Definition & Concept of c a r t o g r a p h y

·The translation into Latin & dissemination of Geography

in Europe, in the beginning of 1 5 marked the rebirth of

scientific Cartography".

Word "cartography" is derived from the Greek words

chartes (sheet of papyrus) and graphy (writing).

it is the study & practice of map making.

Previously, only it was believed as the art of map making

but this understanding changed & get attention in the mid

2 0 c.
Definition & Concept, . . . C o n ' t

Cartography is the art and science of representing 3­

dimensional earth on a two dimensional plane

> Cartography or map-making is the study and practice of skill

representations of the Earth upon a flat surface, and one who

makes maps is called a cartographer

Cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled

in the ways that communicate spatial information effectively

Cartography is a system for bringing a sections or all of the

earths surface into view

 History of Cartography

► The earliest known map is a matter of some debate, because

the definition of the map is not sharp.

► The oldest surviving world maps are the "Babylonian" world

maps from the 9"e BC for the purpose of collecting tax

revenue

» Ancient Greeks and Romans, Arab scholars contributed a lot

for the current status of cartographic outputs as of the 6c BC

 History, . . . C o n ' t

In the age of investigation, (15 c-17c AD E ur o p e a n

cartographers drawn their own map based on explorers

observations and new surveying techniques

18" & 1 9 modern age: scientific principles applied on map

making

20 C :Aerial map, satellite image, using remote sensing &

GIS

The invention of magnetic compass and telescope enabled

. .

Increasing accuracy
SCOPE OF CARTOGRAPHY: p o s s i b i l i t y to focus

Mapmaker

Data

(collection, map designing)

Map user
 Processes in Cartography

► Collecting and selecting the data for mapping

► Manipulating and generalising the data, designing and

constructing the map

► Reading or view the map

► Responding to or interpreting the information

Therefore, a cartographer must be familiar with all mapping

activities: geodesy, surveying, photogrammetry, remote

sensing & GIS and must know about human thought &

communication (cognitive science) and disciplines associated

env'tal features being mapped

Cartographic communication system/information

transformation ( a process of s e n d i n g and transmitting

information, idea &message to receiver at specific time

and space/room)

Transform j ­ T 2 T2
E m p h a s i s on Cartographic Representation

► The principal task of cartography is to communicate

environmental information.

To make map effectiveness in thought and communication.

Elements of Simple C o m m u n i c a t i o n system

a Source(Real world) > encoder(map symbols)

> channel(map) > receiver(decoder) or map user

□ Sources of cartographic data:

a Primary data sources(data collection from field, Remote

sensed data(remote sensed information

Secondary data sources (population data, historical

archives
 Summary

► Cartography is a complex discipline that has a rich and

varied history

► It is an intergrated part of geography. The root and the

guidance for all spatial technologies

► It is an art involving design and also a science due to

representation of the earth (or another planet) visual and

non-visual attributes
 Coordinate system of the Earth

□A geographic coordinate system is a three-dimensional

reference system that locates points on the Earth's surface. A

point has two coordinate values: latitude and longitude.

□ Geographic coordinates may be expressed in decimal degrees,

or in degrees, minutes, and seconds.

□A coordinate system is a reference system that used to

represent the locations of geographic features, imagery, and

observations such as GPS locations within a common

geographic framework
Types of common Coordinating system:

geographic coordinate system

2) projected coordinate system

coordinate s y s t e m , . . . c o n t

Its measurement framework which is either geographic

(in which spherical coordinates are measured from the

earth's center) or planimetric (in which the earth's

coordinates are projected onto a two-dimensional planar

surface).

Unit of measurement (typically feet or meters for

projected coordinate systems or decimal degrees for

latitude-longitude).
a)Global/Spherical coordinate: These are often referred to as

geographic coordinate system w/c based on latitude &

longitude.

b) projected coordinate system based on a map projection which

(along with numerous other map projection models) provide

various mechanisms to project maps of the earth's spherical

surface onto a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate plane.

Projected coordinate systems are sometimes referred to as map

projections.

t i s a Plane coordinate (x-y axis on plane paper)

geoid, e l l i p s o i d , spheroid a n d d a t u m , and

how they are related

The geoid is defined as the surface of the earth's gravity field,

which is approximately the same as mean sea level. It is

perpendicular to the direction of gravity pull.

Since the mass of the earth is not uniform at all points, and the

direction of gravity changes, the shape of the geoid is

irregular.

A spheroid is a three-dimensional shape created from a two­

dimensional ellipse.
geoid, ellipsoid, spheroid and

datum, . . . c o n ' t

The ellipse is an oval , with a major axis (the longer axis), and

a minor axis (the shorter axis).If you rotate the ellipse, the

shape of the rotated figure is the spheroid.

For the earth, the semimajor axis is the radius from the center

of the earth to the equator, while the semiminor axis is the

radius from the center of the earth to the pole.

 Geoid, and Ellipsoid, . . . con't

► Geoid
 Datum

□ The Earth is shaped like a flattened sphere. This shape is

called an ellipsoid. A datum is a model of the earth that is used

in mapping. The datum consists of a series of numbers that

define the shape and size of the ellipsoid and it's orientation in

space. A datum is chosen to give the best possible fit to the

true shape of the Earth.

□ There are a large number of datums in use. Many of them are

optimised for use in one particular part of the world.

 Datum, . . . con't

✓ An example is the Geodetic 1949 datum that has been used in

New Zealand. Another example, familiar to GPS users, is the

WGS-84 datum. WGS-84 is an example of a datum that is

used globally.

✓ Latitude and longitude are commonly used to refer to a

specific location on the surface of the Earth.

✓ It is important to keep in mind that latitude and longitude are

always specified in terms of a datum.

 Datum,...cont

» A datum typically defines the surface and the

position of the surface relative to the center of the

earth.

The datum is a integral part of the projection, as

projected coordinate system is based on geographic

coordinate, which are in turn referenced to a datum.

 Datum, . . . con't

a datum is a reference system or an approximation of the

Earth's surface against which positional measurements are

made for computing locations. Horizontal datums are used for

describing a point on the Earth's surface, in latitude and

longitude or another coordinate system.

A vertical datum is used as a reference point for elevations of

surfaces and features on the Earth including terrain,

bathymetry, water levels, and man-made structures.

 Datum, . . . con't

► A grid is a network of evenly spaced horizontal and

vertical lines used to identify locations on a map

► Graticules are lines showing parallels of latitude and

meridians of longitude for the earth.

► Graticules can be used to show location in geographic

coordinates (degrees of latitude and longitude)

E l l i p s o i d s e m i major and S e m i m i n o r a x i s
 Globe concept

□Representative/model of earth's shape/conformal/

□ Motivation :

a Would you please discuss and present the characteristics

of globe?

□ What natures does longitudes and latitudes have on the

globe?

□ List limitation of the globe?

 Characteristics of the globe

3 It represents the shape and events of the land surface

The shape of the globe and the earth is similar

The phenomenon correspond to the globe have equal area

with the area of the land surface

3 Distances b/n the two points are measured equally

The direction on the globe and the land surface is similar

True north on the globe shows similar direction of the land

 The n a t u r e of latitudes a n d longitudes on the Globe

Line of latitude(equator) divided the globe into two hemispheres: N

&S

The longitudes are perpendicular to the equator

The latitude lines are parallel to the equator

The distance bin parallels are equal

Equator is the greatest line of latitudes

► All lines of longitudes merge at the north and south pole

The distance bin each meridians vary at different lines of latitudes

 Limitations of the Globe

► It has 3-diamension so that it is difficult to observe all

faces of the globe at the same time

► Not conducive to use at all areas/not portable/

► It is difficult to prepare and duplicate

► It is not conducive to take/copy/figure from the globe

 Map projection

• A map projection is a geometrical transformation of the earth's

spherical or ellipsoidal surface onto a flat map surface

Map projections are an attempts to portray the surface of the

earth or a portion of the earth into a flat surface and the image

displayed as bird's eye view.

Map projection: used to transform points from spherical

surface to a flat surface.

Map projection, . . . c o n ' t

The Earth is curved and maps are flat. No matter how

you try, the resulting maps always have distortions.

There are four types of distortions that map makers

consider.

Such as: a) Conformal b) Distance

c) Directions d) Area
 Map projection, . . . con't

Some projections minimize distortions at the expense of

maximizing errors in others where as some others distort

moderately

Conformal: when the scale of the map at any point on the map

is the same in any direction, the projection is conformal.

Meridians (lines of longitude) and parallels(lines of latitude)

intersect at right angles.

 Map projection, . . . c o n ' t

Shape is preserved/accurate on conformal maps

✓ Distance: a map is equidistant when it portrays distances from

the center of the projection to any other place on the

map/accurate distances on map

✓ Direction: a map preserves direction when azimuths( angles

from a point on a line to another point) are portrayed correctly

in all directions

✓ Area: are the areas represented on the map proportional to

their true area on the Earth

 Map projections, ... c o n ' t

► Area: areas over the entire map & areas on the earth are

proportional

Many types of map projections have been devised to suit

particular purposes. The term "projection" implies that the

ball-shaped net of parallels and meridians is transformed by

casting its shadow upon some flat, or flatten able surface

Conic ( t a n g e n t ) : A cone is placed over a globe The cone and globe

meet along a l a t i t u d e l i n e . This is the standard parallel. The cone

is cut along the line o f longitude that is opposite the central

meridian and flattened into a plane

'As'
I
'

I
 Classification of m a p projection

► Map projection fall into four general classes:

Based on descriptive and projective geometrical methods

1 , Cylinderical 2,Conical,

3 , Azimuthal and 4, Conventional projections.

 Classification, . . . con ' t

1 .cylinderical/ rectangular projections

Those which are projected onto a cylinder.

Developed by warping/bending/ a flat plane(sheet)

into a cylinder and making it tangent along a line

Common forms frequently seen in atlases

Cylindrical aspects: A cylinder is placed over a globe. The

cylinder can touch the globe along a line of latitude (normal

case), a line of longitude (transverse case), or another line

( o b l i q u e case)
Azimuthal/zenithal A plane is placed over a globe. The plane

can touch the globe at the pole (polar case), the equator

(equatorial case), or another line ( o b l i q u e case)

 Types of Cylindrical Projection

I .LAMBERT CYLINDERlCAL EQUAL AREA

st
✓ Description: Lambert I described equal area projection

✓ Projection: a normal perspective projection onto a cylinder

tangent at the equator

✓ Points of intersection: the equator

✓ Linear graticules: in the normal or equatorial aspect, all

meridians & parallels are perpendicular at straight lines.

Parallels are unequally spaced and farthest apart near the

equator. Poles are lines of length equal to the equator.

 •
Properties Cyl indric al •

Shape: shape is true along the standard parallels of the normal

aspect.

Area: there is no area distortion

Direction: Local angles are correct along standard parallels or

standard lines. Direction is distorted elsewhere

> Limitations: recommended for narrow areas extending along

the central line. Sever distortion of shape and scale near the

poles

Uses and Applications: suitable for equatorial regions

Behrman equal area cylindrical

Description: this projection is an equal area cylindrical

projection suitable for world mapping

Projection method: cylindrical. Standard parallels are at 30 N

& S

Lines of Contact: the two parallels at 3 0 ' N & S

Linear Graticule: Meridians and parallels are linear Properties

Shape: shape distortion is minimized near the standard

parallels
 B e h r m a n equal, . . . c o n ' t

but distorted north-south bin the standard parallels and

distorted east-west above 3 0 ' N and below 3 0 S

Area: area is maintained

Direction and distance generally distorted

► Limitations: useful for world maps only

others
Behrman and conic projections

► equidistant cylindrical

Stereographic

Mercator

Conic projection

Uses two standard parallels to reduce some of the

distortion of the projection

The distortion is minimized in the region b/n the standard

parallels(29°30 '-45°30')
Azimuthal projections

► The most significant characteristic is that both distance and

direction are accurate from the central point

► It can accommodate all aspects: equatorial, polar and oblique

► Parallels occur as a circular lines & the meridians become

straight lines radiating from the poles

► Commonly used to map polar regions

 The properties of conical projections

► Scale is correct only along the standard parallel

► Meridians are straight lines radiating from the apex of the

developable cone at uniform angular intervals

► Parallels of latitude are concentric arcs of the circles

Properties of azimuthal projection

► Great circles are projected as straight lines

► Places equally distant from the center have equal

distortions

► Distances are reasonably accurate in all directions

► Direction from the center is always true

Rules of t h u m b

a Errors and distortions increase from the origin of the

projection towards its edges

a In tropical areas cylindrical projections

In temperate latitudes conic projections

a Polar regions planar (azimuthal) projections

 Summary

Cylindrical projection have features in common:

I .Lines of latitude or parallels are straight lines and of equal

length

2.Lines of longitude or meridians are of equal length, equally

spaced, vertical and parallel to each other

3 . All meridians intersect all parallels at right angles

4. The graticules (lines of latitude & longitude) in all normal

· ctions are essentially rectangular

 Cartographic data representation a n d

Generalization

► Data representation

,._ The representation of data for mapping will depend on the

measurement scale of the data.

Nominal scale: The differences in data are only of

qualitative nature, e . g . , differences in facility type, land use

or geology.

Ordinal scale: Only the order of the attribute values is

known, such as more than or less than, "small - medium

large" or "cool - tepid - h o t" .

 Data representation, . . . c o n ' t

ii. Interval scale: Both the hierarchy and the exact distance is

known, but it will not be possible to know the ratios, e.g.,

the temperature or the altitude values.

Ratio scale: Data can be measured on a ratio measurement

scale, e.g., the number of children in a family or income.

 Q u a l i t a t i v e data

,. A data is qualitative when its value is a nominal one with

qualitative differences: components do not allow

establishing range relations between them

+ Qualitative data have to be shown such a manner that do not

suggest rank either quantity

Two possibilities: use geometric symbols or differential

colour in order to differentiate the different elements of the

 Qualitative data

a High quality data output devices and products are often

towards the top of the budget list of priorities

Quantitative data

Quantitative data with absolute values means concrete

quantity; the sum of the different values can be calculated

and has a real sense

The ratio values are calculated and expressed a series of

ratios or proportional values, such as percentage, per km,

bitant
 Generalization

+ Maps contain a certain level of detail depending upon its

scale and purpose

The process of reducing the amount of detail in a map in a

meaningful way is called generalization

Generalization is done normally when the map scale has to

be reduced

However, the essence of the contents of original map should

be maintained
Map and map reading

□ D e f i n i t i o n of m a p

Map is a simplified, diminished & 2D representation

of 3D world which is vertically viewed above/bird's

eye view/

Maps are neatly drawn, bird's eye views of the

earth's surface.
 Concepts of map reading

► Maps are the basic tools of Geography

► It enables us to depict spatial phenomenon on the paper

► A good map will have a legend or key which will show

the user what different symbols mean

► Every map is a representation of a larger portion of the

earth
 Concepts of m a p reading, . . . c o n ' t

► Map reading is all about learning to understand particular

language of features

► Maps show where things are located and help us to find our

way from one place to another

 Concepts of map r e a d i n g , . . . c o n t

► Basic steps for communication of map information:

Step I : consider what the real world distribution of the

phenomena might look like

Step 2: D e t e rm i n e /D e c i d e
the purpose of the map and its

intended/planned audience

Step 3 : Collect data appropriate for the map's purpose

Step 4: Design and construct the map

Step 5: Determine whether the users find the map useful

and informative
 The theme/idea of map effectiveness

symbolization Analysis

Simplificatio \

Selection

Classification

exaggeration Reading Interpreta ion

 Basic characteristics of m a p s

✓ All geographical maps are reductions: Scale

✓ All maps involves geometrical transformations: map

projections

✓ All maps are abstractions of reality:

generalization(simplification of reality)
 Basic characteristics of maps

All maps use signs to stand for elements of reality:

symbolism

why we use a map'?

effective devices for recording and communicating

information about the environment

 Basic characteristics of maps

Show relationship between one feature and another

Indicate distances and directions between locations or areas

occupied by different types of land uses

Determine the patterns formed by many types of distributions:

towns, roads

Used to show more abstract features: flow of trade, the use of

communications, races, languages, religions

 Classification of m a p

There is no limit to the number of classes of maps,

because maps are drawn for different purposes on

different modes

□ It could be based on:

« i) The purpose of maps ii) Types of information they

convey iii) The scale of maps

Based on the purpose: a) physical maps b) cultural

maps
 Classification,...cont

• physical maps are those maps which give information

about the physical (natural) world. Grouped into:

Orographic maps: show surface features: coastlines,

rivers, heights of contours.

Also known as relief/ physiographic maps

 Classification, . . . c o n ' t

Geological/soil maps: distribution of rocks/soil

> Climatic maps

Vegetation maps

Bathometric maps: the depth of the sea bottom at

. .

various pomts
 Cultural m a p s

Em p h a s iz ethe spatial aspect of non-physical elements of

the earth

Their main goal is to show the distribution of socio -

culturally related human phenomena

Types:

> Ethnographic maps(various ethnic group)

> Linguistic maps(language)

 Cultural maps, . . . c o n ' t

• Economic maps (production & transportation of

commodities)

3 Demographic maps (density, distribution, structure of

population)

Urban maps (urban population, functions, structure)

Political maps (boundary lines, states, countries,

region)
B a s e d on the information /function

included

i) Reference or General maps

ii)Thematic or topical maps

Reference maps shows both natural & human made

features

A single reference map can include various types of

information
B a s e d on the i n f o r m a t i o n /function

included

✓ Its objective is to portray the spatial association of a

selection of diverse geographical phenomena: roads,

settlements, boundaries, elevations, watercourses . . . e t c

✓ it is usually topographic map (large scale map)

 Thematic m a p s

□prepared for special purposes (information about

specific topic): geologic, forestry, soil, land use,

slope, historical events...etc

_Helps to compare the characteristics of two or more

different regions
 Major types of thematic m a p s

Dot maps: shows the distribution of specific information

by means of dots

The topics treated includes human population, number of

animals ,hectares under cultivation . . . etc

> Choropleth maps: also known as areal density maps or

quantitative maps
 Thematic maps, . . . c o n ' t

mostly show the average distribution of a certain

phenomena: T("e), Rf

•!• Isopleth Maps: based on lines of equal quantity

(Isograms). The lines joining points with similar values

or quantities

Common isometric lines

•!• Isotherm ( Temperature)

Isobar(atmospheric pressure)
 Thematic m a p s

► Isohyet(rainfall)

► Isoneph( cloudiness)

► Isotach( wind speed)

► lsohaline(salinity)

► lsobath( depth)

► Isohypes( height above sea level)

Maps classn, . . . con't

► Flow maps: maps that show direction, amounts and types of

goods or services moved from place to place

✓ lines differ in width or color

Maps classified based on their scales:

✓ Large scale maps: close-up view of a small area

- greater than I : 50,000

✓ medium scale: 1 :50,000-1 :250,000

 Maps classn, . . . c o n ' t

✓ Small scale: bird's eye view of a large area

- less than I :250,000

□ Limitations of maps:

► representation is dimensionally systematic(mathematical

scale relationships)

► usually made on a flat surface

Selection of geographical phenomena

 Definition and Concepts of scale

Scale:- refers to the reference to the ratio of map distance to

earth distance as defined by geographer.

The ecologist is often describing scale in reference to the

extent of the phenomenon studied or the spatial resolution that

was incorporated in the study.

The scale of a map should clearly specify the relationship

between distances represented on the map and the

corresponding real distances on the ground.

 Concepts of scale, . . . c o n t

□ For the ecologist, perhaps the adjectives fine or coarse

are more appropriate than large or small, but beyond

these semantic issues, there is a fundamental difference

between the cartographer's and the ecologist's notion

of scale.
 Concepts of scale, . . . c o n ' t

C a r t o g r a p h i scale
c is necessary for developing maps

that describe real-world locations and distances

between locations in a useful manner.

A small-scale map would have a small map size

relative to the earth area being depicted. (For the same

size map, a country map is of a larger scale than a

continental map.)
 Concepts of s c a l e , . . . c o n t

scale has been sufficient for problems such as map making.

Ecology, though, is more interested in describing patterns,

understanding the processes responsible for these patterns, and

exploring the ecological effect of the patterns.

For ecology, knowing the cartographic scale is only one piece

of the scale puzzle.

Methods of Scale Representation

□ There are three types of map scale representation

a. Statement scale

• Representative Fraction (R. F.)

c. Linear scale or line scale

Statement scale is when you make a statement saying what the

distance on the map represents on the ground.

E.g. I centimeter measured on the map represents I kilometer

measured on the ground.

 Statement s c a l e , . . . c o n t

> I centimeter to I kilometer. Notice that the statements mention

two distances.

The smaller distance refers to the map and the larger distance

refers to the ground.

For the statement scale, the distance on the ground is always

given in kilometers or meters.

 Representative Fraction

□ Representative Fraction (R. F.); scale is given as a fraction:

I / I O or as a ratio: I : I 0.

□ What it means is that one unit measured on the map stands for

ten of the same units on the ground.

 Representative F r a c t i o n , . . . c o n t

Note that the larger the Representative Fraction denominator,

the smaller the scale and the less detail that can be shown. A

scale of I :25000 will show more detail than a scale of

I : I 00000.

The smaller the denominator of the Representative Fraction,

the larger the scale and more detail can be shown for a given

area.
 l i n e a r scale o r l i n e s c a l e

•!• Linear scale or line scale; this is the most common scale used

for maps and you need to really know how to use it.

This is a special ruler that is drawn below a map that can be

used to measure an area or distance. It is divided into a

number of equal parts.

 linear s c a l e , . . . c o n t

A linear scale consists of a line, divided into primary units ,

with secondary units to the left of the 0.

Remember that the primary units to the left of the 0 must be

exactly the same size or length as the primary units to the right

of the 0.
 Conversion of Scale

Every map has a scale that shows the relation between a

distance on the map and the same distance in real life.

The three types of scales are: word scales, ratio scales and

linear scales, and one scale can be converted to another one.

 M e a s u r i n g distance

Distance on a map can be measured in two way. Such as:

I . straight line: To measure a straight line, simply use your

ruler .

2. along a curved line: To measure a curved line you need a

piece of paper with a straight edge. for example a road.

The scale is then used to convert map distance to distance

in reality in metres or kilometres.

 Measuring distance, . . . c o n ' t

> Another method for measuring curvilinear map distances is to

use a mechanical device called an opisometer.

This device uses a small rotating wheel that records the

distance traveled.

The recorded distance is measured by this device either in

centimeters or inches.
 Conversion of Scale, . . . c o n ' t

□ The scale is then used to convert map distance to distance i n

reality in metres or kilometres.

□ Let us measure the distance the aeroplane travelled between

Mogadishu in Somalia to Nairobi in Kenya measured on map

1 . 5 c m and 900km on the ground distance. Calculate the map

scale in F.R scale?

 Conversion of S c a l e , . . . c o n t

► To convert a word scale to a ratio scale you must follow two

rules:

1. A ratio scale must always start with one.

2 The measurements before and after the colon (:) must be in

the same unit.

E.g. to convert the word scale 4 cm equals 2 km, you must apply

both rules.
Map Scale Enlargement and Reduction

► Similar figures are identical in shape, but generally not in size.

A missing length on reduction/enlargement figure can be

calculated by finding its liner scale factor