical
definitions or rules for characterizing the
geographical data is adopted.
The data model represents the linkages between
the real world domain of geographical data and
the computer and GIS representation of these
features.
As a result, the data model, not only helps in
organizing the real-world geographical features
into a systematic storage/retrieval mechanism, but
also helps in capturing the user’s perception of
these features.
 Spatial Data models
 In GIS, the spatial data models handle where
the features are.
 Data model is the objects in a spatial
database plus the relationships among them.
 There are two broad categories of spatial data
models. These are:
1. Raster Data Model
 Raster models regard space as a grid cells.
 Represents continuous phenomena that may
change continuously across a region. E.g.
Elevation, rainfall, temperature, soil moisture,
etc.
 Cont’d…
Raster model uses grid cells for representing
continuous phenomena.
An element of the grid cell is called a pixel
which contains a single value of attributes.
Vector data model and Raster data model
can represent same phenomena.
E.g. Elevation represented as surface
(continuous field) using raster grid or as lines
representing contours of equal elevation
(discrete objects), or as points of height (Z
values).
 2. Vector Data models
Non-spatial data models or Data base
management system handle the feature
description and how each feature is related to
other.
Vector data model represents phenomena in
terms of the spatial primitives, or
components, consisting of point, line,
polygon, surfaces and volumes.
Point objects in spatial database represent
location of entities considered to have no
dimension. E.g. wells, sampling points, poles,
telephone towers, etc.
 Cont’d…

Line objects are used to represent linear

features using ordered set of coordinate
pairs.
E.g. infrastructure networks such as
transport networks (highways, railroads,
etc.), utility networks (electric, telephone,
water etc.) and natural networks such as
river channels
Polygon objects in spatial database represent
entities which covers an area.
E.g. lakes, Buildings, parcels, etc.
 Cont’d…
 The vector data structure represents each
geographical feature by a set of coordinates.
 Vectors as x, y coordinates define points, lines and
polygons.
The choice between Raster & Vector
Selection of raster or vector model depends on the
application or type of operations to be performed.
E.g. Elevation represented as surface (continuous
field) in raster - to easily determine slope.
Raster methods were required huge computer
memories to store and process image at the level
of spatial resolution obtained by vector structures.
 Cont’d…

Certain kinds of data manipulation, such as

polygon intersection or spatial averaging
presented enormous technical problems with the
choice of raster methods that allowed easy
spatial analysis but resulted in ugly maps, or
vector methods that could provide database of
manageable size & sophisticated graphics but in
which spatial analysis was extremely difficult.
 Cont’d…
Vector methods
 Advantages :-
 Good representation of phenomenological data
structure
 Compact data structure
 Topology can be completely described with network
linkages
 Accurate graphics
 Retrieval, updating and generalization of graphics
and attributes are possible
 Simple
 easy to manage,
 Very often used in CAC (computer assisted
cartography
 Cont’d..
Disadvantages:
Complex data structures
Combination of several vector polygon maps or
polygon and raster maps through overlay creates
difficulties
Simulation is difficult because each unit has a
different topological from
Display, and plotting can be expensive, particularly
for high quality, color and Cross hatching
Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons are
impossible
 Cont’d…
 Raster methods
 Advantages :-
 Simple data structures
 The overlay and combination of mapped
data with remotely sensed data is easy
 Various kinds of spatial analysis are easy
 Simulation is easy because each spatial unit
has the same size and shape
 The technology is cheap and is being
energetically develop
 Cont’d…
 Disadvantages :-

 Recognizable structures can be lost and there

can be a serious loss of information
 Crude raster maps are considerably less
beautiful than maps drawn with fine lines
 Network linkages are difficult to establish
 Projection transformation are time consuming
unless spatial algorithms or hardware are used.
 3. TIN Data Model
 Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) is data
model commonly used to represent terrain
heights
 x, y, and z locations, used as measured points
in TIN.
 Result in TIN composed of nodes, lines and
triangulated faces
 TIN used for digital elevation models (DEM)
or digital terrain models (DTM)
 Very efficient way of representing topography
 Elevation models
Three main types of elevation models are used
for various purposes:

– DEM-Digital Elevation Models,

– DTM-Digital Terrain models,
– DSM-Digital Surface Models.
Digital Elevation Models (DEM) this is a 3D
representation of the terrain, represented as an
array of points with a certain absolute height,
linked to a common vertical datum, which filters
out and excludes all ground objects, both
buildings and natural (trees and other types of
vegetation).
 Cont’d…
DEM are used in digital cartography and
geographic information systems and are the
most common basis for representing terrain.
Digital Terrain Models (DTM)
In some countries, DTM is synonymous with
DEM and is a 3D representation of the heights
of the earth's surface.
In the US and other countries, DTM has a
slightly different meaning. The DTM includes
not only heights and elevations, but also other
geographical elements and natural features,
such as rivers, ridge lines, etc.
 Cont’d…
The difference b/n DEM & DTM is that DTM
is a DEM that has been improved with
elements such as break lines and elements
other than the original data to correct artifacts
created using only the original data.
The DTM is not continuous and it is not a
surface model. From its regularly spaced
contour lines, you can interpolate DTM to
DEM. The DTM presents distinctive terrain
features much better because of its 3D
inflection lines and regularly spaced 3D
points.
 Digital Surface Models (DSM)
The difference b/n DEM & DSM is that a
digital surface model is a 3D representation of
the heights of the Earth's surface, including
natural or man-made objects located on it.
A DSM is a terrain model that includes a
terrain model, building outlines, vegetation
items, industrial items, and any other items.
The DSM can be obtained automatically from
stereoscopic satellite images, as well as from
stereoscopic digital aerial photographs with
different resolutions.
 Cont’d…
DEM is primarily used in cartography and
geographic information systems and is the
most common basis for digital terrain maps,
DTM is often required for flood planning,
drainage modeling, land use research,
geological and other applications, and in
planetary science,
DSM is useful in 3D modeling for
telecommunications, urban planning,
aviation, landscape modeling, urban
modeling, and visualization applications. 
2.1.3. Topology (Spatial Relationships)
 Topology is the “way in which geographical
elements are linked together”.
 Topology is how geographic features are related
to one another and where they are in relation to
one another.
Topology is a mathematical approach that allows
us to structure data based on the principles of
feature adjacency and feature connectivity.
It is in fact the mathematical method used to
define spatial relationships.
The most common topological data structure is
the arc/node data model.
 Cont’d…
Arc is a series of points, joined by straight
line segments, which start and end at a node
and presents linear features
Node is an intersection point where two or
more arcs meet.
Isolated nodes, not connected to arcs
represent point features.
A polygon feature is comprised of a closed
chain of arcs.
Topology is the critical element that
distinguishes a GIS from a graphics or
automated cartography system.
 Cont’d…

Topology is the study of geometrical

properties and spatial relationships & the
CONNECTIVITY of a set of spatial objects.
Spatial objects are defined as points, lines or
polygons.
Topology is what enables a GIS to emulate
our human ability to discern and manipulate
geographic relationships.
 Cont’d…
 Topology, consists of three elements, namely,
adjacency, containment and connectivity.
 Adjacency describe the geometric
relationships which exist between area
features.
 Containment is an extension of the
adjacency that describes area features which
may be wholly contained within another area
feature, such as, an island within a lake.
 Connectivity is a geometric property used to
describe the linkages between line features.
 2.2. Sources of GIS Data
The main sources of data for GIS are:
a) Analogue maps and plans;
b) Digital RS images
c) Surveying field notes
d) Aerial photographs
e) Tabular data e.g. census, rainfall, soils etc
f) GPS receivers data
g) Direct import from other GIS systems
 Cont’d…
The following data sources are widely used:
Analog maps
 Elevation, soil, land use, climate, etc.
Aerial photographs
 DEM, land use (Urban)
 Satellite image
Ground survey with GPS
 Ground truth information
Reports and publications
 Attributes, statistics
 Cont’d…

Data source for GIS